Interactions between individuals and groups occurs in the form of different social processes like cooperation, accommodation, assimilation, competition, conflict and isolation etc.
Social processes are the ways in which individuals and groups interact, adjust and readjust and establish relationships and pattern of behaviour which are again modified through social interactions. ... Interaction between individuals and groups occurs in the form of social process.
collective behaviour, the kinds of activities engaged in by sizable but loosely organized groups of people. Episodes of collective behaviour tend to be quite spontaneous, resulting from an experience shared by the members of the group that engenders a sense of common interest and identity. The informality of the group’s structure is the main source of the frequent unpredictability of collective behaviour.
Interactions between individuals and groups occurs in the form of different social processes like cooperation, accommodation, assimilation, competition, conflict and isolation etc.
Social processes are the ways in which individuals and groups interact, adjust and readjust and establish relationships and pattern of behaviour which are again modified through social interactions. ... Interaction between individuals and groups occurs in the form of social process.
collective behaviour, the kinds of activities engaged in by sizable but loosely organized groups of people. Episodes of collective behaviour tend to be quite spontaneous, resulting from an experience shared by the members of the group that engenders a sense of common interest and identity. The informality of the group’s structure is the main source of the frequent unpredictability of collective behaviour.
پیشکشیں عام طور پر مظاہرے، تعارف، لیکچر، یا تقریر ہوتی ہیں جن کا مقصد مطلع کرنا، قائل کرنا، حوصلہ افزائی کرنا، حوصلہ افزائی کرنا، خیر سگالی بنانا، یا کوئی نیا خیال/مصنوع پیش کرنا ہے۔ پیشکشوں میں عام طور پر تیاری، تنظیم، پروگرام کی منصوبہ بندی، تحریر، بصری امداد کا استعمال، تناؤ سے نمٹنے اور سوالات کے جوابات کی ضرورت ہوتی ہے۔
Collective behavior refers relatively spontaneous and relatively unstructured behavior by large numbers of individuals acting with or being influenced by other individuals.
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
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disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
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In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
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Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
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2. Click to edit Master subtitle style
The Concept Of Collective Behaviour
The term “collective behaviour” refers to group behaviour
that is apparently not guided by the usual norms of
conduct.
Definition by N.J.Smeler:
Collective behaviour may be defined as
‘The relatively unorganized patterns of social interaction in
human groups’.
3. Example
•
If we consider a normal classroom situation in a
university. Students arrive more or less on time, they seat
themselves in an orderly way, they listen to lectures, take
notes, ask question at appropriate points, and finally leave
classroom, when the lecture is over. Everyone practice a
predictable fashion. But suppose a fire suddenly breaks
out in the classroom. Confusion prevails everywhere.
4. •
The normal pattern of behaviour gets immediately disrupted.
The social behaviour becomes ‘unstructured’ and
‘unpredictable’. There are no norms to govern this behaviour.
There will be disorder and the students will be panic.
Sociologists use the term ‘collective behaviour’ to refer to
such a type of behaviour.
5. Characteristics Of Collective
Behaviour
•
Collective behaviour is temporary in nature and is entirely an
unplanned one.
•
This type of behaviour is not regulated by any set of rules or
procedures.
•
Since this behaviour is not bound by any defined norms,it
becomes unpredictable.
•
Anonymity encourges them to behave in an irresponsible
manner.
•
It is an unusual event.
6. •
Rumours and misinformation normally run rampant during
the course of collective behaviour.
•
This kind of behaviour is triggered not only by rumours but
also guided by beliefs, hopes, fears etc.
•
Collective behaviour, may in certain respects have a close
relationship with the broad cultural patterns of the
community.
7. Social Movement
According to Ian Robertson:
‘A social movement consist of a large number of people
who have joined together to bring about or resist social or
cultural change’.
8. Difficultes Involved In The Study Of
Collective Behaviour
•
The first problem is that collective behaviour is
unstructured.
•
Collective behaviour often occurs as a spontaneous
outburst.
•
The concept of ‘collective behaviour’ has a very wide
range of meaning, in which we find a lot of variance.
9. A Theory Of Collective Behaviour
•
Theory of collective behaviour has been made by Neil
Smelser (1962).
