Cummings LIBR 200 Term Paper

Running head: CUMMINGS PUBLIC LIBRARIES PROVIDING ACCESS
Public Libraries: Providing Access to the Digital World
Darcy Cummings
LIBR 200-06
December 9, 2013
San Jose State University

CUMMINGS PUBLIC LIBRARIES PROVIDING ACCESS 2
Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to discuss the issues of the digital divide and digital literacy
in relation to the public library. Public libraries offer numerous classes, training and
access to digital technologies. The digital divide between portions of society without
access or the skills to use digital technology and portions with the access and skills are
discussed in their relation to how the public library system addresses these issues. Also
discussed are challenges faced by public libraries in their efforts to provide access and
literacy training.

Introduction
With the advent of the Internet in the early 1990s, the increasing importance of
computers and the Internet in society became vividly apparent. This importance has only
grown in relevance to everyday life in our society. The ability to use digital technology
is now just as important as simply having access to a computer or the Internet. These
skills are referred to as “digital literacy” and are now a core component of necessary
skills to succeed in society. Cullen and Cobb (2011) wrote that: “living in a digital age
requires adults to be capable of tasks beyond simply reading, such as using a computer or
other technology to complete day-to-day tasks” (p. 25). What also became apparent was
that not all parts of society were able to access a computer or the Internet and had the
skills and knowledge to use these technologies. This lack of access or knowledge and the
skills to use digital technology meant that those without it were no longer fully
participating members of society. West (2011) concurred, saying, “having a basic
understanding of how to operate a computer and interact with a web page is a skill that is
required in American society” (p. xxviii). With the rapid growth of digital technology
and its pervasive presence in society, these gaps between those able to access and use
digital technology and those who could not widened.
Public libraries, more and more, began addressing this divide in society.
McShane (2011) stated: “the role of public libraries in enhancing literacy, access to
information and civic engagement, through the expert oversight of librarians, has been
consistently advocated as a solution to emerging social problems” (p. 383). The public
library has now become synonymous with free public computer and Internet access.
Nishi (2011) wrote “today, almost all public library branches offer visitors free access to

computers and the Internet, thanks to a sustained effort by federal, state, and local
governments; private philanthropy; and the work of librarians” (p. 37). Public libraries
have also expanded beyond mere access and now include formal and informal technology
and life skills classes and instruction.
Public libraries have historically been access points to information: this is not any
different from what libraries have been doing for centuries, except that the medium and
type of information being accessed has shifted to what is relevant in current society.
McShane (2011) paraphrased the American Library Association (ALA) from 1989:
“libraries were promoted as key institutions for the continuous updating of information
resources and skills necessary for effective workforce participation, civic engagement
and personal management” (p. 385). Taylor, Jaeger, McDermott, Kodama and Bertot
(2012) elaborated: “library progression is ceaseless… libraries are adapting and
redefining their vision. This evolution involves not only a shift in services to align with
current economic and technological tides but also a conscious attempt to stay true to their
core conviction” (p. 192).
Discussion
History
The term “digital divide” was coined in the early 1990s. Initially this term stood
solely for those members of society that had access to computers and the Internet and
those who did not. However, the term rapidly became about more than just access: it
evolved to incorporate digital literacy, in other words, the skills and knowledge to use
digital technology. As Warschauer (2010) explained:

The term was originally used to refer to inequality in physical access, as
represented by home ownership of a computer or having an Internet account.
Soon thereafter, people began to include other factors that enabled people to
effectively use new technology, such as skills, knowledge, and social support. (p.
1551)
Often referred to as underserved populations, there are specific demographic
groups who are most affected by the digital divide. Age, ethnicity, income, geography
and education are some of the most prominent factors separating those who are adversely
affected by the digital divide from those who are not (Warschauer, 2010, p. 1553).
Public libraries have long been arbiters of information and have evolved to meet the
changing information needs of their communities, because of this libraries now provide
key information regarding digital technology to their patrons.
The Role of Public Libraries
Historically, public libraries have been access points to information for the
communities they serve. In the United States they have become a democratic cornerstone
of our society by providing equal access to information for all (Swan, Grimes, Owens,
Vese, Miller, Arroyo, Craig, Dorinski, Freeman, Isaac, O’Shea, & Scotto, 2013, p. 10).
As stated in the Library Bill of Rights (1996):
Books and other library resources should be provided for the interest, information,
and enlightenment of all people of the community the library serves. . . . A
person’s right to use a library should not be denied or abridged because of origin,
age, background, or views. (Policies I & V)

