Microbiology is the study of microorganisms too small to be seen with the naked eye, including bacteria, protozoa, fungi, viruses, and algae. The document discusses several areas of microbiology research, including trends in food microbiology. It describes how microorganisms play important roles in food spoilage, preservation, and fermentation. The document also discusses the diversity of microbial life and how archaea were established as a third kingdom of life based on genetic analysis.
Chemical methods for controlling micro organismsDebomitra Dey
Chemical agents are used to control microbial growth in foods, industries, and hospitals. They work by inhibiting or killing microorganisms. An ideal antimicrobial chemical agent is soluble, stable, nontoxic to humans, homogeneous, and effective at low concentrations against a broad spectrum of microbes. Common chemical agents used include phenols, alcohols, halogens, heavy metals, quaternary ammonium compounds, aldehydes, and gases. They kill microbes through mechanisms like protein denaturation, cell membrane damage, and inhibition of essential metabolic processes. Selection of the appropriate agent depends on the target microbes and environmental conditions.
Microbiology began with early observations of infectious diseases like malaria and the Black Plague in the 3rd century BC. The invention of the microscope in the 1600s allowed Robert Hooke and Anton van Leeuwenhoek to first observe microbes. In the late 1800s, Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch established germ theory and developed methods of isolating and growing bacteria in culture, proving that specific microbes cause specific diseases. Edward Jenner developed the first vaccine for smallpox in 1796, and later discoveries included antibiotics and vaccines for diseases like tuberculosis, plague, and polio.
This document provides an introduction and overview of microbiology. It defines microbiology as the study of microorganisms too small to be seen with the naked eye. It discusses that microorganisms are found everywhere and play important roles in processes like photosynthesis, biodegradation, and vitamin production. The document then reviews the history of microbiology, including early pioneers like Hooke, Van Leeuwenhoek, Pasteur, and Koch. It also summarizes the classification of microorganisms into the three domains of Bacteria, Archaea, and Eucarya. The scope of microbiology is said to include both the basic study of microbes as well as their many applied uses.
This document discusses recent advances in microbiology. It notes that new technologies allow for microbiology results to be available much faster, in minutes or hours rather than days. Molecular biological methods can now detect and characterize a wide range of viruses, bacteria, fungi and protozoa. The four main scientific advances that form the basis of modern microbiology are the invention of the hybridization probe, the discovery of polymerase chain reaction, observing microbial signatures in ribosomal genes, and in proteins. Clinical microbiology laboratories play an important role in patient care by rapidly identifying pathogens and antimicrobial susceptibility to guide treatment. Microbiology has various applications including food, medical, industrial, soil, and environmental microbiology.
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was a Dutch businessman and scientist considered the father of microbiology. He developed a method for creating powerful lenses and was the first to observe microbes like bacteria and protozoa using single-lens microscopes of his own design. His pioneering microscopic observations were communicated through letters to the Royal Society, establishing microbiology as a scientific discipline and himself as one of the first and most important microscopists.
Halophiles (Introduction, Adaptations, Applications)Jamil Ahmad
Introduction
Halophiles are organisms that thrive in high salt concentrations.
They are a type of extremophile organisms. The name comes from the Greek word for "salt-loving".
While most halophiles are classified into the Archaea domain, there are also bacterial halophiles and some eukaryota, such as the alga Dunaliella salina or fungus Wallemia ichthyophaga
Bacterial spores are dormant, resistant structures formed by certain bacteria under stressful conditions. They have a thick coat that allows them to survive extreme heat, lack of water, toxins, and radiation. There are two types of spore formation: endospores form inside the parent cell while exospores bud off externally. Endospores contain dipicolinic acid which makes them highly resistant. Germination occurs in three stages - activation by damage to the coat, initiation by effectors in a rich environment, and outgrowth involving degradation of spore layers and emergence of a new vegetative cell.
Fermentation
Bread Definition
History
Types of bread
Steps in yeast bread production
Protocols
Steps in bread making
Components of bread
Benefits of bread
References
Chemical methods for controlling micro organismsDebomitra Dey
Chemical agents are used to control microbial growth in foods, industries, and hospitals. They work by inhibiting or killing microorganisms. An ideal antimicrobial chemical agent is soluble, stable, nontoxic to humans, homogeneous, and effective at low concentrations against a broad spectrum of microbes. Common chemical agents used include phenols, alcohols, halogens, heavy metals, quaternary ammonium compounds, aldehydes, and gases. They kill microbes through mechanisms like protein denaturation, cell membrane damage, and inhibition of essential metabolic processes. Selection of the appropriate agent depends on the target microbes and environmental conditions.
Microbiology began with early observations of infectious diseases like malaria and the Black Plague in the 3rd century BC. The invention of the microscope in the 1600s allowed Robert Hooke and Anton van Leeuwenhoek to first observe microbes. In the late 1800s, Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch established germ theory and developed methods of isolating and growing bacteria in culture, proving that specific microbes cause specific diseases. Edward Jenner developed the first vaccine for smallpox in 1796, and later discoveries included antibiotics and vaccines for diseases like tuberculosis, plague, and polio.
This document provides an introduction and overview of microbiology. It defines microbiology as the study of microorganisms too small to be seen with the naked eye. It discusses that microorganisms are found everywhere and play important roles in processes like photosynthesis, biodegradation, and vitamin production. The document then reviews the history of microbiology, including early pioneers like Hooke, Van Leeuwenhoek, Pasteur, and Koch. It also summarizes the classification of microorganisms into the three domains of Bacteria, Archaea, and Eucarya. The scope of microbiology is said to include both the basic study of microbes as well as their many applied uses.
This document discusses recent advances in microbiology. It notes that new technologies allow for microbiology results to be available much faster, in minutes or hours rather than days. Molecular biological methods can now detect and characterize a wide range of viruses, bacteria, fungi and protozoa. The four main scientific advances that form the basis of modern microbiology are the invention of the hybridization probe, the discovery of polymerase chain reaction, observing microbial signatures in ribosomal genes, and in proteins. Clinical microbiology laboratories play an important role in patient care by rapidly identifying pathogens and antimicrobial susceptibility to guide treatment. Microbiology has various applications including food, medical, industrial, soil, and environmental microbiology.
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was a Dutch businessman and scientist considered the father of microbiology. He developed a method for creating powerful lenses and was the first to observe microbes like bacteria and protozoa using single-lens microscopes of his own design. His pioneering microscopic observations were communicated through letters to the Royal Society, establishing microbiology as a scientific discipline and himself as one of the first and most important microscopists.
Halophiles (Introduction, Adaptations, Applications)Jamil Ahmad
Introduction
Halophiles are organisms that thrive in high salt concentrations.
They are a type of extremophile organisms. The name comes from the Greek word for "salt-loving".
While most halophiles are classified into the Archaea domain, there are also bacterial halophiles and some eukaryota, such as the alga Dunaliella salina or fungus Wallemia ichthyophaga
Bacterial spores are dormant, resistant structures formed by certain bacteria under stressful conditions. They have a thick coat that allows them to survive extreme heat, lack of water, toxins, and radiation. There are two types of spore formation: endospores form inside the parent cell while exospores bud off externally. Endospores contain dipicolinic acid which makes them highly resistant. Germination occurs in three stages - activation by damage to the coat, initiation by effectors in a rich environment, and outgrowth involving degradation of spore layers and emergence of a new vegetative cell.
Fermentation
Bread Definition
History
Types of bread
Steps in yeast bread production
Protocols
Steps in bread making
Components of bread
Benefits of bread
References
Lactobacilli- Homo and Hetero lactic acid Fermentation and its nutritive value pugazhenthi6
The document discusses lactic acid fermentation by lactic acid bacteria (LAB), specifically the genera Lactobacillus. It describes how LAB convert sugars into lactic acid through either homolactic fermentation, which produces only lactic acid, or heterolactic fermentation, which produces lactic acid as well as ethanol and carbon dioxide. Applications of homolactic fermentation include dairy products and probiotics, while heterolactic bacteria are involved in other fermentation processes.
Microbiological analysis of food products is the use of biological, biochemical, molecular or chemical methods for the detection, identification or enumeration of microorganisms in a material. Here some of the common methods have been described.
