The document provides an overview of COVID-19, including its introduction, pathophysiology, transmission, clinical features, diagnosis, prevention, vaccines, and prognosis. Key points include that COVID-19 is caused by SARS-CoV-2 virus, which binds to ACE2 receptors in the lungs and other organs. It is primarily transmitted through respiratory droplets. Diagnosis involves PCR or CT scans. Prevention strategies include social distancing, masks, and vaccines. Prognosis depends on patient risk factors and can range from mild to critical illness.
All you (never) wanted to know about COVID-19 and SARS-CoV-2Edward Rybicki
A talk about the basics of the virus and the disease, whether one can become immune, and what the prospects are for vaccines. For an undergrad-early postgrad molecular biology / microbiology oriented audience.
The 2019–20 coronavirus pandemic is an ongoing pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2).[4] The outbreak was first identified in Wuhan, Hubei, China, in December 2019, and was recognized as a pandemic by the World Health Organization (WHO) on 11 March 2020.[5] As of 25 March, more than 422,000 cases of COVID-19 have been reported in more than 190 countries and territories, resulting in more than 18,900 deaths and more than 109,000 recoveries.
All you (never) wanted to know about COVID-19 and SARS-CoV-2Edward Rybicki
A talk about the basics of the virus and the disease, whether one can become immune, and what the prospects are for vaccines. For an undergrad-early postgrad molecular biology / microbiology oriented audience.
The 2019–20 coronavirus pandemic is an ongoing pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2).[4] The outbreak was first identified in Wuhan, Hubei, China, in December 2019, and was recognized as a pandemic by the World Health Organization (WHO) on 11 March 2020.[5] As of 25 March, more than 422,000 cases of COVID-19 have been reported in more than 190 countries and territories, resulting in more than 18,900 deaths and more than 109,000 recoveries.
corona is a pandemic disease in the world so many people are died because of this disease, it's not coming in a particular structure. it's having a different type of structure . how to prevent this disease maintain social distance, maintain hand hygiene, wear masks .nowady vaccines are available covishield ,covaxin, Pfizer, sputnik vaccine etc...this mainly helpful to prevent the corona
This review study was conducted on the information of COVID-19 ethio-pathogenesis, clinical features, diagnosis, complication and
Management, and we have compiled the most recent information on the methods and pharmacological agents used in the diagnosis
and treatment of Coronavirus disease, including pharmacological approaches, fluid therapy, oxygen therapy, Adoptive T cell therapy,
Mesenchymal stromal cell therapy, Nano medicine approaches in COVID-19 and Vaccination approaches.
Research and Treatment of COVID-19 - EUCYTJensonAlbert
Current strategies to treating severely infected patients rely on repurposing therapies approved for other diseases. Additionally, there has been increased support in developing new antibodies, drugs, and vaccines which will block viral entry to cells, block viral replication, or delay the host immune system response. For more information, please visit : https://eucyt.com/
Covid-19 is an infectious disease caused by SARS-CoV-2. mechsnism, pathogenesis and causes, transmission,symptoms and therapeutic strategies
Published by karuna raghuwanshi,M.pharma II semester (pharmaceutics),Pharmacy department.
Coronavirus Disease-19 and Reinfections: A Review of Casesasclepiuspdfs
Since first surfacing in Wuhan, China, in December 2019, the novel coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) has led to a global pandemic with confirmed cases and death bells tolling in the millions with new cases still emerging daily. Despite sharing genetic similarities to the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) virus, the specific viral proteins found on the novel SARS coronavirus 2 and its structure seems to make this strain much more elusive and destructive. Based on peer-reviewed cases, there seems to be an increase in patient reinfection, but due to current testing and treatment limitations, it is yet to be determined if the new trend of reinfection is due to a persistent COVID-19 infection that involves a latent period, a recurrent infection due to the same strain of COVID-19, or a mutated strain of COVID-19. The purpose of this study is to discuss the recent reports of the development of reinfection in previously confirmed COVID-19 cases in an attempt to gain a further understanding of the mechanisms of virulence, the effects on the human immune system, and how current testing and treatment modalities are faring. While the virus seems to have a penchant for patients with existing comorbidities, newer data indicate that everyone may be susceptible to possible infection and that not all patients will present with typical respiratory symptoms, making it imperative to examine established cases of reinfection in an attempt to further help with developing drugs for treatment, vaccines, and protocols for prevention.