Due to this historical and ethical commitment of public libraries, they are ideally
situated in addressing the issues of the digital divide. The Gates Foundation (n.d.)
reaffirmed this, saying: “with their existing infrastructure, dedicated staff, and mission to
connect individuals to information, libraries are uniquely suited to offering public
Internet access and training to people who would otherwise be left behind in the digital
world” (The Opportunity section, para. 1). The two most important factors that make
public libraries so adept at addressing the digital divide are the trained library staff and
preexisting technological infrastructure. Chaudhuri and Flamm (2006) stated: “public
libraries are also free, and the overwhelming majority- if not all of them- offers [sic]
Internet access. In other words, the backbone infrastructure for public Internet service
provision already exists through them” (p. 251-253).
According to Public Library Funding & Technology Access Study (PLFTAS) by
the American Library Association (2012), 41% of public libraries in urban communities,
60% of public libraries in suburban communities and 70% of public libraries in rural
communities reported being the only free and public access to Internet in those
communities (p. 19). In a society where day-to-day activities are increasingly becoming
performed via the Internet, having access to the Internet is crucial for being a
participating member of society (Cullen & Cobb, 2011, p. 25). As Nishi (2011) stated:
“in a world where it is almost impossible to succeed without the Internet, the public
library is often the only place in a community where people can get online and receive
the training they need to benefit from opportunities online” (p. 36). Kinney (2010) wrote:
“a review of the utilization of public library computers and Internet capabilities
demonstrates that people who belong to groups characterized as digitally disadvantaged

do tend to use library computers more frequently… and are more likely to depend on the
library for access” (p. 106).
The digitally disadvantaged. The digital division tends to fall along lines of
race, income, education, age and geography. According to a Pew Internet & American
Life Study (Pew Report) written by Zickuh, Rainie and Purcell (2013) “for almost all of
the library resources we asked about, African-Americans and Hispanics are significantly
more likely than whites to consider them ‘very important’ to the community” (p. 7). For
example, the Pew Report (2013) found that 92 % of African-Americans and 86% of
Hispanics compared to 72% of white people considered free Internet access to be “very
important” (p. 36). Another interesting statistic found by the Pew Report (2013) had to
do with how often patrons got help from library staff: “minorities are more likely than
whites to say they frequently or sometimes get help, and members of poorer households
are more likely than members of richer households to say they get help” (p. 25). A U.S.
Census Bureau report (2013) found that: “in 2011, 76.2 percent of non-Hispanic White
households and 82.7 percent of Asian household reported Internet use at home, compared
with 58.3 percent of Hispanic households and 56.9 percent of Black households” (p. 2).
The U.S. Census Bureau report (2013) found that household Internet use
increased with “educational attainment” (p. 4). The report showed that households with
less than a high school degree have a 36.9 percent average of home Internet use
compared to 89.9 percent average of households with a bachelor’s degree or higher (p. 4).
For household Internet use according to age the percentages found were: 75.9 percent for
households under thirty-five years, 81.9 percent for households between the ages of
thirty-five and forty-four, 77.9 percent for households between the ages of forty-five and

fifty-five and 61.7 percent for households above the age of fifty-five (U.S. Census
Bureau, 2013, p. 4). Home ownership of a computer according to income follows a
similar trend to that of education with 56.7 percent of individuals earning less than
$25,000 a year owning a computer compared to 92.1 percent of individuals earning
$50,000 to $99,999 a year (US Census Bureau, 2013, p. 5). Geographically, “the South
stands out for having consistently high percentages of individuals with no connectivity”
(US Census Burearu, 2013, p. 10). The results of both the U.S. Census Bureau report and
the Pew Report display the demographics of the digital divide in the United States. This
research showed that certain demographics were more negatively impacted including
racial minorities, the elderly (fifty-five and above), the less educated (most notably those
with less than a high school degree), lower income households (specifically households
earning $25,000 or less a year) and rural communities.
Public library public access computers and Internet use. An important
measure of the affect of public access computers and the Internet on people’s lives is
what library patrons use this access for- particularly in public libraries as the only access
some people have to a computer or the Internet. According to the Pew Report (2013)
which surveyed Americans ages 16 and older on what they used computers or Internet
access in public libraries for in the past twelve months, 66% “did research for school or
work”, 54% “used email”, 47% “got health information”, 41% “visited government
websites or got information about government services”, 36% “looked for jobs or applied
for jobs online”, 35% “visited social networking sites”, 16% “paid bills or did online
banking” and 16% “took an online class or completed and online certification program”
(p. 6-7). These are all activities that equate to being a functional member of society and

