This paper was presented at the Institute of Fisheries Management 7th Specialist Conference, on the theme "Forestry and Fisheries - Where Next?". The event took place at Rheged, Penrith, Cumbria, England on 21-23 April 2015. The presentation provides an overview of the principles of Continuous Cover Forestry and its application to woodlands in Britain. In addition, information is provided on the opportunities and challenges associated with continuous cover forestry in wooded watersheds and catchments. There is a need for more case studies and long-term study of forest development and environmental interactions in watersheds.

1. Edward Wilson1
and Philippe Morgan2
1 Director, Silviculture Research International and Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto
2 Director, SelectFor Ltd and President, Pro Silva
Institute of Fisheries Management Specialist Conference
Rheged, Penrith, Cumbria
21-23 April 2015
First presented: 21 04 2015
This version (1.1): 02 05 2015
RESEARCH
I N T E R N A T I O N A L
Forestry and Fisheries – Where Next?
Continuous Cover Forestry:
an alternative model for the sustainable management
of woodlands and watersheds in Britain

2. Outline of Presentation
• British Forestry – the drive for adaptation, resilience
and delivery of ecosystem services
• What is Continuous Cover Forestry?
• Environmental benefits and opportunities
• CCF in practice – an evolving knowledge base
• Conclusions
"All our resolves and decisions are made in a mood
or frame of mind which is certain to change."
Proust

3. Ecosystem Services
• Benefits to society from ecosystems
• Millenium Ecosystem Assessment, United Nations (2005).
1. Supporting services: ecosystem services "that are necessary
for the production of all other ecosystem services”
2. Provisioning services: "products obtained from ecosystems“
3. Regulating services: "benefits obtained from the regulation
of ecosystem processes“
4. Cultural services: "nonmaterial benefits people obtain from
ecosystems through spiritual enrichment, cognitive
development, reflection, recreation, and aesthetic
experiences"

4. Forestry is Multi-Functional
Thirlmere Forest – Stakeholder Engagement
Criteria and indicators of sustainable forest management
Source: Wilson and Leslie 2009

5. Independent Panel on Forestry (2012)
• Keywords:
– Climate change (43 mentions)
– Adapt/Adaptation (14 mentions)
– Woodland Culture (19 mentions)
– Resilience/resilient (22 mentions)
“Action taken now to increase the resilience of our
woodland resource will help reduce the future costs
of dealing with the effects of climate change.” (p. 8)

6. 0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
< 15 15–50 51–100 > 100
Area('000ha)
Age Class (years)
1947
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
< 15 15–50 51–100 > 100
Age Class (years)
1965
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
< 15 15–50 51–100 > 100
Age Class (years)
1982
Area of High Forest by Age Class Groups
1947-2000
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
< 15 15–50 51–100 > 100
Age Class (years)
2000
Broadleaves
Conifers
Source: Mason 2007
• The area of woodland has increased dramatically from 1947-2000
• The amount and complexity of older woodland is increasing

7. Forest Cover in Britain
Legend :
Green = Forestry Commission
Blue = private ownership
Graphic created by CCFG. Forest cover map: Crown Copyright © 2008 Forest Research. Reproduced with permission.
• Approx 3.1 M ha total woodland area.
• 13 % of GB land area
• 18% in Scotland
• 10% in England
• One of the most highly deforested
countries in Europe
• EU average forest cover approx 35%
of land area

8. Threats to UK Forests
Source: Forestry Commission England 2012
• Low Resilience of Existing Forest Resources
– Low number of productive species
– Monoculture stands are most common
• Climate change
– Summer droughts increasingly likely, especially in South
and East
– Extreme rain and flooding events are more likely
– Ecosystem change – especially ground plants
• Pests and diseases
– Native and exotic

9. Kielder Forest – largest plantation in Europe
Source: Forestry Commission

10. Kielder Forest
Source: Forestry Commission
~90% of conifer forests are managed on the clear-fell system

11. Conifer Forest Cover in England
SP, CP, SS, DF, L’s = 88%
Conifer Species Today
Scots Pine
Corsican Pine
Sitka Spruce
Douglas Fir
Larch (EL, HL, JL)
Other Conifer
The vast majority of conifers are grown in plantations,
managed on the clearfell system. Source: Forestry Commission.