COVID-19 is a global infectious disease pandemic with high morbidity and mortality for at risk individuals. This slide is intended for the medical students, medical doctors and those in training for masters of medicine (MMED).
To Assess the Severity and Mortality among Covid 19 Patients after Having Vac...YogeshIJTSRD
The severity and mortality of COVID 19 cases has been associated with the Three category such as vaccination status, severity of disease and outcome. Objective presently study was aimed to assess the severity and mortality among covid 19 patients. Methods Using simple lottery random method 100 samples were selected. From these 100 patients, 50 patients were randomly assigned to case group and 50 patients in control group after informed consents of relative obtained. Patients in the case group who being died after got COVID 19 whereas 50 patients in the control group participated who were survive after got infected from COVID 19 patients. Result It has three categories such as a Vaccination status For the vaccination status we have seen 59 patients were not vaccinated and 41 patients was vaccinated out of 100. b Incidence There were 41 patients were vaccinated whereas 59 patients were not vaccinated. c Severity In the case of mortality we selected 50 patients who were died from the Corona and I got to know that out of 50 patients there were 12 24 patients were vaccinated whereas 38 76 patients were non vaccinated. Although for the 50 control survival group total 29 58 patients were vaccinated and 21 42 patients was not vaccinated all graph start. Conclusion we have find out that those people who got vaccinated were less infected and mortality rate very low. Prof. (Dr) Binod Kumar Singh | Dr. Saroj Kumar | Ms. Anuradha Sharma "To Assess the Severity and Mortality among Covid-19 Patients after Having Vaccinated: A Retrospective Study" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-5 , August 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd45065.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/45065/to-assess-the-severity-and-mortality-among-covid19-patients-after-having-vaccinated-a-retrospective-study/prof-dr-binod-kumar-singh
1. Genome of corona viruses
2. Comparative analysis of emergence and spreading
3. Entry Mechanism
4. COVID-19 Case Study
5. Face mask Case Study
6. Pharmacologic Treatments for Coronavirus Disease
7. BCG vaccine
COVID 19, otherwise called coronavirus sickness 2019, is a respiratory disease brought about by extreme intense respiratory condition coronavirus 2 SARS CoV 2 . Fever is the most common symptom shown by Covid19 and other typical reactions consolidate hack, loss of yearning, depletion, curtness of breath, sputum creation, and muscle and joint pains. Transmission basically occurs through direct contact with infected person via mouth while speaking or coming in contact with spoiled surfaces. The First case of covid 19 was followed back to the city of wuhan, china, in late november 2019, which became serious in december. CoVs are encompassed, positive abandoned RNA infections with nucleocapsid. The agonizing time span for COVID 19 regions from 2– 14 days, with a typical of 5 days, There is no particular antiviral treatment for COVID 19 as of now, and no antibody is right now accessible for which prevention becomes major role in reducing the spread. The Bacille Calmette Guerin BCG antibody, principally utilized for the counteraction of tuberculosis, is being assessed for the avoidance of COVID 1 and Clinical preliminaries are in progress to assess its proficiency against SARS CoV 2 and several pertinent studies and ongoing trials are in process. Roselin Khaklary | Dr. Gaurav Kumar Sharma | Dr. Kaushal K Chandrul "Review on Corona Virus 2K19 Pandemic" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-1 , December 2020, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd31805.pdf Paper URL : https://www.ijtsrd.com/medicine/other/31805/review-on-corona-virus-2k19-pandemic/roselin-khaklary
covid-19 disease or novel corona virus disease or sars-cov 2 information includes all about virology,patho physiology, taxonomy of virus, taxonomy of intermediary host pangolin,and preventive measures needed to be followed by public etc, in a most possible concised manner illustrated in this presentation.