support the education, social participation, health, employment and civic involvement of
the community (Jaeger, Bertot, Thompson & Decoster, 2012, p. 3). In addition, many of
these services are increasingly available only online or require access to the Internet and a
computer to find, apply for and utilize. Nishi (2011) underscored this by saying:
The widespread use of these services by people of varying age, income, and
experience is an indication of the unique role that public libraries play in the
evolving digital landscape. . . . But for libraries, millions of American would not
have reliable Internet access in a digital age when a connection often is needed to
complete school assignments, apply for jobs, or secure government services. (p.
37)
Digital literacy and public library services. However, as stated previously, the
digital divide is not simply about access. It is also about digital literacy. Gerding (2011)
stated: “libraries are community centers…. We [libraries] now support the vital need for
digital literacy, often being the only place with free public computer and Internet access
and, moreover, free technology training” (p. 43). This type of training is essential for full
participation in today’s society. As Jaeger, et al. (2012) explained: “technology has
become an irreducible component of modern life, and its presence and use has significant
impact on an individual’s ability to fully engage in society generally” (p. 3). Public
libraries are evolving and adapting to help with these information needs. According to
the PLFTAS Report (2012) “more than 90 percent of public libraries now offer formal or
informal technology training” (p. 6).
As the needs of the communities they serve change, so do the services rendered
by public libraries. These needs also vary by user: some patrons still need basic

computer skills training, whereas others need assistance with more advanced digital
technology from social media to digital content creation. Nishi (2011) elaborated:
“public libraries stand out as one of the few community institutions that can address the
computing and information needs of all kinds of users” (p. 37). More importantly, it is
the added support of a trained professional, the librarian and library staff members, to
help with these skills either through a formal class or on a needs based one-on-one
situation. A report funded primarily by the Gates Foundation (2010) corroborated this by
stating: “the essential, unique ingredient of public access in libraries is the trained
librarian who can provide support and assistance” (Toward Equality of Access, p. 25).
The Pew Report (2013) stated that 50% of people reporting to have used a public library
in the past year “say they visit to get help from a librarian” (p. 23) and 80% responded
that “it is ‘very important’ to the community for libraries to have librarians available to
help people find information they need” (p. 42).
The PLFTAS Report (2012) broke down the percentages of formal technology
training classes that public libraries offer their communities: 87% offer “general
computer skills”, 73.3% offer “general software use”, 86.5% offer “general internet use”,
75.6% offer “general online/web searching”, 53.2% offer “using online databases”,
29.7% offer “accessing online government information”, 49.2% offer “accessing online
job-seeking and career-related information”, 23.9% offer “accessing online health and
wellness information” and 39.4% offer classes on “social media” (p. 26). The PLFTAS
Report goes on to state:
Public libraries are critical providers of employment and e-government services,
resources, and support. Libraries report they provide a number of resources and

services to assist individuals seeking employment, applying for jobs, and
interacting with government agencies. These service roles are in high demand as
government agencies and employers increasingly require online interactions.
These services are related to the need to build patrons’ digital literacy skill levels.
(p. 29)
These percentages do not include any informal assistance that librarians provide to their
patrons. According to Nishi (2011): “libraries have been a silent partner in workforce
development, educational achievement, health information delivery, and bringing
government services to citizens” (p. 39).
Challenges
Public libraries face many challenges, but the most preeminent challenge is
funding (Toward Equality of Access, n.d., p. 26). Funding affects almost all other
challenges faced by public libraries: staffing and training of staff, technology upgrades,
collections development, facilities management and programming (PFLTAS, 2012).
Twenty-three states reported cuts to state funding in 2012 for public libraries with
California cutting all funding for the 2012-2013 budget (PFLTAS, 2012, p. 16). The
PLFTAS report stated that: “ a majority of libraries (77.9 percent) report cost factors as
one of the major challenges in maintaining, sustaining, and enhancing their public access
technology infrastructure” (p. 20). Essentially, even though demand for additional library
services and library technology usage had increased, a majority of libraries are faced with
a reduction in operating funds.
Staffing. Swan, et al., (2013) stated that between the years 2008 and 2010 there
was an overall decrease in staffing of 3.9% (p. 11), with public libraries in cities losing