12. Percentage of Braodleaf Cover in England by Species
Oak
26%
Beech
10%
Sycamore
8%
Ash
16%
Birch
12%
Poplar
2%
Sweet chestnut
2%
Elm
0%
Other Broadleaves
11%
Mixed Broadleaves
13%
Data Source National Inventory of
Woodland -England. Reference
date 1998.
Broadleaf Forest Cover in England
Oak + Ash + Beech + Sycamore + Birch = 72%

13. Woodland types in UK
Legacy of past policies and actions
15%
10%
10%
65%
Ancientsemi-natural
Recentsemi-natural
Ancientreplanted
Recentplantation
Kirby et al. 1998

14. What Ecological Site Classification (ESC) suggests
in terms of the dominant productive species
Effects of climate change on the identity of the most productive conifer species as predicted
by Ecological Site Classification for the UKCIP02 2050s High and Low emission scenarios.
ESC is based on
temperature, moisture
and soil physical
properties
It does not consider
Dothistroma, or any
other pests or diseases.

15. Risk to woodlands on the Public Forest Estate (PFE)
By the 2080s, a risk of 65% of the PFE being classed as ‘unsuitable’ in the
absence of adaptation – or 35% decline in productivity
Source: Forestry Commission 2012

16. 25th July 2012
Which tree species to plant for a
changing environment Source: Forestry Commission 2012
New tree disease and pest outbreaks UK

17. Climate Change Action Plan for the
Public Forest Estate (PFE)
We will adopt the principle of anticipatory
adaptation. This offers the highest potential
gains for forest resilience, and the benefits
they provide.
We will take an approach that is ‘not risk
averse’.
Global emissions are currently tracking
close to some of the more extreme
emissions scenarios that have been
published, so it is prudent to consider
the 2050 high scenario when planning for
the future.
Diversification is the theme!

18. Succession stages in a natural forest
initial stage intermediate stage
open
ground
final stage
Strategies for Enhancing Forest Resilience
Modify thinning regimes Extend “rotations”
Diversify Structures
 CCF
Species choice
- genetics/provenance
Mixed species
Assisted migration of native species
New species introduced
Wider use of “minor” species
Adapted from diagram by Jens Haufe

19. The Read Report (2009)
Combating climate change – a role for UK forests
• Key findings “THE ADAPTATION OF UK FORESTS AND
WOODLANDS TO CLIMATE CHANGE” (Chapter 9, p. 164)
...
“The majority of woods are likely to be treated as high
forest in different forms. Whereas clearfell systems have
predominated in the past, in future continuous cover
forestry approaches may become more advantageous,
because:
– they are thought to be more windfirm
– maintain a more even carbon storage
– show lower soil carbon losses during harvesting
– maintain higher humidity levels.”
• “However, the evidence that they will deliver these
benefits needs strengthening.”
• “The silvicultural system per se is however, less
important than the structures that it creates and their
resilience and robustness in relation to climate change.”

20. Key components of Continuous Cover Forestry
• “...the use of silvicultural systems whereby the forest
canopy is maintained at one or more levels without clear
felling.”
Mason et al. 1999
It has 4 main guiding principles:
1. Managing the forest ecosystem
2. Using natural processes
3. Working within site limitations
4. Diversifying stand structure
Prime movers: ProSilva Europe (1989) and CCFG (1991)

21. Mark Louden Anderson
MC MA DSc FRSE (1895-1961)
Professor of Forestry (1951-1961)
The University of Edinburgh
Image:©UniversityofEdinburgh
Key papers:
• Anderson, M. L. 1951. Spaced group planting and irregularity of stand structure. Empire Forestry
Review 30: 328-341
• Anderson, M.L. 1953. Plea for the adoption of the standing control or check in woodland
management. Scottish Forestry 7: 38-47
• Anderson, M.L. 1960. Norway spruce-silver fir-beech mixed selection forest. Is it possible to
reproduce this in Scotland? Scottish Forestry 14: 87–93
Ahead of his time!
The iconic forward thinker ...
Are there any precedents?