corona is a pandemic disease in the world so many people are died because of this disease, it's not coming in a particular structure. it's having a different type of structure . how to prevent this disease maintain social distance, maintain hand hygiene, wear masks .nowady vaccines are available covishield ,covaxin, Pfizer, sputnik vaccine etc...this mainly helpful to prevent the corona
This review study was conducted on the information of COVID-19 ethio-pathogenesis, clinical features, diagnosis, complication and
Management, and we have compiled the most recent information on the methods and pharmacological agents used in the diagnosis
and treatment of Coronavirus disease, including pharmacological approaches, fluid therapy, oxygen therapy, Adoptive T cell therapy,
Mesenchymal stromal cell therapy, Nano medicine approaches in COVID-19 and Vaccination approaches.
Research and Treatment of COVID-19 - EUCYTJensonAlbert
Current strategies to treating severely infected patients rely on repurposing therapies approved for other diseases. Additionally, there has been increased support in developing new antibodies, drugs, and vaccines which will block viral entry to cells, block viral replication, or delay the host immune system response. For more information, please visit : https://eucyt.com/
Covid-19 is an infectious disease caused by SARS-CoV-2. mechsnism, pathogenesis and causes, transmission,symptoms and therapeutic strategies
Published by karuna raghuwanshi,M.pharma II semester (pharmaceutics),Pharmacy department.
Coronavirus Disease-19 and Reinfections: A Review of Casesasclepiuspdfs
Since first surfacing in Wuhan, China, in December 2019, the novel coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) has led to a global pandemic with confirmed cases and death bells tolling in the millions with new cases still emerging daily. Despite sharing genetic similarities to the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) virus, the specific viral proteins found on the novel SARS coronavirus 2 and its structure seems to make this strain much more elusive and destructive. Based on peer-reviewed cases, there seems to be an increase in patient reinfection, but due to current testing and treatment limitations, it is yet to be determined if the new trend of reinfection is due to a persistent COVID-19 infection that involves a latent period, a recurrent infection due to the same strain of COVID-19, or a mutated strain of COVID-19. The purpose of this study is to discuss the recent reports of the development of reinfection in previously confirmed COVID-19 cases in an attempt to gain a further understanding of the mechanisms of virulence, the effects on the human immune system, and how current testing and treatment modalities are faring. While the virus seems to have a penchant for patients with existing comorbidities, newer data indicate that everyone may be susceptible to possible infection and that not all patients will present with typical respiratory symptoms, making it imperative to examine established cases of reinfection in an attempt to further help with developing drugs for treatment, vaccines, and protocols for prevention.
COVID-19 is a global infectious disease pandemic with high morbidity and mortality for at risk individuals. This slide is intended for the medical students, medical doctors and those in training for masters of medicine (MMED).
To Assess the Severity and Mortality among Covid 19 Patients after Having Vac...YogeshIJTSRD
The severity and mortality of COVID 19 cases has been associated with the Three category such as vaccination status, severity of disease and outcome. Objective presently study was aimed to assess the severity and mortality among covid 19 patients. Methods Using simple lottery random method 100 samples were selected. From these 100 patients, 50 patients were randomly assigned to case group and 50 patients in control group after informed consents of relative obtained. Patients in the case group who being died after got COVID 19 whereas 50 patients in the control group participated who were survive after got infected from COVID 19 patients. Result It has three categories such as a Vaccination status For the vaccination status we have seen 59 patients were not vaccinated and 41 patients was vaccinated out of 100. b Incidence There were 41 patients were vaccinated whereas 59 patients were not vaccinated. c Severity In the case of mortality we selected 50 patients who were died from the Corona and I got to know that out of 50 patients there were 12 24 patients were vaccinated whereas 38 76 patients were non vaccinated. Although for the 50 control survival group total 29 58 patients were vaccinated and 21 42 patients was not vaccinated all graph start. Conclusion we have find out that those people who got vaccinated were less infected and mortality rate very low. Prof. (Dr) Binod Kumar Singh | Dr. Saroj Kumar | Ms. Anuradha Sharma "To Assess the Severity and Mortality among Covid-19 Patients after Having Vaccinated: A Retrospective Study" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-5 , August 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd45065.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/45065/to-assess-the-severity-and-mortality-among-covid19-patients-after-having-vaccinated-a-retrospective-study/prof-dr-binod-kumar-singh