•
Smelser argues that collective behaviour is essentially an
attempt by people to alter their environment particularly
when they are under conditions of uncertanity, threat or
strain.
10. Smelser Speaks Of Six Basic
Conditions
•
Structural Conduciveness: This refers to the structured
elements within the society that make a particular form of
collective behaviour possible.
•
Structural Strains: Situations such as poverty, conflict,
discrimination etc; lie at the base of much of collective
behaviour.
11. •
Growth and Spread of Generalised Belief: Before any
collective action, people must develop some general belief
about the situation.
•
Precipitating Factors
•
Mobilisation for Action
•
Operation of Social Control
12. Some Forms Of Mass Behaviour
•
Collective behaviour that describes “the actions, thoughts
and feelings of a relatively temporary and unstructured
group of people”-can be separated into two categories;
•
Crowd behaviour
•
Mass behaviour
13. The Concept Of Mass And Mass
Behaviour
•
A mass is not the same as crowd. A group of spectators
watching a cricket match constitute a ‘crowd’. But a large
number of people who watch same game at home on t.v.
constitute a ‘Mass’.
•
Mass behaviour is unorganised, unsttuctured,
uncoordinated, individually chosen behaviour of masses.
14. Click to edit Master subtitle style
SOME BASIC FORMS OF MASS
BEHAVIOR
RUMOURS
FASHION AND FADS
15. RUMOURS
A rumour is information which travels from person to
person by word of mouth.
A remour is information that is transmitted informally
from anonymous sources.
A rumour may b true, false or a combination of truth
and falsehood.
16.
Rumours normally rise in situations where people are
deprived of information or where they do not trust the
official information they are given.
It is also observed that people are mostly likely to
believe and spread rumours.
Rumours are believed and spread because people need
and like them. (Horton and hunt)
17. FASHIONS AND FADS
Fashions
Fashions are currently accepted styles of appearance
and behaviour.
In simple, rural and tribal societies, fashions are not very
much apparent.
18.
In modren complex societies, fashions are not only
rampant but also change very rapidly.
A new fashion is generally more likely to be accepted if it
does not differ too much from existing fashion.
There is no rule that fashion always originate among the
elite and spread towards the middle and lower classes.
19.
DEFINATION:
“A fad is a trivial, short lived variation in speech,
decoration, or behavior.”
•
Fads differ from fashion in that they are more
temporary.
•
Those who take interest in them are called ‘faddists’.
THE FADS
20. •
A fad often provides a means of asserting personal
identity.
•
They appeal young people, who often have less stable
identities.
•
When a fad become wide spread, it loses its charm.
21. Click to edit Master subtitle style
PANICS AND MASS
HEYTERIA
22.
DEFINITION:
“Panic is an attempt to flee from an imagined or real
threat.”
•
In the event of panic, people’s behavior is
uncoordinated.
•
It is irrational, in a panic situation people’s action are not
appropriate.
PANICS
23. A sudden crises occurs. Since people are unprepared to
face it, they develop intense tension and great fear.
Mutual cooperation breaks down and the situation
becomes more threatening.
24.
DEFINITION:
“Mass hysteria is some of generalized anxiety about some
unknown situation.”
•
Rumors play an important role in the development of
hysteria and panic.
•
In extreme case mass hysteria can result panic.
MASS HYSTERIA
25. •
It is irrational and collective obssestional behavior.
•
It is a form of groupthink, in which several people with
something in common begin to think in a same way.
27. What is a crowd
•
Definition:
1. “A crowd is a group of people who are physically close
together and share a common concern” (Wallace and
Wallace)
2. “Crowd is a collectivity of significant number of
individuals responding within a limited space to some
object of attention”
Examples:
A group of passengers at bus stop.
A group of people gathered in fish market to buy or sell
fish.
28. Characteristics of crowd
Crowds are loose textured groups. They are not just
congregations of people. Physical closeness leads to social
interaction.
They vary greatly in character and behavior. However
they have certain characteristics in common. There are
following characteristics of crowd .
1. Suggestibility:
People in a crowd are said to be highly suggestible. There
exists heightened emotions and excitements in a crowd.
People are carried away by opinion, feelings and action of
one another. Emotions and excitements always add to
suggestibility.