22. Block Area (ha)
A 16.6
B 19.8
C 21.3
D 15.0
E 19.8
F 21.5
Total 117.0
.
N
500 m
500 m
350 m
240 m
560 m
C
B
F
E
D
Glentress Trial Area
Glentress Forest
Peebles, Scotland
Road
A

23. 0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Stems/ha
Diameter Class (cm)
1952
1980
1991
Source: Glentress Trial, 1991 Inventory
Monitoring the transformation:
Size/Frequency Distribution for Block A in 1952, 1980 and 1991
Towards a balanced
irregular structure

24. Group selection
Glentress Forest
1996Photo: E. R. Wilson

25. Group selection
Glentress Forest
2004 Photo: E. R. Wilson

26. Multi-purpose forestry
Glentress Forest
2012Photo: E. R. Wilson

27. CCF - Coming in from the Fringe
• Cyril Hart (1995)
• Demonstrated tradition of
alternative silvicultural
systems
• Wide range of systems
applied and developed
using a broad range of
species
• Strong influence from
Europe
• Update Review:
Scott McG Wilson (2013)

28. *Whinlatter Forest
Thirlmere Forest
*Clocaenog Forest
Glentress Forest*
Wykeham Forest*
Stourhead (Western) Estate
Craigvinean Forest*
Aconbury Woods
*Coed Trallwm
Drumlanrig Forest
Selected
Continuous Cover Forests
in Britain
This map identifies a selection
of woodlands where CCF is an
important component of
management.
Legend :
Green = Forestry Commission
Blue = private ownership
* = GB CCF Trial Area
Graphic created by CCFG. Forest cover map: Crown Copyright © 2008 Forest Research. Reproduced with permission.
Morangie Forest*
*Achray Forest
*Inshriach Forest
*Cym Berwyn Forest
*Dartmoor Forest

29. final harvest
and
regeneration
young
growth
stage
H<1.3m
pole stage
DBH>10cm
DBH<20cm
small timber
stage
DBH>20cm
DBH<35cm
medium
timber stage
DBH>35cm
DBH<50cm DBH>50cm
large timber
stage
thinning
thicket stage
H>1.3m
DBH<10cm
respacing
fallow stage 
restocking
final
harvest
beat up,
tending
In order to transform a planted forest we have to:
 develop adequate tree stability [“Frame Trees” – esp. Important in uplands]
 promote the best trees as likely source for Natural Regeneration [NR]
 get the species composition right [evidence supports more mixed-species]
 create optimal conditions for NR [ground vegetation, seedbed, browse control]
Stand development and transformation
Adapted from diagram by Jens Haufe

30. Modified thinning in Douglas fir:
starting the transformation early
is key to future stand stability
Wythop Wood, Cumbria
Photo: Gareth Browning

31. Frame tree and natural regeneration
Douglas fir stand, Wythop Wood, Cumbria
Photo: Gareth Browning

32. Light demand of conifer seedlings
Species
Overstorey BA for
seedling establishment
[m2
/ha]
Overstorey BA for
seedling growth
[m2
/ha]
Shade tolerance
of seedlings
JL/EL 20-25 15-20 Intolerant
SP/LP/CP 25-30 20-25
SS 30-35 25-30 Intermediate
DF 35-40 30-35
NS
40-45 35-40
Tolerant
WH
leader/lateral
shoot ratio > 1
Management of Seedling Establishment and Growth
Note: Light demand for seedling
establishment may be considerably lower
than for seedling growth.
 management of light level is important
(Source: Forestry Commission Operational Guidance OGB 7)

33. Single tree selection in Douglas fir
Mixed-species regenerationPhoto: E. R. Wilson

34. Oak shelterwoodSharon Rodhouse 2007

35. Scots pine shelterwood
Loch Vaa, Boat of Garten
Photo: E. R. Wilson

36. Scots pine shelterwood
Loch Vaa, Boat of Garten
19 April 2010Photo: E. R. Wilson

37. Environmental Benefits of Forests:
Continuous Cover Forestry
in a sensitive watershed,
Thirlmere Reservoir
37Photo: E.R. Wilson 2010
Thirlmere, Cumbria

38. Photo: © United Utilities plc

39. Thirlmere Forest
Management Plan
2008
Source: Wilson and Leslie 2009

40. Extraction on sensitive sites
Photo: Rob Grange

41. Advanced monitoring systems
• AFI – founded 1991
• Developed advanced monitoring protocols
• Now over 100 reference forests, with several
in the UK and Ireland
• Forest productivity and ecosystem evaluation

42. Source: Gareth Browning
Monitoring Systems
to Support CCF
Management
Example from Wythop
Forest, Cumbria with data
on sapling distribution.