5.2% of their staff and suburban public libraries losing 4.1% (p. 34). The same study
found that 99% of urban public libraries have librarians on staff with an ALA-MLIS
degree compared to just 23.9% of rural libraries (p. 37). A study by Bertot and Davis
(2006) found that “funds and staffing- both number of staff and their ability to gain
access to technology-based training- are the two factors that contribute most significantly
to the quality of public access computing and Internet access within public libraries” (p.
38). Another side to understaffed libraries is operating hours and how the lack of
operating hours affects the public’s ability to visit a library. According those surveyed in
the Pew Report (2013): “several said that budget cutbacks led their local libraries to scale
back their hours, to the point that it was difficult to find time to stop by- especially when
libraries didn’t have hours in the evenings or on weekends” (p. 31).
A sufficient number of library staff members is certainly important for addressing
patron needs, but staff training, specifically technology training, is equally important. In
a report funded by the Institute for Museum and Library Services, Becker, Crandall,
Fisher, Blakewood, Kinney and Sauve (2011) wrote: “lack of funding for staff training is
a significant barrier for public library technology access. As Internet technologies
change, library staff report needing to receive updated training” (p. 15). Digital
technologies are rapidly advancing and in order for library staff to be able to offer
relevant training and assistance to patrons, they must be educated and trained themselves.
As Gerding (2011) stated: “providing library technology training may appear to be a role
shift; however, technology training supports a fundamental library purpose of connecting
people and knowledge” (p. 43).

Technology. Budget reductions immensely impact a public library’s ability to
maintain their technology and public access computers (PLFTAS, 2012, p. 14). Swan et
al. (2013) reported that for every 5,000 people public libraries are able to provide 4.1
computers nationally (p. 10); however, in urban public libraries that number is reduced to
3.6 (p. 31). The same survey also reported that for every 1,000 visits there are 234.1
computer uses nationally and 243.7 uses in urban public libraries (p. 32). The PLFTAS
Report stated: “as libraries seek to offer high-demand services that rely on a strong
technology infrastructure… their inability to secure stable funding for technology
negatively affects their ability to adhere to public access workstation replacement
schedules” (p. 15). The PLFTAS Report also found that:
65.4 percent of libraries report having insufficient public access
Internetworkstations [sic] to meet patrons’ needs…. Urban libraries continue to
face the greatest challenge… 86.9 percent reported insufficient numbers, followed
by 66.5 percent of suburban libraries, and 57.7 percent of rural libraries. (p. 21)
Issues of technology upgrades also focus on the internal wiring to add more
computers and the broadband to support increased Internet access from more computers
and wireless users. Becker, et al. (2011) noted that “75 percent of libraries reported that
wireless was added without increasing purchased bandwidth, further stressing networks
that the majority of libraries already reported were insufficient for meeting patron
demand some or all of the time” (14). Mandel, Bishop, McClure, Bertot and Jaeger
(2010) stated that: “the ability of U.S. public libraries to provide free public internet
access and internet-enabled services to American communities is impacted by the speed
and bandwidth of the libraries’ internet connections” (p. 281). This report went on to

state that “public libraries rely on ‘minimally useful’ T1 connections and ‘increasingly
strained’ DSL and cable-modem connections, and they lack the resources to upgrade their
connections” (Mandel, et al., 2010, p. 282). Liu and Wnuk (2009) stated that:
“enhancement of the accessibility also includes reliability and speed of connections….
These require maintenance and upgrades, given that the information sought by users
comes in ever-more information-rich forms, requiring broader band-width and upgraded
applications” (p. 20-21).
Funding. Funding remains the toughest barrier for public libraries trying to
support increased public use while coping with static or decreased budgets. Jaeger, et al.
(2012) reported that: “these increases have occurred concurrent to dramatic decreases in
library budgets” (p. 12). According to the PFLTAS report (2012), public use of
technology classes has increased 36%, use of computers has increased 60%, wi-fi use has
increased 74% and use of electronic resources has increased 58% compared to funding
that has decreased or remained fixed by 57% (p. 7). Without appropriate funding, public
libraries lack the ability to meet the needs of the communities they operate in. Lack of
funding negatively impacts a libraries ability to hire and train staff as well as the ability to
maintain current technology standards by following a reasonable upgrade schedule for
equipment.
Looking Forward
Norman (2012) stated: “public libraries will survive and thrive by recognizing
their changing roles. With the digital world of content, the role is shifting to that of
content aggregators, access managers, and educators in digital literacy” (p. 339).
Libraries are familiar with this evolution and new library and information science courses

