In the 20th century HR is no more a departmental function. It is a core process determining the viability of your strategies. Strategies fail if they are not supported by the appropriate Human resource. Learn & Understand How.!
Human Resource Management Model
Purpose of Human Resource Management Model
Harvard Model
Matching Model
Guest Model
Dave Ulrich Model
Storey Model
Best practice model
Best fit Model
Bath People and Performance Model
In the 20th century HR is no more a departmental function. It is a core process determining the viability of your strategies. Strategies fail if they are not supported by the appropriate Human resource. Learn & Understand How.!
Human Resource Management Model
Purpose of Human Resource Management Model
Harvard Model
Matching Model
Guest Model
Dave Ulrich Model
Storey Model
Best practice model
Best fit Model
Bath People and Performance Model
Performance-linked compensation (PLC) is a form of payment from an employer to an employee, which is directly related to the performance output of an employee and which may be specified in an employment contract.
Strategic Human Resource Management (SHRM) - MBA 423 Human Resources Manageme...Stuart Gow
Chapter Review/ Discussion Questions (CRQs) – 10% marks
At the end of each chapter of the text book, there are chapter review questions (CRQs) which are meant to review and test the student’s understanding of the chapter. The facilitator will chose and then allocate the CRQs to each group during week 2 for class presentations in weeks 3 to 7. Some of these questions are being recommended by Stone as possible essay questions which are frequently asked in examinations throughout the world. The time for each presentation may vary from 10 to 20 minutes followed by class discussions. The group’s power-point presentations, both soft and hard copies, must be submitted to the course facilitator on or before the presentation. No written report is required for CRQs. The class and the facilitator will evaluate each group’s presentation. A blank evaluation form will be made available in class and posted in Moodle. However, the MBA 423 Human Resource Management GSB, FBE, USP facilitator has the final say in terms of the final marks to be allocated to each group. The criterias to be used as a guide for evaluating the CRQ presentations is provided in the blank evaluation form.
MBA 423 Human Resources Management (Elective Course)
The effective management of people has an important bearing on organisational success. The importance of personnel policies and procedures has created opportunity for managers and administrators with expertise in this field. The course provides conceptual and practical skills in areas such as the strategic aspects of human resource management, manpower planning, recruitment and selection, performance appraisal, training and development, salary administration and employee benefits. Industrial relations in the context of the South Pacific region is an important theme.
http://www.usp.ac.fj/index.php?id=mba423
Students:
Stuart Gow
Amrish Narayan
Chaminda Wanninayake
Graduate School of Business
Faculty of Business and Economics
University of the South Pacific,
Private Bag, Laucala Campus,
Suva, Fiji.
Tel: (679) 323 1391/323 1392
Fax: (679) 323 1397
Compensation Dimensions (Payment for Work and Performance, Payment for Non-working Days, Loss of Job Income Continuation Benefit, Disability Income Continuation Benefit, Deferred Income, Spouse/Family Income Continuation Benefit, Health, Accident and Liability Protection, Income Equivalent Payments)
Concept of potential appraisal system
Need of a potential appraisal system
Process of evaluating employee potential
Methods of evaluating employee potential
this presentation covers the following portion of HR managent:
-Human Resource Planning Process
-Difference between recruitment and selection
-Objectives of HR management
Human resource development – Definition
Introduction
Origin of HR – Phases ( early – eighth )
History about the term HR
History about the term HR in India
How different is personal management from HR management
Evolution of HRD in chronological sequence
HR functions in organisations from 1920-1970s
Later arrival of HRM in India
Problems with current HR practises in India
How come the current HR practises in India should be
Importance of HR development in India
Past, present and future
Conclusion
Bibliography
Performance-linked compensation (PLC) is a form of payment from an employer to an employee, which is directly related to the performance output of an employee and which may be specified in an employment contract.
Strategic Human Resource Management (SHRM) - MBA 423 Human Resources Manageme...Stuart Gow
Chapter Review/ Discussion Questions (CRQs) – 10% marks
At the end of each chapter of the text book, there are chapter review questions (CRQs) which are meant to review and test the student’s understanding of the chapter. The facilitator will chose and then allocate the CRQs to each group during week 2 for class presentations in weeks 3 to 7. Some of these questions are being recommended by Stone as possible essay questions which are frequently asked in examinations throughout the world. The time for each presentation may vary from 10 to 20 minutes followed by class discussions. The group’s power-point presentations, both soft and hard copies, must be submitted to the course facilitator on or before the presentation. No written report is required for CRQs. The class and the facilitator will evaluate each group’s presentation. A blank evaluation form will be made available in class and posted in Moodle. However, the MBA 423 Human Resource Management GSB, FBE, USP facilitator has the final say in terms of the final marks to be allocated to each group. The criterias to be used as a guide for evaluating the CRQ presentations is provided in the blank evaluation form.