43. Potential Environmental Benefits of CCF
for Soils and Water Resources (Ireland et al. 2006)
• Reduced risk of reductions in soil fertility on site
• Maintain soil organic matter within forest stands
• Potential to reduce and minimise soil acidification
• Reduced and mitigated soil disturbance (although stand
interventions and operations are likely to be more frequent
than in Clear-fell system)
• Greater control over risks of soil erosion and compaction
• Reduced risk of soil contamination and pollution
• Enhanced resilience of multi-species and multi-aged stands in
response to threats from pests and diseases, and windstorms

44. Potential Benefits of CCF on Upland Forest Sites
(Reynolds 2004)
• Move away from clear-fell likely to have benefits in terms of
reduced nitrate leaching and reduced stream acidification
• Partial harvest encourages retention of nitrate capacity within
the soil-plant system
• CCF likely to encourage retention of base cations within soil-
plant system, and likely to minimise long-term soil and stream
water acidification associated with soil base cation depletion
• If CCF results in smaller proportion of mature Sitka spruce
forest, this will reduce nitrate leaching on well-drained acid soils
• Mixed species woodland ecosystems with greater potential to
retain nitrogen deposited from the atmosphere should be
beneficial on acid sensitive sites

45. Clocaenog Forest, North Wales
CCF Research and Operational Trial
in Spruce-dominated upland forest
Photo: E. R. Wilson

46. Continuous Cover Forestry Group
Field Meeting
September 2013
Corrour Forest, Scotland
Part of the trial network established by M. L. Anderson, 1952 Photo: E. R. Wilson

47. Dodd Wood, Cumbria
Opportunities for catchment studies with CCF?Photo: E. R. Wilson

48. Conclusions
• Silviculture in Britain exists within a complex historical,
economic, ecological and cultural context
• We are currently challenged to find new approaches that
ensure the resilience and sustainability of our woodland
resources
• Transformation of our forests to more diverse and
complex structures (i.e., CCF) is a key strategic challenge,
presenting foresters with new opportunities to deliver
ecosystem services into the future, including high quality
water resources
• There are now well-established management systems for
CCF, but evidence for the wider benefits/practice of CCF
needs strengthening, especially with respect to water
catchments and aquatic ecosystems

49. Forestry Commission Guidance
(Selection of Publications)
• FC: OGB 7 - Managing Continuous Cover Forests
(site selection/respacing and thinning/FD planning/production
forecast/monitoring)
• FC: OGB 9 - Thinning (Silvicultural Guide)
(thinning/stability)
• FCIN 29 What is Continuous Cover Forestry?
• B. Mason, G. Kerr, J. Simpson, 1999
• FCIN 40 Transforming Even-aged Conifer Stands to Continuous Cover Management
• B. Mason, G. Kerr, 2004
• FCIN 45 Monitoring the Transformation of Even-aged Stands to Continuous Cover
Management
• G. Kerr, B. Mason, R. Boswell, A. Pommerening, 2002
• FCIN 63 Managing Light to Enable Natural Regeneration in British Conifer Forests
• S. Hale, 2004