Immunoelectrophoresis is a technique that combines electrophoresis and immunodiffusion to separate and characterize proteins based on their charge and reaction with antibodies. It involves electrophoresing an antigen mixture to separate components by charge, cutting troughs in the gel for antiserum, and detecting lines of precipitation where antibodies and antigens meet. Immunoelectrophoresis is used qualitatively in clinical laboratories to detect the presence or absence of proteins in serum and identify normal and abnormal proteins. It can detect immunodeficiencies or overproduction of proteins but is limited for quantitative analysis.
This document discusses solid state fermentation and provides details about the process. It describes that solid state fermentation involves fermentation using solids in the absence of free water, though some moisture is needed. Microorganisms like fungi grow on the surface of solid substrates to produce things like enzymes, organic acids, and flavors. Agriculture wastes are commonly used as substrates. Fungi like Trichoderma and Aspergillus species are widely used to produce hydrolytic enzymes. Tray fermenters and rotating drum reactors are two common types of bioreactors used in solid state fermentation.
Van Leeuwenhoek was the first to observe microorganisms using self-made microscopes in the 1670s. Throughout the 17th-18th centuries, scientists debated whether microorganisms arose spontaneously or from other organisms. Redi provided evidence against spontaneous generation by showing that flies lay eggs on meat. Spallanzani strengthened this by showing microbes did not grow in sterilized broth. Pasteur disproved spontaneous generation through experiments isolating microbes from air. Koch and others established the germ theory of disease in the late 1800s, showing specific microbes cause specific illnesses. Jenner developed the smallpox vaccine in 1796, providing the first example of disease prevention through inoculation
This document provides information on laboratory diagnosis of parasitic infections. It discusses specimen collection and various examination techniques including microscopic examination of stool, blood, and biopsy samples. Wet mount examination, concentration methods, staining techniques, and culture methods are described to detect parasites, eggs, larvae, cysts or other structures. Examination of different specimens helps diagnose infections caused by protozoa, helminths, and other parasites. Serologic tests like indirect haemagglutination, fluorescent antibody, and indirect fluorescent antibody tests are also used for diagnosis of certain parasitic diseases.
Microbiology is the study of microorganisms like bacteria, fungi, and protozoa. Pharmaceutical microbiology applies microbiology to the production of medicines, focusing on microbes involved in antibiotics, vaccines, and other drugs. It ensures product safety through testing, limits on contamination, and sterilization. Proper controls are vital for pharmaceutical quality and preventing infectious disease.
This document discusses screening techniques used to isolate microorganisms of interest from a population. It describes primary screening as an initial process to discard many non-useful microbes while detecting a small percentage that may have industrial applications. Secondary screening further tests the capabilities of these isolated microorganisms to determine their real potential value. Some primary screening techniques mentioned include using crowded plates, detecting organic acid production, and screening for antibiotic production. The document also discusses improving crowded plate techniques and the goals and approaches of secondary screening to evaluate a microorganism's potential for industrial use.
Isolation and characterization of microbesmeenu sharma
This document discusses the isolation and characterization of microbes. It defines key terms like microbes, pure culture, mixed culture, species, and strain. It describes common methods used to isolate pure cultures from mixed populations, including streak plate technique, micromanipulator method, enrichment culture method, and serial dilution method. The document also discusses maintaining and preserving pure cultures through refrigeration, cryopreservation, and lyophilization. It explains how microbes can be characterized based on colony appearance, form, elevation, margins, and optical density.
This document discusses the key components required for microbial growth and fermentation, including carbon, nitrogen, minerals, vitamins and oxygen. It outlines the goals of optimizing fermentation media to maximize product yield while minimizing undesirable byproducts. Finally, it examines various carbon sources, nitrogen sources, minerals, trace elements and antifoaming agents used in fermentation media formulation.
The document discusses the history and development of medical microbiology from its earliest concepts to modern times. It describes key contributions from Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, who first observed microorganisms under a microscope; Louis Pasteur, considered the father of microbiology; Joseph Lister, the father of modern surgery; and Robert Koch, the father of bacteriology. It was during the 1800s that microbiology emerged as a scientific discipline, aided by advances like staining techniques, pure culture isolation, and Koch's postulates for identifying microbes that cause disease. The early 1900s marked the discovery of viruses and antibiotics like penicillin. Overall, the document provides a comprehensive overview of the scientific milestones that established microbiology
Viruses are the smallest infectious agents that can only replicate inside living host cells. They are metabolically inert and made up of either DNA or RNA surrounded by a protein coat called a capsid. Some viruses have an outer envelope as well. Viruses come in different shapes, sizes and structures depending on the symmetry of their capsids. They infect plants, animals and bacteria. Viruses replicate through lytic and lysogenic cycles where they take over the host cell machinery to produce new virus particles. While they exhibit some living properties like mutation and existing in different strains, viruses still lack many cellular functions and rely entirely on host cells for reproduction.
Contributions of the scientists in the field of microbiologyAMIT GAUR
The document summarizes the contributions of Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch, two pioneering scientists in microbiology. It notes that Louis Pasteur, a French chemist and microbiologist, discovered the principles of vaccination, microbial fermentation, and pasteurization, and disproved the theory of spontaneous generation. It also describes that Robert Koch, a German physician, established the foundational principles of identifying the specific causes of disease, known as Koch's postulates, and isolated the bacteria that cause anthrax, cholera, and tuberculosis. Both Pasteur and Koch are considered fathers of microbiology for their groundbreaking discoveries.
Edward Jenner was an English physician born in 1749 who is considered the pioneer of smallpox vaccines and the father of immunology. In 1796, Jenner inoculated an 8-year old boy with cowpox matter from the hand of a milkmaid, producing immunity to smallpox. Over subsequent tests of 23 subjects, Jenner demonstrated that inoculation with cowpox provided effective protection against smallpox. Jenner's discovery led to worldwide vaccination programs and the eventual global eradication of smallpox by 1980.
This document provides a history of microbiology from its early discoveries to modern developments. It describes key milestones such as the invention of the microscope in the 1600s which allowed the first observations of microorganisms. Important figures like Van Leeuwenhoek, Redi, Pasteur, Koch, and Fleming are highlighted for their seminal contributions that disproved spontaneous generation, established germ theory and Koch's postulates, developed pasteurization and antibiotics. The document traces the field from its pre-1860 beginnings through defining early breakthroughs between 1860-1900 to establishing microbiology as a modern science post-1900.
Scientists debated whether living things could arise from nonliving things (spontaneous generation) or only from other living things (biogenesis). Through controlled experiments over centuries, evidence increasingly supported biogenesis. Redi showed maggots came from fly eggs, not meat. Spallanzani found boiling sealed containers prevented microbe growth, supporting biogenesis. Pasteur's famous experiment using a swan-necked flask conclusively demonstrated that microbes only entered once the air could, disproving spontaneous generation.
This document summarizes screening techniques for industrially important microorganisms. It discusses primary and secondary screening. Primary screening involves isolating microorganisms of interest from environmental samples using selective media and techniques like dye indicators or crowded plates. Secondary screening further evaluates isolates for commercial value by identifying useful metabolites and determining optimal growth conditions. Examples provided are screening for organic acid, antibiotic, and extracellular metabolite producers. Secondary screening of antibiotic-producing Streptomyces involves measuring inhibition zones against test organisms.
This document discusses lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and their potential use as vaccines. It outlines that LAB naturally colonize mucosal membranes and could serve as ideal mucosal vaccine delivery vehicles. Examples are given of LAB like Lactococcus lactis being genetically engineered to express antigens from pathogens like Brucella abortis and Helicobacter pylori. The benefits of LAB vaccines are their safety, ability to survive the stomach, and lack of endotoxicity. Future work aims to develop multi-valent LAB vaccine vectors in clinical trials with biological containment to ensure environmental safety.
This document summarizes key aspects of microbiology. It discusses the definition of microbiology as the study of microorganisms including unicellular and multicellular eukaryotes and prokaryotes such as bacteria, archaea, fungi and protists. It notes some of the benefits of microbes such as antibiotic production, nutrient cycling, and roles in food production. It also briefly outlines the history of microbiology including early pioneers like Anton van Leeuwenhoek and key characteristics of microbes like their modes of transmission, reproduction, and impacts on health and disease.