MBA 423 Human Resources Management (Elective Course)
The effective management of people has an important bearing on organisational success. The importance of personnel policies and procedures has created opportunity for managers and administrators with expertise in this field. The course provides conceptual and practical skills in areas such as the strategic aspects of human resource management, manpower planning, recruitment and selection, performance appraisal, training and development, salary administration and employee benefits. Industrial relations in the context of the South Pacific region is an important theme.
http://www.usp.ac.fj/index.php?id=mba423
Students:
Stuart Gow
Amrish Narayan
Chaminda Wanninayake
Graduate School of Business
Faculty of Business and Economics
University of the South Pacific,
Private Bag, Laucala Campus,
Suva, Fiji.
Tel: (679) 323 1391/323 1392
Fax: (679) 323 1397
Compensation Dimensions (Payment for Work and Performance, Payment for Non-working Days, Loss of Job Income Continuation Benefit, Disability Income Continuation Benefit, Deferred Income, Spouse/Family Income Continuation Benefit, Health, Accident and Liability Protection, Income Equivalent Payments)
Concept of potential appraisal system
Need of a potential appraisal system
Process of evaluating employee potential
Methods of evaluating employee potential
this presentation covers the following portion of HR managent:
-Human Resource Planning Process
-Difference between recruitment and selection
-Objectives of HR management
Human resource development – Definition
Introduction
Origin of HR – Phases ( early – eighth )
History about the term HR
History about the term HR in India
How different is personal management from HR management
Evolution of HRD in chronological sequence
HR functions in organisations from 1920-1970s
Later arrival of HRM in India
Problems with current HR practises in India
How come the current HR practises in India should be
Importance of HR development in India
Past, present and future
Conclusion
Bibliography
A brief overview of the book "CSRforHR: A necessary partnership for advancing responsible business practices" by Elaine Cohen, published by Greenleaf Publications in October 2010
The corporate world is changing the perspective from a business oriented financial perspective to a competency based economy and green economy. As the world is moving towards green economy, the responsibility of business has expanded to go green. The term Green human resources refer to the promotion of sustainable employee practices with the help of interface of every employee. It’s aim is to increase the awareness among the employees on the issue of sustainability. Green HR deals with the HR activities which are environment friendly and promote the sustainable use of resources in the organizations. This in turn, help business organizations to trim down employee carbon footsteps by the likes of teleconferencing, sharing of car, telecommuting, filing electronically, virtual interviews, recycling, online training, etc. This study focuses on various green HRM practices followed in the organization. The paper largely focuses on the various green HRM practices
What are the main advantages of using HR recruiter services.pdfHumanResourceDimensi1
HR recruiter services offer top talents to companies according to their specific needs. They handle all recruitment tasks from job posting to onboarding and help companies concentrate on their business growth. With their expertise and years of experience, they streamline the hiring process and save time and resources for the company.
Personal Brand Statement:
As an Army veteran dedicated to lifelong learning, I bring a disciplined, strategic mindset to my pursuits. I am constantly expanding my knowledge to innovate and lead effectively. My journey is driven by a commitment to excellence, and to make a meaningful impact in the world.
Enterprise Excellence is Inclusive Excellence.pdfKaiNexus
Enterprise excellence and inclusive excellence are closely linked, and real-world challenges have shown that both are essential to the success of any organization. To achieve enterprise excellence, organizations must focus on improving their operations and processes while creating an inclusive environment that engages everyone. In this interactive session, the facilitator will highlight commonly established business practices and how they limit our ability to engage everyone every day. More importantly, though, participants will likely gain increased awareness of what we can do differently to maximize enterprise excellence through deliberate inclusion.
What is Enterprise Excellence?
Enterprise Excellence is a holistic approach that's aimed at achieving world-class performance across all aspects of the organization.
What might I learn?
A way to engage all in creating Inclusive Excellence. Lessons from the US military and their parallels to the story of Harry Potter. How belt systems and CI teams can destroy inclusive practices. How leadership language invites people to the party. There are three things leaders can do to engage everyone every day: maximizing psychological safety to create environments where folks learn, contribute, and challenge the status quo.