1. Genome of corona viruses
2. Comparative analysis of emergence and spreading
3. Entry Mechanism
4. COVID-19 Case Study
5. Face mask Case Study
6. Pharmacologic Treatments for Coronavirus Disease
7. BCG vaccine
COVID 19, otherwise called coronavirus sickness 2019, is a respiratory disease brought about by extreme intense respiratory condition coronavirus 2 SARS CoV 2 . Fever is the most common symptom shown by Covid19 and other typical reactions consolidate hack, loss of yearning, depletion, curtness of breath, sputum creation, and muscle and joint pains. Transmission basically occurs through direct contact with infected person via mouth while speaking or coming in contact with spoiled surfaces. The First case of covid 19 was followed back to the city of wuhan, china, in late november 2019, which became serious in december. CoVs are encompassed, positive abandoned RNA infections with nucleocapsid. The agonizing time span for COVID 19 regions from 2– 14 days, with a typical of 5 days, There is no particular antiviral treatment for COVID 19 as of now, and no antibody is right now accessible for which prevention becomes major role in reducing the spread. The Bacille Calmette Guerin BCG antibody, principally utilized for the counteraction of tuberculosis, is being assessed for the avoidance of COVID 1 and Clinical preliminaries are in progress to assess its proficiency against SARS CoV 2 and several pertinent studies and ongoing trials are in process. Roselin Khaklary | Dr. Gaurav Kumar Sharma | Dr. Kaushal K Chandrul "Review on Corona Virus 2K19 Pandemic" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-1 , December 2020, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd31805.pdf Paper URL : https://www.ijtsrd.com/medicine/other/31805/review-on-corona-virus-2k19-pandemic/roselin-khaklary
covid-19 disease or novel corona virus disease or sars-cov 2 information includes all about virology,patho physiology, taxonomy of virus, taxonomy of intermediary host pangolin,and preventive measures needed to be followed by public etc, in a most possible concised manner illustrated in this presentation.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.moosaasad1975
What are greenhouse gasses how they affect the earth and its environment what is the future of the environment and earth how the weather and the climate effects.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
(May 29th, 2024) Advancements in Intravital Microscopy- Insights for Preclini...Scintica Instrumentation
Intravital microscopy (IVM) is a powerful tool utilized to study cellular behavior over time and space in vivo. Much of our understanding of cell biology has been accomplished using various in vitro and ex vivo methods; however, these studies do not necessarily reflect the natural dynamics of biological processes. Unlike traditional cell culture or fixed tissue imaging, IVM allows for the ultra-fast high-resolution imaging of cellular processes over time and space and were studied in its natural environment. Real-time visualization of biological processes in the context of an intact organism helps maintain physiological relevance and provide insights into the progression of disease, response to treatments or developmental processes.
In this webinar we give an overview of advanced applications of the IVM system in preclinical research. IVIM technology is a provider of all-in-one intravital microscopy systems and solutions optimized for in vivo imaging of live animal models at sub-micron resolution. The system’s unique features and user-friendly software enables researchers to probe fast dynamic biological processes such as immune cell tracking, cell-cell interaction as well as vascularization and tumor metastasis with exceptional detail. This webinar will also give an overview of IVM being utilized in drug development, offering a view into the intricate interaction between drugs/nanoparticles and tissues in vivo and allows for the evaluation of therapeutic intervention in a variety of tissues and organs. This interdisciplinary collaboration continues to drive the advancements of novel therapeutic strategies.
Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
Binocular Telescope, show evidence of a major resurfacing event on Io’s trailing hemisphere. When compared to the most recent spacecraft images, the SHARK-VIS images
show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
of the long-lived Pele plume deposit. Although this type of resurfacing event may be common on Io, few have been detected due to the rarity of spacecraft visits and the previously low spatial resolution available from Earth-based telescopes. The SHARK-VIS instrument ushers in a new era of high resolution imaging of Io’s surface using adaptive
optics at visible wavelengths.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
2. INTRODUCTION
• The coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19)
Also known as novel coronavirus pneumonia.