This document provides a list of over 200 seminar topics related to computer science, electronics, IT, mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, civil engineering, applied electronics, chemical engineering, biomedical engineering, and MBA projects. The topics are divided into categories such as computer science projects, electronics projects, IT projects, and so on. Each topic includes a brief 1-2 sentence description. Contact information is provided at the bottom for requesting full reports on any of the topics.
Lactobacilli- Homo and Hetero lactic acid Fermentation and its nutritive value pugazhenthi6
The document discusses lactic acid fermentation by lactic acid bacteria (LAB), specifically the genera Lactobacillus. It describes how LAB convert sugars into lactic acid through either homolactic fermentation, which produces only lactic acid, or heterolactic fermentation, which produces lactic acid as well as ethanol and carbon dioxide. Applications of homolactic fermentation include dairy products and probiotics, while heterolactic bacteria are involved in other fermentation processes.
Microbiological analysis of food products is the use of biological, biochemical, molecular or chemical methods for the detection, identification or enumeration of microorganisms in a material. Here some of the common methods have been described.
Immunoelectrophoresis is a technique that combines electrophoresis and immunodiffusion to separate and characterize proteins based on their charge and reaction with antibodies. It involves electrophoresing an antigen mixture to separate components by charge, cutting troughs in the gel for antiserum, and detecting lines of precipitation where antibodies and antigens meet. Immunoelectrophoresis is used qualitatively in clinical laboratories to detect the presence or absence of proteins in serum and identify normal and abnormal proteins. It can detect immunodeficiencies or overproduction of proteins but is limited for quantitative analysis.
This document discusses solid state fermentation and provides details about the process. It describes that solid state fermentation involves fermentation using solids in the absence of free water, though some moisture is needed. Microorganisms like fungi grow on the surface of solid substrates to produce things like enzymes, organic acids, and flavors. Agriculture wastes are commonly used as substrates. Fungi like Trichoderma and Aspergillus species are widely used to produce hydrolytic enzymes. Tray fermenters and rotating drum reactors are two common types of bioreactors used in solid state fermentation.
Van Leeuwenhoek was the first to observe microorganisms using self-made microscopes in the 1670s. Throughout the 17th-18th centuries, scientists debated whether microorganisms arose spontaneously or from other organisms. Redi provided evidence against spontaneous generation by showing that flies lay eggs on meat. Spallanzani strengthened this by showing microbes did not grow in sterilized broth. Pasteur disproved spontaneous generation through experiments isolating microbes from air. Koch and others established the germ theory of disease in the late 1800s, showing specific microbes cause specific illnesses. Jenner developed the smallpox vaccine in 1796, providing the first example of disease prevention through inoculation
This document provides information on laboratory diagnosis of parasitic infections. It discusses specimen collection and various examination techniques including microscopic examination of stool, blood, and biopsy samples. Wet mount examination, concentration methods, staining techniques, and culture methods are described to detect parasites, eggs, larvae, cysts or other structures. Examination of different specimens helps diagnose infections caused by protozoa, helminths, and other parasites. Serologic tests like indirect haemagglutination, fluorescent antibody, and indirect fluorescent antibody tests are also used for diagnosis of certain parasitic diseases.
Microbiology is the study of microorganisms like bacteria, fungi, and protozoa. Pharmaceutical microbiology applies microbiology to the production of medicines, focusing on microbes involved in antibiotics, vaccines, and other drugs. It ensures product safety through testing, limits on contamination, and sterilization. Proper controls are vital for pharmaceutical quality and preventing infectious disease.
This document discusses screening techniques used to isolate microorganisms of interest from a population. It describes primary screening as an initial process to discard many non-useful microbes while detecting a small percentage that may have industrial applications. Secondary screening further tests the capabilities of these isolated microorganisms to determine their real potential value. Some primary screening techniques mentioned include using crowded plates, detecting organic acid production, and screening for antibiotic production. The document also discusses improving crowded plate techniques and the goals and approaches of secondary screening to evaluate a microorganism's potential for industrial use.
Isolation and characterization of microbesmeenu sharma
This document discusses the isolation and characterization of microbes. It defines key terms like microbes, pure culture, mixed culture, species, and strain. It describes common methods used to isolate pure cultures from mixed populations, including streak plate technique, micromanipulator method, enrichment culture method, and serial dilution method. The document also discusses maintaining and preserving pure cultures through refrigeration, cryopreservation, and lyophilization. It explains how microbes can be characterized based on colony appearance, form, elevation, margins, and optical density.
This document discusses the key components required for microbial growth and fermentation, including carbon, nitrogen, minerals, vitamins and oxygen. It outlines the goals of optimizing fermentation media to maximize product yield while minimizing undesirable byproducts. Finally, it examines various carbon sources, nitrogen sources, minerals, trace elements and antifoaming agents used in fermentation media formulation.
The document discusses the history and development of medical microbiology from its earliest concepts to modern times. It describes key contributions from Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, who first observed microorganisms under a microscope; Louis Pasteur, considered the father of microbiology; Joseph Lister, the father of modern surgery; and Robert Koch, the father of bacteriology. It was during the 1800s that microbiology emerged as a scientific discipline, aided by advances like staining techniques, pure culture isolation, and Koch's postulates for identifying microbes that cause disease. The early 1900s marked the discovery of viruses and antibiotics like penicillin. Overall, the document provides a comprehensive overview of the scientific milestones that established microbiology
Viruses are the smallest infectious agents that can only replicate inside living host cells. They are metabolically inert and made up of either DNA or RNA surrounded by a protein coat called a capsid. Some viruses have an outer envelope as well. Viruses come in different shapes, sizes and structures depending on the symmetry of their capsids. They infect plants, animals and bacteria. Viruses replicate through lytic and lysogenic cycles where they take over the host cell machinery to produce new virus particles. While they exhibit some living properties like mutation and existing in different strains, viruses still lack many cellular functions and rely entirely on host cells for reproduction.
Contributions of the scientists in the field of microbiologyAMIT GAUR
The document summarizes the contributions of Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch, two pioneering scientists in microbiology. It notes that Louis Pasteur, a French chemist and microbiologist, discovered the principles of vaccination, microbial fermentation, and pasteurization, and disproved the theory of spontaneous generation. It also describes that Robert Koch, a German physician, established the foundational principles of identifying the specific causes of disease, known as Koch's postulates, and isolated the bacteria that cause anthrax, cholera, and tuberculosis. Both Pasteur and Koch are considered fathers of microbiology for their groundbreaking discoveries.
Edward Jenner was an English physician born in 1749 who is considered the pioneer of smallpox vaccines and the father of immunology. In 1796, Jenner inoculated an 8-year old boy with cowpox matter from the hand of a milkmaid, producing immunity to smallpox. Over subsequent tests of 23 subjects, Jenner demonstrated that inoculation with cowpox provided effective protection against smallpox. Jenner's discovery led to worldwide vaccination programs and the eventual global eradication of smallpox by 1980.
This document provides a history of microbiology from its early discoveries to modern developments. It describes key milestones such as the invention of the microscope in the 1600s which allowed the first observations of microorganisms. Important figures like Van Leeuwenhoek, Redi, Pasteur, Koch, and Fleming are highlighted for their seminal contributions that disproved spontaneous generation, established germ theory and Koch's postulates, developed pasteurization and antibiotics. The document traces the field from its pre-1860 beginnings through defining early breakthroughs between 1860-1900 to establishing microbiology as a modern science post-1900.
Scientists debated whether living things could arise from nonliving things (spontaneous generation) or only from other living things (biogenesis). Through controlled experiments over centuries, evidence increasingly supported biogenesis. Redi showed maggots came from fly eggs, not meat. Spallanzani found boiling sealed containers prevented microbe growth, supporting biogenesis. Pasteur's famous experiment using a swan-necked flask conclusively demonstrated that microbes only entered once the air could, disproving spontaneous generation.