Who might benefit? Anyone and everyone leading folks from the shop floor to top floor.
Dr. William Harvey is a seasoned Operations Leader with extensive experience in chemical processing, manufacturing, and operations management. At Michelman, he currently oversees multiple sites, leading teams in strategic planning and coaching/practicing continuous improvement. William is set to start his eighth year of teaching at the University of Cincinnati where he teaches marketing, finance, and management. William holds various certifications in change management, quality, leadership, operational excellence, team building, and DiSC, among others.
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A Memorandum of Association (MOA) is a legal document that outlines the fundamental principles and objectives upon which a company operates. It serves as the company's charter or constitution and defines the scope of its activities. Here's a detailed note on the MOA:
Contents of Memorandum of Association:
Name Clause: This clause states the name of the company, which should end with words like "Limited" or "Ltd." for a public limited company and "Private Limited" or "Pvt. Ltd." for a private limited company.
https://seribangash.com/article-of-association-is-legal-doc-of-company/
Registered Office Clause: It specifies the location where the company's registered office is situated. This office is where all official communications and notices are sent.
Objective Clause: This clause delineates the main objectives for which the company is formed. It's important to define these objectives clearly, as the company cannot undertake activities beyond those mentioned in this clause.
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Liability Clause: It outlines the extent of liability of the company's members. In the case of companies limited by shares, the liability of members is limited to the amount unpaid on their shares. For companies limited by guarantee, members' liability is limited to the amount they undertake to contribute if the company is wound up.
https://seribangash.com/promotors-is-person-conceived-formation-company/
Capital Clause: This clause specifies the authorized capital of the company, i.e., the maximum amount of share capital the company is authorized to issue. It also mentions the division of this capital into shares and their respective nominal value.
Association Clause: It simply states that the subscribers wish to form a company and agree to become members of it, in accordance with the terms of the MOA.
Importance of Memorandum of Association:
Legal Requirement: The MOA is a legal requirement for the formation of a company. It must be filed with the Registrar of Companies during the incorporation process.
Constitutional Document: It serves as the company's constitutional document, defining its scope, powers, and limitations.
Protection of Members: It protects the interests of the company's members by clearly defining the objectives and limiting their liability.
External Communication: It provides clarity to external parties, such as investors, creditors, and regulatory authorities, regarding the company's objectives and powers.
https://seribangash.com/difference-public-and-private-company-law/
Binding Authority: The company and its members are bound by the provisions of the MOA. Any action taken beyond its scope may be considered ultra vires (beyond the powers) of the company and therefore void.
Amendment of MOA:
While the MOA lays down the company's fundamental principles, it is not entirely immutable. It can be amended, but only under specific circumstances and in compliance with legal procedures. Amendments typically require shareholder
Falcon stands out as a top-tier P2P Invoice Discounting platform in India, bridging esteemed blue-chip companies and eager investors. Our goal is to transform the investment landscape in India by establishing a comprehensive destination for borrowers and investors with diverse profiles and needs, all while minimizing risk. What sets Falcon apart is the elimination of intermediaries such as commercial banks and depository institutions, allowing investors to enjoy higher yields.
[Note: This is a partial preview. To download this presentation, visit:
https://www.oeconsulting.com.sg/training-presentations]
Sustainability has become an increasingly critical topic as the world recognizes the need to protect our planet and its resources for future generations. Sustainability means meeting our current needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet theirs. It involves long-term planning and consideration of the consequences of our actions. The goal is to create strategies that ensure the long-term viability of People, Planet, and Profit.
Leading companies such as Nike, Toyota, and Siemens are prioritizing sustainable innovation in their business models, setting an example for others to follow. In this Sustainability training presentation, you will learn key concepts, principles, and practices of sustainability applicable across industries. This training aims to create awareness and educate employees, senior executives, consultants, and other key stakeholders, including investors, policymakers, and supply chain partners, on the importance and implementation of sustainability.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Develop a comprehensive understanding of the fundamental principles and concepts that form the foundation of sustainability within corporate environments.
2. Explore the sustainability implementation model, focusing on effective measures and reporting strategies to track and communicate sustainability efforts.
3. Identify and define best practices and critical success factors essential for achieving sustainability goals within organizations.