First occurred in Wuhan, China in early December 2019.
The first case of COVID-19 in India was reported on 30
January 2020, in Kerala.
World Health Organization declared the outbreak a
Public Health Emergency of International Concern on 30
January 2020 and a pandemic on March 11, 2020 - the
first pandemic caused by a coronavirus.
11,79,78,628 confirmed cases with 26,18,403 fatal
cases, globally by 11th march 2021, 00:47 GMT 2
3. Possibly emerged from a bat-borne virus.
Horseshoe bats show a 80% resemblance
to SARS-CoV-2 while the pangolin
coronavirus has up to 92% resemblance.
Studies indicate that pangolins are a
reservoir host of SARS-CoV-2-like
coronaviruses. However, currently no
evidence to link pangolins as an
intermediate host.
3
5. INFECTION AND TRANSMISSION
Transmission occurs primarily via large respiratory droplets
(≥5 μm) from coughs and sneezes.
Airborne transmission- possible in specific circumstances
and settings in which procedures that generate aerosols are
performed; example: endotracheal intubation,
bronchoscopy, open suctioning, administration of nebulized
treatment.
The basic (without control measures) reproduction number
(R0) of the virus has been estimated to be 3.28 and median
R0 2.79.
5
8. • As per the available data, infectivity of various samples-
Sputum:97.7%
Nasopharyngeal swab:88.6%
Throat swab:60%
Post throat saliva:88.6%
Oral swabs:46.7%
Stool:70.8%
Anal swabs:20.5%
Rectal swabs:17.4%
Blood:12.3%
Conjunctival swab:1.1%
Urine:00% , Vaginal swabs:00% , Semen sample:00% 8
9. Infection from fomites is less common and virus could be
detected on-
Metal, Glass, Ceramics- upto 5 days
Wood- 4 days
Paper money- 4 days
Plastic and stainless steel- 2 to 3 days
Cardboard- 24 hours
Copper- 4 hours
Aluminum- 2 to 8 hours
Print paper, tissue paper- 3 hours
Interestingly, infectious virus could be detected on the
outer layer of a surgical mask on day 7.
Virus has been found to be highly stable at 4°C after
2 weeks, but could be deactivated after 5 min at 70°C. 9
10. COVID-19 is an enveloped virus and is deactivated by
most environmental disinfectants. Chin et al. concluded
that virus could be killed by 5-min incubation with
various disinfectants, including –
Household bleach- 1:50 or Sodium hypochlorite (0.1%)-
[1 min sufficient in another study]
Ethanol- 60%–70%
Povidone-iodine - 7.5%
Chloroxylenol or chlorhexidine- 0.05%
Benzalkonium chloride- 0.2%–0.4%
10
11. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
• SARS-CoV-2 accesses host cells via the enzyme
angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), using special
surface glycoprotein called as "spike" (peplomer). ACE2 is
most abundant in type II alveolar cells and hence lung is
the most affected organ.
Source: caymanchem.com
11
12. • The ACE2 protein has been identified in various human
organs, including
Respiratory System
GI Tract
Lymph Nodes
Thymus
Bone Marrow
Spleen
Liver
Kidney
Brain
A molecular model of the spike proteins (red) of SARS-CoV-2
binding to the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) protein,
the receptor (blue) which is its the entry route to the target cell.
Source: Juan Gaertner/Science Photo Library 12
13. In preliminary studies, findings included extensive lung
infiltration by macrophages and other immune cells
leading to diffuse alveolar damage, features of which are-
Hyaline membrane formation
Fibrin exudates
Epithelial damage
Diffuse type II pneumocyte hyperplasia
There was observed super-imposed bacterial pneumonia
in some patients.
13
14. Subsequent observations suggest that COVID-19 has
clinical features distinct from typical ARDS, i.e COVID-19-
related severe respiratory distress can be manifested by
relatively well-preserved lung mechanics, despite the
severity of hypoxemia.
This pathologic pattern is accompanied by extensive
deposition of Alternate and Lectin complement
components within the lung septal microvasculature.