This document summarizes screening techniques for industrially important microorganisms. It discusses primary and secondary screening. Primary screening involves isolating microorganisms of interest from environmental samples using selective media and techniques like dye indicators or crowded plates. Secondary screening further evaluates isolates for commercial value by identifying useful metabolites and determining optimal growth conditions. Examples provided are screening for organic acid, antibiotic, and extracellular metabolite producers. Secondary screening of antibiotic-producing Streptomyces involves measuring inhibition zones against test organisms.
This document discusses lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and their potential use as vaccines. It outlines that LAB naturally colonize mucosal membranes and could serve as ideal mucosal vaccine delivery vehicles. Examples are given of LAB like Lactococcus lactis being genetically engineered to express antigens from pathogens like Brucella abortis and Helicobacter pylori. The benefits of LAB vaccines are their safety, ability to survive the stomach, and lack of endotoxicity. Future work aims to develop multi-valent LAB vaccine vectors in clinical trials with biological containment to ensure environmental safety.
This document summarizes key aspects of microbiology. It discusses the definition of microbiology as the study of microorganisms including unicellular and multicellular eukaryotes and prokaryotes such as bacteria, archaea, fungi and protists. It notes some of the benefits of microbes such as antibiotic production, nutrient cycling, and roles in food production. It also briefly outlines the history of microbiology including early pioneers like Anton van Leeuwenhoek and key characteristics of microbes like their modes of transmission, reproduction, and impacts on health and disease.
This document provides a list of over 200 seminar topics related to computer science, electronics, IT, mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, civil engineering, applied electronics, chemical engineering, biomedical engineering, and MBA projects. The topics are divided into categories such as computer science projects, electronics projects, IT projects, and so on. Each topic includes a brief 1-2 sentence description. Contact information is provided at the bottom for requesting full reports on any of the topics.
This document discusses the rise of neoallergens in the environment. It provides a history of allergy research and discovery. It notes that in recent decades, half the populations in western countries show sensitization to environmental allergens. New allergens people are sensitive to include nuts, soy, and latex. The document then discusses various sources of organic dusts and airborne bacteria/endotoxins people may be exposed to in agricultural, occupational, and indoor environments. It provides tables listing measured levels of bacteria and endotoxins in different settings. The document concludes by covering effects of endotoxin exposure, endotoxin activity, air sampling techniques, and recent technology like gas chromatography-mass spectrometry used to detect end
The document discusses the evolution and growth of India's biotechnology sector. Some key points:
- India has emerged as a dominant player in biotechnology, growing at 30-35% annually and becoming the 12th largest destination globally.
- The sector has grown from a small beginning 25 years ago when the Department of Biotechnology was established, to over 400 companies today employing hundreds of thousands.
- Indian biotech companies have developed drugs for diseases like cancer and diabetes and produce vaccines at significantly lower costs than international markets.
- The government has strongly supported the sector through funding, institutions, and a supportive regulatory environment. However, the regulatory process remains complex.
- India has strengths in human resources
1) Dictyostelium discoideum is a social amoeba that exhibits altruism and cooperation through its life cycle stages.
2) During development, D. discoideum amoeba aggregate to form a migratory slug with prestalk cells that sacrifice themselves to form the supportive stalk, while prespore cells survive as spores.
3) Studies on PKS genes have found they are involved in determining spore or stalk cell fate and influencing the cooperative behaviors of the multicellular pseudoplasmodium.
The document discusses a study on the effect of different carbon sources on the production of hydrolytic enzymes in Trichoderma sp strains T13 and T14 and their ability to act as mycoparasites. Key findings include:
- Chitin was found to induce maximum production of chitinase, protease and beta-glucanase enzymes.
- T. reesei was able to produce hydrolytic enzymes like chitinase, protease and beta-glucanase when grown in soil in the presence of various fungal pathogens like Fusarium moniliforme, Fusarium solani, Rhizoctonia solani, Sclerotium rolfsii
1. Antony van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) was the first to discover microbes using his homemade microscope. He observed "animalcules" in rain water, pond water, blood, and his own tooth scrapings.
2. Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) proved the theory of biogenesis and disproved spontaneous generation through experiments using swan-necked flasks. He developed pasteurization and vaccines for anthrax and rabies.
3. Robert Koch (1843-1912) perfected bacteriological techniques including staining and solid media isolation. He discovered the bacteria that cause anthrax, tuberculosis, and cholera and formulated Koch's postulates
DNA EXTRACTION BY SHAISTA AND KANWAL STUDENTS OF MICROBIOLOGY QUAID E AZAM UN...shaistakhalid
The document describes the phenol-chloroform method for extracting DNA from bacterial cells. This method uses a series of steps: 1) bacterial cells are centrifuged and washed, 2) SDS and proteinase K are added to lyse cells and degrade proteins, 3) NaCl and CTAB are added to precipitate DNA, 4) chloroform-isoamyl alcohol is added to remove lipids and proteins, 5) isopropanol is added to precipitate DNA, which is then washed with ethanol and resuspended in TE buffer. The phenol-chloroform method separates DNA from other cellular components based on differential solubility in aqueous and organic phases.
This document summarizes the history of microbiology from its origins in the 17th century to modern times. Key events include Antony van Leeuwenhoek inventing the first microscope in the 1660s, Francesco Redi disproving spontaneous generation through experiments in the 1660s, Louis Pasteur demonstrating that microorganisms cause food spoilage and disproving spontaneous generation using swan-necked flasks in the 1860s, and Robert Koch establishing the germ theory of disease in the late 1800s. The field of microbiology arose from these discoveries and gave rise to molecular biology and biotechnology in the 20th century.
Applications of environmental microbiology in industriesAbhishek Rajput
The document discusses the industrial uses of microbes such as fungi, algae, bacteria, protozoa and viruses. It provides examples of how fungi are used in brewing, winemaking and cheese production. Algae have industrial uses as fertilizers, feed and in producing biodiesel, bioethanol and biobutanol. Bacteria are used in mining, materials processing, energy production and manufacturing drugs and polymers. Protozoa aid soil fertility and wastewater treatment. Viruses are being studied for uses including cancer treatment and pest control. The document also examines detection of microbes in water and biosensing technologies.
Role of chemicals used in DNA extraction (Recombinant DNA Technology Lab) Zohaib HUSSAIN
CTAB is used in DNA extraction to simultaneously solubilize plant cell walls and membranes while denaturing proteins. This prevents DNA degradation during isolation and yields highly intact genomic DNA. Chloroform helps separate proteins and polysaccharides from nucleic acids by binding them, allowing DNA to be isolated in the upper aqueous phase. Isopropanol precipitates DNA from large solution volumes at room temperature to avoid coprecipitating other molecules. Chilled ethanol causes DNA to precipitate out of solution, allowing it to be purified for genetic testing. Deionized water is used to dissolve and store extracted DNA for subsequent experiments.
Canning involves sealing food in containers and heating it to kill or inhibit microbial growth. Acidic foods are easier to can than neutral foods, which must be heated above 100°C. Spoilage can occur through anaerobic organisms like Clostridium producing toxins. Canning, removal of microorganisms, use of chemical preservatives, radiation, microbial inhibition, and controlling temperature and moisture help preserve foods by hindering microbial growth and toxin production. Fermentation uses microbes like yeast and lactic acid bacteria to preserve foods through chemical changes and production of preservatives. Common fermented foods include beer, wine, yogurt, cheese, and bread.
This document discusses food microbiology, including microorganisms in food and the factors that affect their growth. It also addresses food preservation methods like refrigeration, canning, and fermentation. Finally, it covers food-borne illness and several fermented foods, describing the microbial processes involved in producing items like beer, wine, bread, yogurt, and cheese.
Role of Microorganisms in Preparation of Certain Foods, in Spoilage of Food, ...Umay Habiba
This document discusses the role of microorganisms in food. It explains that microorganisms are involved in both the production of many foods through fermentation processes as well as the spoilage of foods. Various factors that influence the growth of microorganisms in foods, such as temperature, pH, and water availability, are also outlined. Additionally, the document covers several methods used for food preservation to inhibit microbial growth, such as canning, pasteurization, reducing water availability, and chemical or radiation-based approaches.