are beginning to focus more on knowledge of digital technology to support the shifting
demands of library users. In order to remain the relevant institution that public libraries
have been for decades to society, there must be an adjustment to the services offered and
the library as a public space in general (Nagy, 2011).
The new generation of library patrons requires different services, mediums and
materials. Digital media and technology are now in high demand and the public library
can be a provider of those demands. Some libraries are improving work spaces,
upgrading technology to accommodate digital creation demand, offering digital
technology classes and even creating specific spaces within the library for gaming (Nagy,
2011, p. 10). Public libraries are also updating their websites and continue to expand the
services available via the library website. The Pew Report (2013) found that “library
users who are home internet users, tablet users and smartphone owners…. are especially
likely to say that the reason for their diminished use stems from the fact they do research
online” (p. 31). There is much incentive for libraries to become a point of access for
online research through their library websites.
Conclusion
The digital divide in the United States is very real. Public libraries have played
and are continuing to play a significant role in reducing this divide through their public
access to computers and the Internet and also the formal or informal training they offer to
their communities. Providing access to digital technologies is the foundation to bridging
the digital divide, providing digital literacy resources and training complete the picture.
Clark and Visser wrote:

For ALA and its members, the heart of digital literacy work is rooted in the
library principles of ensuring equity of access to information. In the age of
broadband-enabled resources, it is even more apparent that access denied is
opportunity denied. As the quantity of online resources continues to grow at
unprecedented rates, there is a growing amount of information that is no longer
captured in print or offline format. The individual and societal costs of digital
exclusion continue to grow. Libraries of all types need to position themselves as
the digital literacy experts they are, support staff competencies to maintain the
level of expertise required in the digital landscape, and explore opportunities to
expand digital literacy projects and initiatives.” (p. 41)
Providing digital literacy training and access is increasingly seen as a primary service of
today’s public library. According to the U.S. Census Bureau Report on computer and
Internet use in the U.S. (2013): “in 2011, more Americans connected to the Internet than
ever before, although differences continued to exist between those with use and those
without” (p. 1). Americans without access are undeniably at a disadvantage when it
comes to multiple facets of participating fully in society from social interaction, personal
finances, government services and educational support and opportunities.
Across every demographic surveyed in the Pew Report (2013) report 91 percent
of respondents said that the library was either “very important” or “somewhat important”
(p. 19) to their community. Interestingly, every demographic also reported that libraries
were more important to their community than directly important to their family (Pew
Report, 2013, p. 20). This is, possibly in part, because public libraries offer services to
their communities that patrons either cannot receive elsewhere or are more comfortable

receiving in a library: services such as educational support, job seeking and career
improvement assistance, finding health information, using government e-services with
the assistance of a staff member and socializing via email or digital media, but also
because public libraries have been historical institutions for making their communities
stronger as a whole.
Public libraries stand out as one of the few institutions in our society that offer
free and equal access to information, in both traditional formats and emerging digital
formats accompanied by the staff to assist and train users. With the rapidly evolving
digital technology terrain, libraries should continue to play an irreplaceable role in
helping both patrons who still need basic digital technology skills and patrons who are
looking for assistance with more advanced digital technology. By doing this, libraries
secure a place for themselves in the future and also abide by their mission to provide
information access to all.

Works Referenced
American Library Association. (2012). Public library funding & technology access study
2011-2012. Retrieved from http://www.ala.org/research/plftas/2011_2012
American Library Association. (1996). Library bill of rights. Retrieved December 9,
2013 from
http://www.ala.org/advocacy/sites/ala.org.advocacy/files/content/intfreedom/libra
rybill/lbor.pdf
Becker, S., Crandall, M., Fisher, K., Blakewood,R., Kinney, B. & Sauve, C. (2011).
Opportunity for all: how library policies and practices impact public internet
access. (Publication No. IMLS-2011-RES-01). Washington, D.C.: Institute of
Museum and Library Services. Retrieved from
http://tascha.washington.edu/usimpact
Bertot, J. & Davis, D. (2006). Public library access computing and internet access: factors
which contribute to quality services and resources. Public Library Quarterly,
25,(1/2), 27-42. doi: 10.1300/J118v25n01̱03
Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. (n.d.). Toward equality of access the role of public
libraries in addressing the digital divide. Retrieved December 9, 2013 from
http://www.imls.gov/assets/1/AssetManager/Equality.pdf
Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. (n.d.). What we do: global libraries. Retrieved
December 9, 2013 from http://www.gatesfoundation.org/What-We-Do/Global-
Development/Global-Libraries