Membrane attack complex mediated microvascular
endothelial cell injury and subsequent activation of the
clotting pathway, leading to fibrin deposition.
14
15. Elevated D-dimer concentrations at presentation-
indicate increased activation of coagulation pathway,
which is also an independent risk factor for death.
Severe COVID-19 sepsis is associated with a marked
Macrophage activation syndrome (MAS) -type picture,
increased inflammatory markers and ferritin
concentrations that undoubtedly result in local activation
of pulmonary vasculature endothelial cells.
A cytokine storm can be a complication in the later
stages of severe COVID-19, resulting in multiorgan
failure. HCQ and IL-6 receptor antagonist (Tocilizumab)
may be useful in controlling cytokine storms in late-phase
severe forms of the disease.
15
16. Three distinctive angiocentric features of Covid19
1. Severe endothelial injury associated with intracellular
SARS-CoV-2 virus and disrupted endothelial cell
membranes.
2. The lungs from patients with Covid-19 had widespread
vascular thrombosis with microangiopathy and
occlusion of alveolar capillaries.
3. The lungs from patients with Covid-19 had significant
new vessel growth through a mechanism of
intussusceptive angiogenesis.
16
19. Lymphocytic Inflammation in a
Lung from a Patient Who Died from
Covid-19.
Microthrombi (arrowheads) in the
Interalveolar Septa of a Lung from a
Patient Who Died from Covid-19.
19
21. The virus can cause acute myocardial injury (found in
12% of infected people admitted to the hospital in
Wuhan, China) and chronic damage to the cardiovascular
system- Heart failure, arrhythmias and blood clots.
Approximately 20-30% of people who present with
COVID-19 have elevated liver enzymes.
Upto 30% of hospitalized patients in both China and New
York experienced renal complications.
Following the infection, children may develop paediatric
multisystem inflammatory syndrome with symptoms
similar to Kawasaki disease, which can be fatal.
21
22. The typical incubation period for COVID-19 is 5-6 days,
but it can range from 1 to 14 days.
Patients are most infectious when they show symptoms
(even mild or non-specific symptoms) but upto 41% of
transmission may be asymptomatic.
Patients remain infectious for 7-12 days in moderate
cases and an average of 2 weeks in severe cases.
22
24. DIAGNOSIS
Standard method of testing is real-time reverse
transcription polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR),
typically done on respiratory samples obtained by a
nasopharyngeal swab.
Chest CT scans may be helpful to diagnose COVID-19-
Bilateral multilobar ground-glass opacities.
Demonstration of a nasopharyngeal
swab for COVID-19 testing. 24
25. Important Predictive biomarkers of severity of
Covid-19
Inflammatory: IL 6, CRP, Ferritin, Platelet count,
Lymphopenia, Increased Neutrophil lymphocyte ratio
(NLR), increased platelet lymphocyte ratio (PLR)
Coagulation related: PT, APTT, Fibrinogen, D-Dimer
Sepsis related: Procalcitonin
25
26. PREVENTION
• WHO recommends 1 metre of social distance; the U.S.
CDC recommends 2 metres.
• Washing hands with soap and water often and for at least
20 seconds or using an alcohol-based hand sanitiser with
at least 60% alcohol.
• Practicing good respiratory hygiene, and avoiding
touching the eyes, nose, or mouth with unwashed hands.
• Use of air conditioners should be avoided at all times.
26
27. USING FACE MASKS
• Surgical masks and N95 masks are identical in overall
retention of aerosol particles expelled inside the mask.
(97.14% and 99.98% retention respectively)
• Barrier of toward inward protection is considerably
higher for N95 than for surgical masks.
• Hence, widespread use of relatively inexpensive surgical
masks is regarded as a valuable public health
intervention that can help intercept transmission of the
virus in the general population.
27
28. • As of March 2021, 308 vaccine candidates were in various stages of
development, with 73 in clinical research, including 24 in Phase I
trials, 33 in Phase I–II trials, and 16 in Phase III development.
• In Phase III trials, several COVID-19 vaccines have
demonstrated efficacy as high as 95% in preventing symptomatic
COVID-19 infections.