This document discusses food preservation and spoilage. It outlines various intrinsic and extrinsic factors that influence microbial growth in foods, such as water availability, pH, temperature, and packaging methods. It also describes different types of food spoilage caused by bacteria and fungi, as well as foodborne illnesses. Common preservation techniques are then outlined, including removal of microorganisms, low temperature storage, high heat treatments like canning and pasteurization, controlling water availability through drying or adding salt/sugar, and use of radiation. Detection and surveillance of foodborne pathogens is also discussed.
This document discusses factors that influence microbial growth in foods and food spoilage. It covers intrinsic factors like composition, pH and water activity, and extrinsic factors like temperature and atmosphere. Various methods for controlling microbial growth and food spoilage are described, including removal of microorganisms, low temperature, high temperature processes like canning and pasteurization, controlling water availability, use of chemical preservatives, radiation, and surveillance programs. Fermented foods produced via lactic, propionic, and ethanolic fermentations are also summarized.
The document discusses various technologies used to improve food production and processing in Malaysia. It describes strategies by the Agriculture Ministry to increase and diversify food production through direct seeding, hydroponics, aeroponics, selective breeding, tissue culture, genetic engineering, and other methods. Food processing techniques are also outlined, including cooking, drying, fermentation, refrigeration, freezing, canning, and addition of preservatives to extend shelf life and prevent spoilage. The goal is to meet growing population demands through greater yields and a wider variety of nutritious foods.
Fermentation has been used for thousands of years to produce foods and beverages. Louis Pasteur's work in the late 1800s greatly advanced understanding of fermentation and identified yeast as the agent that causes the process. Fermentation involves microorganisms breaking down organic compounds to produce energy without oxygen. It is used commercially to produce various products like alcohols, acids, enzymes, and other chemicals through aerobic or anaerobic microbial growth processes using batch, fed-batch, continuous, or immobilized cell cultures. Proper control of fermentation conditions inside bioreactors is important for consistent, high-yield production.
This document discusses various applications of industrial fermentation biotechnology. It covers microbial roles in food production including bread, dairy, alcoholic beverages, and preservation methods like canning, drying, and irradiation. It also outlines useful microbial products for pharmaceuticals like antibiotics and enzymes. Microorganisms are employed for waste disposal, metal leaching, and alternative energy generation from methane or ethanol. Overall, the document provides a wide-ranging overview of industrial uses of microbes in food, pharmaceuticals, mining, energy and environmental applications.
This document discusses various applications of industrial fermentation biotechnology. It covers microbial roles in food production including bread, dairy, alcoholic beverages, and preservation methods like canning, drying, and irradiation. It also outlines useful microbial products for pharmaceuticals like antibiotics, enzymes, and amino acids. The document concludes with alternative energy sources from bioconversion of methane or ethanol and microbial waste disposal through sewage treatment and bioremediation.
The document discusses food processing and related topics. It begins with an overview of food processing, which transforms raw ingredients into consumable food products. It then discusses fermentation and fermented products like cheese, yogurt, bread, and alcoholic beverages. Next, it covers processed foods like cheese and yogurt and food preservation techniques to prevent spoilage from microorganisms like bacteria.
This document discusses milk and microorganisms found in milk. It begins by describing milk and its composition. It then discusses the microorganisms that can be found in milk, including bacteria, yeasts, and moulds. Key points are made about factors that affect microbial growth in milk and how microbes can cause spoilage through souring, gas production, proteolysis, and more. The document also briefly outlines pathogenic microbes in milk and means of their destruction, as well as starter cultures used in cultured dairy products.
This document discusses factors that influence the growth of microorganisms in food. It outlines the history of food microbiology and preservation methods. Intrinsic factors like pH, moisture content and nutrients and extrinsic factors like temperature, atmosphere and water activity determine which microbes can grow. Common preservation methods mentioned include canning, pasteurization, cooking, refrigeration, freezing and drying which make the environment unsuitable for microbial growth.
Fermented foods are produced through microbial growth that causes chemical and textural changes, preserving foods and creating new flavors. Major fermentations used are lactic, propionic, and ethanolic. Fermented foods include bread, dairy, alcoholic beverages, and others. Microbes like yeast and lactic acid bacteria are used in processes like beer, wine, yogurt, and cheese production to ferment carbohydrates and coagulate proteins through acid production.
Fermented foods are produced through microbial growth that causes chemical and textural changes, preserving foods and creating new flavors. Major fermentations used are lactic, propionic, and ethanolic. Fermented foods include bread, dairy, alcoholic beverages, and others. Microbes like yeast and lactic acid bacteria are used in processes like beer, wine, yogurt, and cheese production to ferment carbohydrates and coagulate proteins through acid production.
Milk microbiology is the study of milk and its microorganisms. Milk contains bacteria naturally from the cow and environment that can impact its quality. Fermented dairy products are produced through lactic acid fermentation by bacteria like Lactobacillus and Streptococcus. Yogurt is made from milk fermented by a mixed starter culture. Bacteria in milk can cause changes in color, flavor, and texture through production of enzymes, gases, and organic acids. Strict standards are used to evaluate milk quality and safety through microbiology testing for bacteria, molds, pathogens, and survivability after pasteurization.
The document discusses food and spoilage. It defines food as any nutritious substance consumed to maintain life, provide energy and stimulate growth. Spoilage is the deterioration of food quality making it inedible, caused by microbial and biochemical processes. Factors like moisture, temperature, and microbes determine spoilage. Food preservation methods stop or slow spoilage by killing microbes or inhibiting their growth, helping to prevent food poisoning from contaminated food.
presented by HAFIZ M WASEEM
university of education LAHORE Pakistan
i am from mailsi vehari and studied in lahore
bsc in science college multan
msc from lahore
1) The document discusses various microbial culture techniques used in food processing and research laboratories. It describes batch, continuous, fed-batch, and synchronous culture techniques.
2) It also categorizes the microbes used in food processing as bacteria, yeasts, and moulds. It provides examples of key bacteria like Lactobacillus species used in food manufacturing as starter cultures.
3) The document concludes that fermented foods produced using microbial cultures contribute significantly to human nutrition and health by providing preservation, enrichment and health benefits.
Microbial growth and food spoilage results from microbes altering food, rendering it unsuitable for consumption. Different foods undergo specific spoilage processes due to their unique microbial loads and compositions. Approximately 1/3 of the world's food is lost to spoilage each year. Minimizing contamination through good management practices and preservation procedures can help reduce food spoilage. Different types of microbes degrade the chemical components of foods in characteristic ways, impacting appearance, flavor, and other qualities. Specific foods are prone to spoilage by certain microorganisms depending on their nutrients and conditions.
Similar to Current trends and opportunities in microbiological researchs (20)