29. 2. Anonymity:
Individuals in crowd feel that their identities will remain
anonymous, they are relatively insignificant and they could
remain unrecognized.
This feeling of anonymity add to the irresponsible
behaviour of its member.
3. Spontaneity:
A crowd is spontaneously formed and is highly temporary
in nature. Members of a crowd also tend to behave in more
spontaneous manner. And they are more likely to be
impulsive.
30. 4. Invulnerability:
A crowd lack self-consciousness. Since their personal
identities are not recognized, they feel that they can
behave freely. They do not just bother about the hold of
social control mechanism.
31. Types or crowd
•
Herbert Blumer (1951) has spoken four main types of
crowds:
1. Casual crowds:
The crowd that gathers around a specific event and its
members have little interaction with one another, are
known as casual crowds.
These crowds are most loosely structured of all crowds.
Individuals of these crowds have least emotional
involvement in the crowd. They can easily go away from it.
Example
A group of people forming a crowd at the spot of car
accident.
32. 2. Conventional crowds:
These types of crowds are planned and relatively
structured.
A conventional crowd gathers for a socially sanctioned
purpose.
These are known as conventional crowds because their
behavior follows the established social norms and
conventions.
Example:
An audience filled with parents at a graduation
ceremony .
33. 3. Expressive crowds:
This crowd gathers specifically for the purpose of letting out
emotions. They are organized to permit the personal
gratification of their members.
Example
A college dance, a religious revival meeting etc..
4. Acting crowds:
This crowd focuses its attention on a specific action or goal.
The members are generally angry at some force and want to
act against it. Comparatively it is least common one but
socially it is most significant of the four basic crowd types.
Example
PTI Jalsa.
34. Theories of crowd behaviour
•
There are two major theories of crowd behavior:
1. The contagion theory
2. The “Emergent Norms” theory
1. The contagion theory
This theory was proposed by Le Bon in 1895. he
suggested that:
“ collective mind” forms in a crowd and with this the
conscious personality of the individual members almost
disappear.
Members of a crowd are dominated by a single impulse
and act almost identically.
Individuals become susceptible to suggestions in crowds.
35. Cont..
people actually melt in the group and become
anonymous.
Since nobody notices what anyone says or does in a
crowd , one’s personal beliefs become less
important.
The collective belief is formed from the contagious
growth of a belief that is suggested and spread
throughout the crowd.
Members of a crowd are highly suggestible and look
to others for cues and behave in a less critical and
more irresponsible manner.
36. 2. The “Emergent Norms” theory
It is the most accepted theory of crowd by turner and
killian(1972).
Supporters of this theory have charged that contagion
theory exaggerates the irrational and purposeless
components of crowd behaviour.
There are considerable differences in the motives, and
actions of crowd members.
Some of the people present in crowds may be more
impulsive, while the others are passive supporters.
37. Cont..
The unanimity of crowd is only an illusion.
Crowds are guided by the norms. but the norms are devised
as the crowd goes along.
New norms emerge in the course of social interaction.
These norms define appropriate behavior in a crowd
situation. These norms emerge from the visible actions of few
people.
The crowd itself evolves the norms and then enforces them
on its members.
38. Click to edit Master subtitle style
“MOBS AND RIOTS ARE FORM
OF CROWD BEHAVIOUR”
39. •
Two types of Mob:
•
1: Purposive and active mob
•
2: confused and random mob.
Types of Mob
40. •
The riots is another important form of crowd behavior.
•
A riots is the action of a violently aggressive destructive
crowd
Riots
41. •
Types of audience
•
1:Information seeking audience
•
2:recreation seeking audience
•
3:conversional seeking audience
Audience as a crowd with a
difference
42. •
Public refers to an un organized aggregation of persons
who are bound by common opinion
desire but they have no personal relation ship.
Public and public opinion
43. •
Techniques of influencing human action by the manipulation
of representation.
•
propaganda and its techniques
•
1: name calling
•
2: transfer
•
3: testimonial:- using for famous or respected people
•
4: Plain folks
•
5: Card stacking
Propaganda and its techniques
44. Reference:
•
Principles of sociology with an introduction to social thought
( C.N.Shankar Rao) chapter 37 Collective Behavior.
•
Page no( 513-526)