• As of March 2021, 12 vaccines were authorized by at least one
national regulatory authority for public use: two RNA
vaccines (the Pfizer–BioNTech vaccine and the Moderna vaccine),
four conventional inactivated vaccines (BBIBP-
CorV, Covaxin, CoronaVac, and CoviVac [ru]), four viral
vector vaccines (Sputnik V, the Oxford–AstraZeneca
vaccine, Convidicea, and the Johnson & Johnson vaccine), and
two protein subunit vaccines (EpiVacCorona and RBD-Dimer).
28
VACCINE
29. VACCINES:INDIA
• India has administered over 17 million doses
till date.
• In phase I health care workers and frontline
workers have been vaccinated.
• Now second phase of vaccination is going on
in which citizens above 60 years of age will be
vaccinated.
29
30. • COVID-19 vaccines with approval for emergency
or conditional usage
• Covishield
On 1 January 2021, the Drug Controller General of
India, approved the emergency or conditional use
of AstraZeneca’s COVID-19
vaccine AZD1222 (marketed as
Covishield). Covishield is developed by
the University of Oxford and its spin-out
company, Vaccitech. It’s a viral vector vaccine based
on replication-deficient Adenovirus that causes cold
in Chimpanzees. It can be stored, transported and
handled at normal refrigerated conditions (two-eight
degrees Celsius/ 36-46 degrees Fahrenheit). It has a
shelf-life of at least six months.
30
31. • Covaxin
• On 2 January 2021, BBV152 (marketed as Covaxin),
first indigenous vaccine, developed by Bharat
Biotech in association with the Indian Council of
Medical Research and National Institute of
Virology received approval from the Drug Controller
General of India for its emergency or conditional
usage.However, this approval was met with some
concern as the vaccine had not then completed
phase-3 trials. On 3 March 2021, Bharat Biotech
announced that interim results of covaxin showed the
81% efficacy. Trail was conducted on the 25,800
people in India.
31
34. Variants
• Several variants of SARS-CoV-2 have
emerged that are spreading globally. The
most currently prevalent, all of which share
the D614G mutation, are:
• B.1.1.7, first detected in the UK, which has
spread to over 70 countries
• P.1, first detected in Brazil, which has spread
to more than 4 countries
• B.1.351, first detected in South Africa, which
has spread to over 30 countries
34
35. PROGNOSIS
• The severity of COVID-19 varies and may range from mild
respiratory distress to progressive life threatening
pneumonia.
• Mild cases typically recover within 2 weeks, while those
with critical diseases may take 3 to 6 weeks to recover.
• In those < 50 years the risk of death is < 0.5%, while in
those > 70 years it is > 8%.
• Pregnant women, hypertensives, diabetics, obese, those
with renal disease and smokers may be at higher risk of
severe COVID-19 infection.
35
36. Indian academy of cytologists national guidelines for
cytopathology laboratories for handling suspected and
positive COVID-19 patient sample
1. Fine needle aspiration in COVID-19 suspected or
confirmed cases
2. Sample processing in the laboratory
3. Sample discarding
4. Management of spills in the laboratory
5. Surface disinfection and equipment decontamination
6. Care of the laboratory staff
7. Reporting of the cytology samples
8. Training of the cytopathology residents.
36
37. FNA in COVID-19 confirmed / suspected cases
Complete set of PPE including laboratory gown, gloves,
goggles, face shield, and N95.
Donning and doffing only in a specifically designated zone.
Following FNA procedure, material should NOT be
expelled at all from the needle as it invariably leads to the
generation of droplets and aerosol. However, if inevitable,
should be expelled very gently from the needle.
While making a smear, it is recommended that slides are
held as far as possible from oneself.
37
38. Drying of the smears by shaking them or blowing air
should not be done as this can lead to the generation of
aerosol.
The used needles should be discarded in sharp-resistant
waste containers.
The syringe hub should be cut and the entire syringe
should be disinfected followed by discarding in biohazard
waste bags specifically labeled as COVID-19.
There should be access to soap and water and an
alcohol-based sanitizer at the crucial locations within the
laboratory.