Current trends and opportunities in microbiological researchs
1. CURRENT TRENDS AND
OPPORTUNITIES IN
MICROBIOLOGICAL
RESEARCHS
Prof. K. Manjunath
Professor
Department of Microbiology and
Biotechnology
Bangalore University
2. What is Microbiology?
Micro - too small to be seen with the naked eye
Bio - life
logy - study of
Organisms included in the study of Microbiology
1. Bacteria-Bacteriology
2. Protozoans-Protozoology
3. Algae-Phycology
4. Parasites-Parasitology
5. Fungi,Yeasts and Molds -Mycology
6. Viruses-Virology
3. Golden Age of Microbiology 1857 - 1914
Pasteur
•Pasteurization
•Fermentation
Joseph Lister
•Phenol to treat surgical wounds – 1st
attempt to
control infections caused by microoganisms
Robert Koch
•Koch’s Postulates
Edward Jenner
•vaccination
Paul Erlich
•1st
synthetic drug used to treat infections
•Salvarsan - arsenic based chemical to treat
Syphilis
“salvation” from Syphilis
6. Microorganisms in Food
• Factors affecting microbial growth in food
– composition
– pH
– presence and availability of water
– oxidation-reduction potential
• altered by cooking
– physical structure
– presence of antimicrobial substances
– temperature
• lower temperatures retard microbial growth
– relative humidity
• higher levels promote microbial growth
– atmosphere
• oxygen promotes growth
– modified atmosphere packaging (MAP)
• use of shrink wrap and vacuum technologies to package food in controlled
atmospheres
7. Microorganisms in Food
• Antimicrobial substances
– coumarins – fruits and vegetables
– lysozyme – cow’s milk and eggs
– aldehydic and phenolic compounds – herbs and
spices
– allicin – garlic
– polyphenols – green and black teas
8. Microorganisms in Food
• Food spoilage
– results from growth of microbes in food
• alters food visibly and in other ways, rendering it unsuitable for
consumption
– involves predictable succession of microbes
– different foods undergo different types of spoilage
processes
– toxins are sometimes produced
• algal toxins may contaminate shellfish and finfish
9. Microorganisms in Food
• Toxins
– ergotism
• toxic condition caused by growth of a fungus in grains
– aflatoxins
• carcinogens produced in fungus-infected grains and nut
products
– fumonisins
• carcinogens produced in fungus-infected corn
10. Food Preservation
• Removal of Microorganisms
– usually achieved by filtration
– commonly used for water, beer, wine, juices, soft
drinks, and other liquids
11. Food Preservation
• Low Temperature
– refrigeration at 5°C retards but does not stop
microbial growth
– microorganisms can still cause spoilage with
extended spoilage
– growth at temperatures below -10°C has been
observed
12. Food Preservation
• Canning
– food heated in special containers (retorts) to 115° C for 25
to 100 minutes
– kills spoilage microbes, but not necessarily all microbes in
food
– Spoilage of canned goods
• spoilage prior to canning
• underprocessing
• leakage of contaminated water into cans during cooling
process
13. Food Preservation
• Pasteurization
– kills pathogens and substantially reduces number
of spoilage organisms
– different pasteurization procedures heat for
different lengths of time
– shorter heating times result in improved flavor
14. Food Preservation
• Reduced water availability
– Drying
– Freeze-drying (lyophilization)
– Addition of high concnetrations of solutes such as
sugar or salt
15. Food Preservation
• Chemical-Based Preservation
– GRAS
• chemical agents “generally recognized as safe”
– pH of food impacts effectiveness of chemical
preservative
16. Food Preservation
• Radiation
– ultraviolet (UV) radiation
• used for surfaces of food-handling equipment
• does not penetrate foods
– radappertization
• use of ionizing radiation (gamma radiation) to extend shelf life or
sterilize meat, seafoods, fruits, and vegetables
• kills microbes in moist foods by producing peroxides from water
• peroxides oxidize cellular constituents
17. Food Preservation
• Microbial Product-Based Inhibition
– Bacteriocins: bactericidal proteins active against related
species
– some dissipate proton motive force of susceptible bacteria
– some form pores in plasma membranes
– some inhibit protein or RNA synthesis
– e.g., nisin: used in low-acid foods to inactivate Clostridium
botulinum during canning process
18. Food-borne Illness
• Food-Borne Infection
– ingestion of microbes, followed by growth, tissue
invasion, and/or release of toxins
• Food-Borne Intoxications
– ingestion of toxins in foods in which microbes
have grown
– include staphylococcal food poisoning, botulism,
Clostridium perfringens food poisoning, and
Bacillus cereus food poisoning
19. Food-borne Illness
• Detection of Food-Borne Pathogens
– culture techniques
– immunological techniques - very sensitive
– molecular techniques
• probes used to detect specific DNA or RNA
• sensitive and specific
20. Food-borne Illness
• Detection of Food-Borne Pathogens
– PulseNet
• established by Centers for Disease Control
• uses pulsed-field gel electrophoresis under carefully controlled
and duplicated conditions to determine distinctive DNA pattern
of each bacterial pathogen
• enables public health officials to link pathogens associated with
disease outbreaks in different parts of the world to a specific
food source
– FoodNet
• active surveillance network used to follow nine major food-
borne diseases
• enables public health officials to rapidly trace the course and
cause of infection in days rather than weeks
http://www.cdc.gov/foodnet/
http://www.cdc.gov/pulsenet/
21. Fermented Foods
• Alcoholic Beverages
– Alcohol is produced from fermentation by the
yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae
• Bread
• Dairy Products
• Other Fermented Foods
22. Fermented Foods
• Beer
– Produced by the fermentation of malted grain
• Malted grain: Grain that has been allowed to
germinate, then dried in a kiln & perhaps roasted
• Germinating the grain causes the production of a
number of enzymes, most notably α- and β-amylase
• Malted grains that may be used are barley, rye, or
wheat
• Unmalted grains, such as rice or corn, may also be
used
23. Fermented Foods
• Wine
– Produced from the fermentation of fruit juice, usually
from grapes
– The grapes are crushed to form a “must”
• For white wines, white grapes are usually used, and the skins
are removed from the must (“pressing”) before fermentation
• For red wines, red or black grapes are used, and the skin is
allowed to remain during fermentation
• For rosé wines, red grapes are used and the juice is allowed to
remain in contact with the skins just long enough for a rose or
pink color to develop
24. Fermented Foods
• Wine
– Secondary fermentation and aging
• Takes 3 – 6 months
• Done in either stainless steel vessels or in oaken
barrels
• The vessel is kept airtight to prevent oxidation
• Proteins are broken down, & particles settle
– Blending and bottling
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winemaking
25. Fermented Foods
• Distilled spirits
– Produced by the fermentation of grain mash
(similar to beer), followed by distillation to
increase the alcohol content
– Different types of grain are used to produce
different types of whisky
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whiskey
http://www.thewhiskyguide.com/
26. Fermented Foods
• Bread
– involves growth of Saccharomyces cerevisiae (baker’s
yeast) under aerobic conditions
– maximizes CO2 production, which leavens bread
– other microbes used to make special breads (e.g.,
sourdough bread)
– can be spoiled by Bacillus species that produce ropiness
27. Fermented Foods
• Yogurt
– Milk is feremented by a mixture of Streptococcus
salivarius ssp thermophilus and Lactobacillus bulgaricus
(official name Lactobacillus delbrueckii ssp. bulgaricus).
Often these two are co-cultured with other lactic acid
bacteria for taste or health effects (probiotics). These
include L. acidophilus, L. casei and Bifidobacterium
species.
– Acid produced from the fermentation causes the
protein in the milk (casein) to coagulate into a semisolid
curd
– If you want strawberries or peaches, you must add
them after the yogurt is made
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yogurt
28. Fermented Foods
• Cheese
– Milk is treated with lactic acid bacteria and an
enzyme called rennin that partially hydrolyses
the protein and causes it to coagulate into
“curds.” The liquid portion of the milk at this
time is called “whey.”
– The whey is separated from the curds, and the
curds are aged (“ripened”)
– Different microbes in the early and late stages
of processing give rise to cheeses with different
characteristics
http://www.realcaliforniacheese.com/
30. Microbial Diversity
Algae
Red - Rhodophyta
Brown - Phaeophyta
Green - Chlorophyta
Blue-green algae are
BACTERIA
Cyanobacteria
Algae
Red - Rhodophyta
Brown - Phaeophyta
Green - Chlorophyta
Blue-green algae are
BACTERIA
Cyanobacteria
Protozoa
Motile / unicellular
Pseudopodia
Phagocytosis
Protozoa
Motile / unicellular
Pseudopodia
Phagocytosis
Fungi
Molds
Spores / mycelia / hyphae
Yeasts / budding
Fungi
Molds
Spores / mycelia / hyphae
Yeasts / budding
EUKARYOTES
PROKARYOTES
BACTERIA - Eubacteria
ARCHAEA - Archaebacteria
31. How diverse are
they?