50. Selected references (1)
• Anderson, M. L. 1951. Spaced group planting and irregularity of stand structure. Empire Forestry Review
30: 328-341
• Anderson, M.L. 1953. Plea for the adoption of the standing control or check in woodland management.
Scottish Forestry 7(2): 38-47
• Anderson, M.L. 1960. Norway spruce-silver fir-beech mixed selection forest. Is it possible to reproduce this
in Scotland? Scot. For. 14: 87–93.
• Cameron, A.D. 2002. Importance of early selective thinning in the development of long-term stability and
improved log quality: a review. Forestry 75(1): 35-36
• Cameron, A.D. 2007. Determining the sustainable normal irregular condition: A provisional study on a
transformed, irregular mixed species stand in Scotland. Scand. J. For. Res. 22: 13-21
• Helliwell, R., and E. Wilson. 2012. Continuous cover forestry in Britain: challenges and opportunities.
Quarterly Journal of Forestry
• Ireland, D., T. R. Nisbet and S. Broadmeadow. 2006. Environmental best practice for continuous cover
forestry. Environment Agency Science Report SC020051/SR. 78 pp.
• Kerr, G. 1999. The use of silvicultural systems to enhance the biological diversity of plantation forests in
Britain. Forestry 72:191–205.
• Macdonald, E., B. Gardiner and W. Mason. 2010. The effects of transformation of even-aged stands to
continuous cover forestry on conifer log quality and wood properties in the UK. Forestry 83: 1-16
• Malcolm, D.C., Mason, W.L., and Clarke, G.C. 2001. The transformation of conifer forests in Great Britain –
regeneration, gap size, and silvicultural systems. For. Ecol. Manage. 151: 7–23
• O’Hara, K. 2014. Multiaged silviculture: managing for complex forest stand structures. OUP, Oxford. 240
pp.

51. Selected references (2)
• Mason, W.L. 2002. Are irregular stands more windfirm? Forestry 75: 347–356.
• Mason, W.L., G. Kerr and J.M.S. Simpson. 1999. What Is Continuous Cover Forestry? Forestry Commission
Information Note 29. Edinburgh: Forestry Commission.
• Mason, W.L. 2003. Continuous Cover Forestry: developing close-to-nature forest management in conifer
plantations in upland Britain. Scot. For. 57: 141–149.
• Nicoll, B.C., B.A. Gardiner and A.J. Peace. 2008. Improvements in anchorage provided by the acclimation of
forest trees to wind stress. Forestry 81: 389-398.
• Oliver, C.D., and B.C. Larson. 1996. Forest Stand Dynamics. Update edition. Wiley, New York, 520 pp.
• Page, L. M., and A. D. Cameron. 2006. Regeneration dynamics of Sitka spruce in artificially created forest
gaps. Forest Ecology and Management 221: 260-266
• Peterken, G. F. 1996. Natural Woodland. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 522 pp.
• Reynolds, B. 2004. Continuous cover forestry: possible implications for surface water acidification in the
UK uplands. Hydrology and Earct System Sciences Discuss. 8(3): 306-313
• Read, D.J., P.H. Freer-Smith, J.I.L. Morison, N. Hanley, C.C. West and P. Snowdon (eds). 2009. Combating
climate change – a role for UK forests. An assessment of the potential of the UK’s trees and woodlands to
mitigate and adapt to climate change. The Stationery Office, Edinburgh. 240 pp.
• Wilson, E.R., H. Whitney McIver and D.C. Malcolm. 1999. Transformation to an irregular structure of an
upland conifer forest. For. Chron. 75: 407–412
• Wilson, S. McG. 2013. Progress of adoption of alternative silvicultural systems in Britain: an independent
review. Technical Report (March 2013). 49 pp.

52. Further Information
Contact for further information:
• Edward (Ted) Wilson
– Email: ted.wilson@silviculture.org.uk
– Website: www.silviculture.org.uk
• Phil Morgan
– Email: phil@selectfor.com
– Website: www.selectfor.com
Acknowledgements
• We would like to thank the following colleagues for data and slides that
appear in this presentation: Gareth Browning, Bill Mason, John Weir, Mark
Broadmeadow, Paul Clavey, Jens Haufe, Barnaby Wylder, Rob Grange.

53. Forestry and Fisheries – Where Next?
Continuous Cover Forestry:
an alternative model for the sustainable management
of woodlands and watersheds in Britain
Edward Wilson1
and Philippe Morgan2
1 Director, Silviculture Research International and Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto
2 Director, SelectFor Ltd and President, Pro Silva
Institute of Fisheries Management Specialist Conference
Rheged, Penrith, Cumbria
21-23 April 2015
First presented: 21 04 2015
This version (1.1): 02 05 2015
RESEARCH
I N T E R N A T I O N A L