38
39. Sample processing in the cytopathology
laboratory
Hospital information system (HIS) where online request
forms are supported is recommended. However, when HIS
is not available, digital workflow (e-requisition forms) using
email/whatsapp is suggested.
The samples should be collected in appropriately labeled,
tightly-capped, sterile containers.
All samples should be packed in triple layer: using primary
container, secondary container and zip lock pouch.
Cytotechnician should wear protective gear.
All fresh cytology samples received in the laboratory should
be considered potentially infectious.
39
40. A number of steps involved in routine sample processing
including the opening of the sample containers,
removing tightly fitted caps of the tubes, diluting,
shaking, vortexing, and centrifugation may lead to
aerosol generation.
Care should be taken to minimize the exposure to the
aerosol generated during the sample processing by using
adequate PPE and performing these steps in class II BSCs.
In case of non-availability of class II BSCs, centrifugation
should be undertaken using capped tubes. Following
centrifugation, the samples should be rested for full 5
min followed by gentle removal of the caps.
40
41. Sample discarding
All the residual samples should be discarded in
appropriate disinfectants (as previously recommended)
with confirmed virucidal activity against enveloped
viruses.
The sample tubes and containers should also be
disinfected by adding in 0.1-1% hypochlorite solution (to
be prepared fresh each day), followed by discarding in
separate biohazard waste bags labeled as COVID-19.
41
42. Management of sample spills in the laboratory: should
be done by 1% sodium hypochlorite solution.
Surface disinfection and equipment decontamination:
should be done multiple times a day.
Biomedical waste management: the full PPE is to be
discarded into appropriately designated bins labeled as
COVID and as per hospital policy.
42
43. Care of the laboratory Staff
The staff can be divided into a minimum of 2–3 teams which
can be posted for fixed periods.
The laboratory personnel needs to be continuously trained
and educated regarding the precautions to be taken while
processing the potentially infectious samples.
They need to be trained regarding proper donning and
doffing of PPE.
All the laboratory personnel should be advocated to
frequently and thoroughly wash their hands with soap and
water (for at least 20 s).
The potential exposure and health status of the laboratory
personnel should be monitored daily. 43
44. Reporting of the cytopathology samples
Cytopathologists may wear non-sterile gloves while
reporting to avoid direct contact with the slides.
Microscopes to be sanitized by 70% alcohol/hand
sanitizer solution before initiating the reporting.
Reporting cytopathologists may report independently
rather than with the entire team of
cytotechnologists/residents/trainees/fellows.
All pathologists must wash their hands at the end of
reporting for >20 s and/or hand sanitizer application.
44
45. Training of the cytopathology
residents/fellows
Teaching rooms should be well ventilated with adequate
fresh airflow. Teaching activities, involving the gathering
of more than 10 people in a limited closed space, may be
suspended temporarily.
Alternatively, online teaching resources, such as Webex
meet app can be explored for conducting resident and
fellow teaching sessions.
Online CMEs and webinars, avoiding contact, and
maintain social distancing may be encouraged and
adopted. 45
46. IAPM guidelines for Hematology section
Use vacutainers ONLY and do not open them, if opening
is necessary then in BSC.
Blood smears should be prepared in class II BSC.
Smears should be immediately fixed in methanol by
putting slides in a methanol jar for at least one minute.
Staining may be done later.
Run 2 tubes of 1% Hypochlorite solution before shutting
down the analyzer equipment used.
The used needles should be discarded in sharp-resistant
waste containers. 46
47. IAPM guidelines for Histopathology Lab
• Specimens should be properly fixed (at least 24 hours) in
10% formalin.
• At 37°C, Formalin significantly decreased the infectivity
of SARS-CoV on day 1, while Glutaraldehyde inactivated it
after incubation of 1–2days.
• Formalin significantly decreases the infectivity of the
virus on day 1 at a temperature of 37°C Temperature of
56°C for 90min, 67°C for 60min, or 75°C for 30min
rendered the virus non-infectious.
47
48. • While grossing use mask, face shield, head cover and
impervious aprons.
• Reduce the use of fresh-frozen sections to a strict
necessity basis.
48