• Diverse range of species
• Earliest life on the planet
• Anaerobic then aerobic
• Three Kingdoms (1977)
• 16S rRNA Analysis
• Eukaryote Plants &
Animals
• Bacteria
• Archaea
• Extreme living microorganisms
• Diverse range of species
• Earliest life on the planet
• Anaerobic then aerobic
• Three Kingdoms (1977)
• 16S rRNA Analysis
• Eukaryote Plants &
Animals
• Bacteria
• Archaea
• Extreme living microorganisms
3 – 3.5 billion years
REDUCED ATMOSPHERE
Eubacteria
Plants &
Animals Archaea
OXIDISED ATMOSPHERE
33. Microbial Diversity. The Third
Kingdom - Archeae – Summary of
Differences
Eubacteria Archaebacteria
Peptidoglycan wall Cell wall variants
Ribosomal RNA Very different
RNA polymerase Several enzymes
Membrane lipids Ether-linked/branched
Protein synthesis Very different
No methanogenesis Some are methanogens
Antibiotic sensitivity Insensitive to many
Eubacteria Archaebacteria
Peptidoglycan wall Cell wall variants
Ribosomal RNA Very different
RNA polymerase Several enzymes
Membrane lipids Ether-linked/branched
Protein synthesis Very different
No methanogenesis Some are methanogens
Antibiotic sensitivity Insensitive to many
37. Bioinformatics:
A subject that teaches application of computational
tools and approaches for expanding the use of
biological, medical, behavioral, health and other
data, including those to acquire, store, organize,
archive, analyze and visualize such data.
38. Future?
• The Indian Bioinformatics market, which is only
2.5% of the global market, has the potential to
capture 5% of the global pie, provided the
government ushers in necessary changes.
According to a report ‘Building Blocks of
Bioinformatics: Human Resource Requirements In
India’, prepared by CII and DIT, the future seems
very bright for the industry since majority of the
Indian Bioinformatics companies are planning to
increase their scale of operations.
39. Computer to Digital life to life
Can human-made systems be made to possess properties
of life?
• Digital Systems are used, to perform experiments aimed at revealing the
principles of living systems
• This effort is truly interdisciplinary and runs the gamut from biology, chemistry
and physics to computer science and engineering
• Computational effort concerns the search for principles of living systems
• Computational experiments consider
life "as it could be"
• Many problems in life science have algorithmic aspects.
• Among those, the {protein folding problem} is one
• Proteins are polymer chains consisting of monomers of twenty different kinds,
which tend to {fold}, to form a very specific and stable geometric pattern, known
as the protein's {native state}
• Human diseases are linked to specific genes
• Majority of traits and diseases appear to be {polygenic}, in that they involve the
complex interactions, as in a many-input Boolean circuit, of many genes.
40. Life Science Vs Computer Science
• Life Science is frustratingly holistic?
• It emphasizes the importance of the whole and the interdependence of its
parts like in CS
• Computer science has provided highly useful tools for collecting,
exchanging and analyzing data
• Modeling and simulation of Data
• Finding the right data structure or algorithm can give answers to life
science problems
• Computer science algorithms made it possible to put together a vast
amount of data from sequencing machines when the human
genome was sequenced.
• Computer science’s computational paradigm has shaped new
modes of inquiry in life sciences
47. EMBL-Bank DNA Sequences
UniProt Protein Sequences
EMSD Macromolecular
Structure Data
Array-Express
Microarray
Expression Data
EnsEMBL Human Genom
Gene Annotation
48. Molecular medicine
• The human genome has profound effect on the fields of biomedical
research and clinical medicine. Every disease has a genetic
component.
• This may be inherited (as is the case with an estimated 3000-4000
hereditary disease including Cystic Fibrosis and Huntingtons disease)
or a result of the body's response to an environmental stress which
causes alterations in the genome (eg. cancers, heart disease,
diabetes.).
• From Human Genome Project Data Base we can search for the genes
directly associated with different diseases and understand the
molecular basis of these diseases more clearly.
• This new knowledge of the molecular mechanisms of disease will
enable better treatments, cures and even preventative tests to be
developed.
49. Personalized medicine
• Clinical medicine will become more personalized with the
development of the field of pharma-co-genomics.
• This is the study of how an individual's genetic inheritance affects the
body's response to drugs.
• At presentAt present, some drugs fail to make it to the market because a small
percentage of the clinical patient population show adverse affects to
a drug due to sequence variants in their DNA.
• As a result, potentially life saving drugs never makes it to the
marketplace.
• TodayToday, doctors have to use trial and error to find the best drug to
treat a particular patient as those with the same clinical symptoms
can show a wide range of responses to the same treatment.
• In futureIn future, doctors will be able to analyse a patient's genetic profile
and prescribe the best available drug therapy and dosage from the
beginning.
50. Preventative medicine
• With the specific details of the genetic mechanisms of
diseases being unraveled, the development of diagnostic
tests to measure a persons susceptibility to different
diseases may become a distinct reality.
• Preventative actions such as change of lifestyle or having
treatment at the earliest possible stages when they are
more likely to be successful, could result in huge advances
in our struggle to conquer disease.
51. Gene therapy
• In the not too distant future, the potential for using genes
themselves to treat disease may become a reality.
• Gene therapy is the approach used to treat, cure or even
prevent disease by changing the expression of a persons
genes.
• Currently, this field is in its infantile stage with clinical
trials for many different types of cancer and other
diseases ongoing.
52. Drug development
• At present all drugs on the market target only about 500
proteins.
• With an improved understanding of disease mechanisms
and using computational tools to identify and validate
new drug targets, more specific medicines that act on the
cause, not merely the symptoms, of the disease can be
developed.
• These highly specific drugs promise to have fewer side
effects than many of today's medicines.
53. Microbial genome applications
• Microorganisms are ubiquitous, that is they are found everywhere.
They have been found surviving and thriving in extremes of heat,
cold, radiation, salt, acidity and pressure.
• They are present in the environment, our bodies, the air, food and
water. Traditionally, use has been made of a variety of microbial
properties in the baking, brewing and food industries.
• The arrival of the complete genome sequences and their potential to
provide a greater insight into the microbial world and its capacities
could have broad and far reaching implications for environment,
health, energy and industrial applications.
• By studying the genetic material of these organisms, scientists can
begin to understand these microbes at a very fundamental level and
isolate the genes that give them their unique abilities to survive
under extreme conditions.
54. Crop improvement
• Comparative genetics of the plant genomes has shown
that the organisation of their genes has remained more
conserved over evolutionary time than was previously
believed.
• These findings suggest that information obtained from
the model crop systems can be used to suggest
improvements to other food crops.
• At present the complete genomes of Arabidopsis thaliana
(water cress) and Oryza sativa (rice) are available.
55. Insect resistance
• Genes from Bacillus thuringiensis that can control a
number of serious pests have been successfully
transferred to cotton, maize and potatoes.
• This new ability of the plants to resist insect attack means
that the amount of insecticides being used can be
reduced and hence the nutritional quality of the crops is
increased.
56. Improve nutritional quality
• Scientists have recently succeeded in transferring genes
into rice to increase levels of Vitamin A, iron and other
micronutrients.
• This work could have a profound impact in reducing
occurrences of blindness and anaemia caused by
deficiencies in Vitamin A and iron respectively.
• Scientists have inserted a gene from yeast into the
tomato, and the result is a plant whose fruit stays longer
on the vine and has an extended shelf life.
57. Development of Drought
resistance varieties
• Progress has been made in developing cereal varieties
that have a greater tolerance for soil alkalinity, free
aluminum and iron toxicities.
• These varieties will allow agriculture to succeed in poorer
soil areas, thus adding more land to the global production
base.
• Research is also in progress to produce crop varieties
capable of tolerating reduced water conditions.
58. Veterinary Science
• Sequencing projects of many farm animals including cows,
pigs and sheep are now well under way in the hope that a
better understanding of the biology of these organisms
will have huge impacts for improving the production and
health of livestock and ultimately have benefits for human
nutrition.
59. Comparative Studies
• Analyzing and comparing the genetic material of different species is
an important method for studying the functions of genes, the
mechanisms of inherited diseases and species evolution.
• Bioinformatics tools can be used to make comparisons between the
numbers, locations and biochemical functions of genes in different
organisms.
• Organisms that are suitable for use in experimental research are
termed model organisms.
• They have a number of properties that make them ideal for research
purposes including short life spans, rapid reproduction, being easy to
handle, inexpensive and they can be manipulated at the genetic level.
• An example ofexample of a human model organism is the mouse.
• Mouse and human are very closely related (>98%)(>98%) and for the most
part we see a one to one correspondence between genes in the two
species.
61. Bioremediation
• A technology that encourages growth and reproduction of indigenous
microorganisms (bacteria and fungi) to enhance biodegradation of
organic constituents in the saturated zone .