Chaudhuri, A. & Flamm, K. (2006). Is a computer worth a thousand books? Internet
access and the changing role of public libraries. Review of Policy Research,
23,(1), 249-266.
Clark, L. & Visser, M. (2011). Digital literacy takes center stage. Library Technology
Reports, 47,(6), 38-42.
Cullen, T. & Cobb, I. (2011). Computer literacy needs in a traditional library literacy
program: results of a needs analysis. TechTrends, 55,(6), 25-32.
Gerding, S. (2011). Transforming public library patron technology training. Library
Technology Reports, 47,(6), 43-49.
Jaeger, P., Bertot, J., Thompson, K., Katz, S. & Decoster, E. (2012). The intersection of
public policy and public access: digital divides, digital literacy, digital inclusion,
and public libraries. Public Library Quarterly, 31, 1-20. doi:
10.1080/01616846.2012.654728
Kinney, B. (2010). The internet, public libraries, and the digital divide. Public Library
Quarterly, 29,(2), 104-161. doi: 10.1080/01616841003779718
Liu, Y. & Wnuk, A. (2009). The impact of digital resource and service use on urban
residents in New England public libraries- a survey report. Public Library
Quarterly, 28, 4-23. doi: 10.1080/01616840802675242
Mandel, L., Bishop, B., McClure, C., Bertot, J. & Jaeger, P. (2010). Broadband for public
libraries: importance, issues, and research needs. Government Information
Quarterly, 27, 280-291. doi: 10.1016/j.giq.2010.02.004

McShane, I. (2011). Public libraries, digital literacy and participatory culture. Discourse:
Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 32,(3), 383-397. doi:
10.1080/01596306.2011.573254
Nagy, A. (2011). Next-generation service in the library. Library Technology Reports,
47(7), 8-10.
Nishi, J. (2011). Opportunity for all: how the American public benefits from internet
access at U.S. libraries: a study from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and the
Institute of Museum and Library Services. National Civic Review, 100,(3), 36-40.
doi: 10.1002/ncr
Norman, M. (2012). Frail, fatal, fundamental: the future of public libraries. Public
Library Quarterly, 31(4), 339-351. doi: 10.1080/01616846.2012.732491
Zickuhr, K., Rainie, L. & Purcell, K. (2013). Library services in the digital age.
Washington, D.C.: Pew Research Center’s Internet & American Life Project.
Retrieved from http://libraries.pewinternet.org/2013/01/22/Library-services/
Swan, D., Grimes, J., Owens, T., Vese, R., Miller, K., Arroyo, J., Craig, T., Dorinski, S.,
Freeman, M., Isaac, N., O’Shea, P., & Scotto, J. (2013). Public libraries survey:
fiscal year 2010. (Publication no. IMLS-2013-PLS-01). Washington, D.C.:
Institute of Museum and Library Services. Retrieved from: www.imls.gov/PLS
Taylor, N., Jaeger, P., McDermott, A., Kodama, C., & Bertot, J. (2012). Public libraries
in the new economy: twenty-first-century skills, the internet, and community
needs. Public Library Quarterly, 31(3), 191-219. doi:
10.1080/01616846.2012.707106

U.S. Department of Commerce, United States Census Bureau. (2013). Computer and
internet use in the United States. Retrieved from
http://www.census.gov/prod/2013pubs/p20-569.pdf
Warschauer, M. (2011). Digital divide. In Encyclopedia of Library and Information
Science (3rd ed.). Retrieved from
http://www.tandfonline.com.libaccess.sjlibrary.org/doi/full/10.1081/E-ELIS3-
120043692#.UqZnI5HEi0s
West, J. (2011). Without a net: librarians bridging the digital divide. Santa Barbara, C.A.:
Libraries Unlimited.

Cummings LIBR 200 Term Paper

More Related Content

What's hot

Viewers also liked

Similar to Cummings LIBR 200 Term Paper

Cummings LIBR 200 Term Paper