• Can effectively degrade organic constituents dissolved in groundwater
and adsorbed onto the aquifer matrix.
• Generally requires a mechanism for stimulating and maintaining the
activity of the microorganisms, e.g., addition of an electron acceptor
(oxygen, nitrate); nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus); and an energy source
(carbon)
62. Microbial Metabolism
• Need nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and a variety of trace nutrients other
than carbon
• Carbon is often the limiting factor for microbial growth in most natural
systems
• Acclimatization period - a period during which no degradation of
chemical is evident; also known as adaptation or lag period
• Length of acclimatization period varies from less than 1 h to many
months
• Acclimatization of a microbial population to one substrate frequently
results in the simultaneous acclimatization to some structurally related
molecules
63. Metabolism Modes
• Aerobic: transformations occur in the presence of molecular
oxygen (as electron acceptor), known as aerobic respiration
• Anaerobic: reactions occur only in the absence of molecular
oxygen, subdivided
into:
– Anaerobic respiration
– Fermentation
– Methane fermentation
65. Microbial Reactions and Pathways
• Dechlorination - a chlorine atom is replaced with a
hydrogen atom
• Hydrolysis - a cleavage of an organic molecule with the
addition of water
• Cleavage - an organic compound is split or a terminal
carbon is cleaved off an organic chain
• Oxidation - breakdown of organic compounds using
nucleophilic form of oxygen (H2O, OH-, etc); releases
electrons
• Reduction - breakdown of organic compounds using
electrophilic form of hydrogen (H+); takes electrons
67. • Cultivation dependent - ideal, but has problems!
• Cultivation independent:
– Sequence information - eg. 16S rRNA sequences,
genome sequences
– rRNA targeted probes, eg. FISH
(Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization)
Allows a visual inspection of phylogenetic groups of
cells in a natural sample
How to study microbial diversity and ecology
68. Detection of microbial diversity at molecular level
Environmental samples
Enrichment
Specific Medium
Pure Culture
Analysis
Morphology
Cell wall
Stain
Cyst
Biochemical
DNA
PCR
16S rRNA
/ITS/IGS/
SSU
phylogenetic/
functional gene
Cloning
Sequencing
ARDRA/
RFLP/
DGGE/
TRFLP
ISH with probes
A
U
T
O
R
D
I
O
G
R
A
P
H
F
I
S
H
Tracking and phylogentic analysis
Hybridization
With probe/
genomic dNA
69. Cultivation dependent
• Pure cultures are the basis of the traditional
way of studying bacteria
• Usually only 1% of cells in a natural sample
will form colonies on plates
• Different bacteria have different abilities to
be cultured; from easy to difficult
• Known examples that cannot be cultured
70. Bacteria: examples that have not yet been
cultured
• Mycobacterium leprae (leprosy)
• Treponema pallidum (syphilis)
• Epulopiscium fishelsoni
• All members of the TM7 phylum
(a major lineage of Bacteria)
72. Cultivation independent:
• 16S rRNA sequences, specific genes, mRNAs,
whole genome sequences, metagenomes
• Discovered many new groups of Bacteria
- but physiologies yet unknown
• Can use sequence information to directly
visualise specific bacteria in situ (in their
natural state)
Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization (FISH) ...
73. • Permeabilize cells so that
the DNA probe can enter
Allow it to find its matching
- short DNA sequence
- complementary to rRNA
- specific sequence (eg. to genus)
- fluorescent tag attached
rRNA
FISH - Fluorescent In Situ Hybridisation
74. • Fluorescent DNA probe will bind to rRNA in the
cells only if it exactly matches complementary
sequence of rRNA target region
• Many different coloured fluors, so can do
simultaneous probes for different genera,
View cells (in situ) under fluorescent microscope,
and see what cells fluoresce, showing they have
bound the probe
FISH - Fluorescent In Situ Hybridisation
76. •final note: the vast majority of bacteria are not
pathogens. They work for us, in the environment
77. DNA ISOLATION
ENVIRONMENTAL SAMPLE MICROBIAL ANIMAL TISSUE
PLANT MATERIALS
SOIL
WATER
AIR
FUNGUS
BACTERIA
ACTINOMYCETS
CYNOBACTERIA
ALGAE
HAIR
BLOOD
CLINICAL
78. Plant material Soil Water
ENVIRONMENTAL SAMPLE
Air
• Root, shoot, leaves etc
• Grind the material in liquid
Nitrogen with mortar and
pestal
• Perform CTAB method for
isolating gDNA
Materials:
CTAB
(cetyltrimethylammonium
bromide) buffer
Microfuge tubes
Mortar and Pestle
Liquid Nitrogen
Microfuge
Absolute Ethanol (ice cold)
70 % Ethanol (ice cold)
7.5 M Ammonium Acetate
55o
C water bath
Chloroform : Iso Amyl
Alcohol (24:1)
Water (sterile)
• Soil or sediment
• Bead beating with
Phosphate buffer saline
Materials:
Extraction buffer (pH 8.0)*
5% SDS
(autoclave to sterilize)
Dithiothrietol 1 M†
Phenol (Tris-saturated)
Chloroform:isoamyl (24:1)
Choroform
Sodium acetate 3M
Isopropanol
Ice-cold 70% EtOH
10% PVPP solution
• Centrifugation of
water sample .
• Filter water through
membrane vaccume
filter to filter
microbial community
• Take out membrane
cut into small pieces
to isolate DNA
air is drawn by a suction
pump through a narrow
inlet tube into a small
flask containing the
collection medium
79. MICROBIAL
Bacteria/archea Fungi Actinomycetes Algae
Lyophilize young
mycelia
Use CTAB method
further
CTAB extraction buffer
0.1M Tris,
1% CTAB
0.7M NaCl
10mM EDTA
1% beta-mercaptanol
Water
DNA extraction from algae
and seagrass is hampered by
the large quantity of
polysaccharides and
polyphenolics produced
within the thalli (leaves) of
many species.
CTAB method
•Lysozyme /
•SDS Lysis
•Phenol
chloroform
extraction
•Na salt
precipitation
•Ethanol
concentration
80. Fellowships for higher studies in India:
• DST SC Bose fellowship
• CSIR Jawahar Lal Nehru Post Doctoral Fellowship
• UGC Dr. D.S. Kothari Post Doctoral fellowship
• DST young scientist Award (SERC Division)
• DST Woman Scientist fellowship
• DBT Post Doctoral Fellowship
• CSIR Research Associate scholarship
• K.S. Krishnan Research fellowship BARC
• UGC SAARC Fellowship
• Rajiv Gandhi Science Talent research fellowship
• JRF/SRF awarded by – UGC, CSIR, DBT, ICMR, ICAR
• Junior research scholarship for cancer biology TATA memorial centre
and TATA memorial hospital.
• Homi Bhaha centre for science education scholarship
81. Fellowships for higher studies in Foreign countries:
1. DAAD Fellowship: Indo German Fellowship for Ph.D. and Post
Doctorate students
2. JSPS Fellowship: Indo- Japanese fellowship for Post Doctorate
students
3. Jawahar Lal Nehru Full bright Fellowship: Indo- US fellowship for
PhD and Post Doctorate students.
4. Turkish Biotech/Agriculture research for pursuing Ph.D. in Turkey
5. DBT-TWAS Biotechnology fellowship for Post Doctorate Research
Overseas
6. Belgium Govt. Scholarship from External Division ministry of Human
Resource and Development
82. Research Group
Dr. Pranjali Vishwakarma Soil microbial diversity analysis using
(D.S. Kothari Post Doc fellow) metagenomic tools
Dr. Arun Jyoti Mathews Bioaerosols and occupational health hazard
(Associate Prof.)
Ms. Rachna Garg Isolation of bioactive compounds from
(CSIR-SRF) medicinal plant
Alaknanda Sarkar Isolation of bioactive compunds from
(CSIR-SRF) marine microorganism
Pawan R. Assesment of airquality
(Research scholar)
Ms. Ponama Plant Tissue culter and secondary
(Teacher fellow) metabolite
Ms. Vijaya Rahmnolipids from microbes
(Teacher fellow)