CONTENTS
1. Introduction and Key Concepts of Sustainability
2. Principles and Practices of Sustainability
3. Measures and Reporting in Sustainability
4. Sustainability Implementation & Best Practices
To download the complete presentation, visit: https://www.oeconsulting.com.sg/training-presentations
Cracking the Workplace Discipline Code Main.pptxWorkforce Group
Cultivating and maintaining discipline within teams is a critical differentiator for successful organisations.
Forward-thinking leaders and business managers understand the impact that discipline has on organisational success. A disciplined workforce operates with clarity, focus, and a shared understanding of expectations, ultimately driving better results, optimising productivity, and facilitating seamless collaboration.
Although discipline is not a one-size-fits-all approach, it can help create a work environment that encourages personal growth and accountability rather than solely relying on punitive measures.
In this deck, you will learn the significance of workplace discipline for organisational success. You’ll also learn
• Four (4) workplace discipline methods you should consider
• The best and most practical approach to implementing workplace discipline.
• Three (3) key tips to maintain a disciplined workplace.
Business Valuation Principles for EntrepreneursBen Wann
This insightful presentation is designed to equip entrepreneurs with the essential knowledge and tools needed to accurately value their businesses. Understanding business valuation is crucial for making informed decisions, whether you're seeking investment, planning to sell, or simply want to gauge your company's worth.
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Discover the innovative and creative projects that highlight my journey through Full Sail University. Below, you’ll find a collection of my work showcasing my skills and expertise in digital marketing, event planning, and media production.
Putting the SPARK into Virtual Training.pptxCynthia Clay
This 60-minute webinar, sponsored by Adobe, was delivered for the Training Mag Network. It explored the five elements of SPARK: Storytelling, Purpose, Action, Relationships, and Kudos. Knowing how to tell a well-structured story is key to building long-term memory. Stating a clear purpose that doesn't take away from the discovery learning process is critical. Ensuring that people move from theory to practical application is imperative. Creating strong social learning is the key to commitment and engagement. Validating and affirming participants' comments is the way to create a positive learning environment.
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RMD24 | Debunking the non-endemic revenue myth Marvin Vacquier Droop | First ...BBPMedia1
Marvin neemt je in deze presentatie mee in de voordelen van non-endemic advertising op retail media netwerken. Hij brengt ook de uitdagingen in beeld die de markt op dit moment heeft op het gebied van retail media voor niet-leveranciers.
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2. Contemporary Issues in HRM
Human resource managers face a myriad challenges with todays workforce.
There are issues concerning the diverse workforce, legislation affecting the
workplace and technology matters that rise to the top of the list of
challenges.
Major Contemporary issues in HRM are:
Green HRM
IHRM
SHRM
Chronic Health
Issues
Organizational
Development
and Change
Career
management
and
Development
Employee
Benefits and
Compensation
3. International Human Resource Management
(IHRM)
International Human Resource Management is the
process of procuring, allocatingand
effectivelyutilising human resources in an
international business.
Procuring
Allocating
Effectiveness
4. Managing expatriates
Need
for
Globalization has forced HRM to have
international orientation
IHRM
Effectively utilise services of people at
both the corporate office and at the
foreign plants
5. Models of IHRM
HR
Activities
Procure &
Utilize
Allocate
Types of
Employee
Host &
Home
Country
Third
Country
Countries
Host &
Home
Countries
Third
Countries
6. Characteristics of IHRM
More HR activities
Need for a broader perspective
More involvement in employee
personal lives
Industrial
Equal treatment to
Relations
different nationalities
Performance
Management
Compensation
Human
Resource
Planning
Employee
Hiring
Training and
Development
7. Basic Steps in IHRM
Human
Resource
Planning
Remuneration
Repatriation
Recruitment
and Selection
Expatriation
Employee
Relations
Training and
Development
Performance
Management
Multicultural
Management
8. Reasons for Growing Interest in IHRM
Globalization of
Business
Effective HRM
Movement to
network
organisation
Indirect cost of
poor performance
Significance in
implementing and
control of
strategies
9. Strategic Human Resource Management (SHRM)
Strategic human resource management
Formulating and executing HR systems that produce the employee
competencies and behaviors the company needs to achieve its strategic
aims
Taking a strategic HRM approach means:
Making human resources management a top priority
Integrating HRM with the company’s strategy, mission, and goals
“HRM can make significant contributions if included in the
strategic planning process from the outset.”
The strategic management process helps determine:
What must be done to achieve priority objectives
How they will be achieved
10. SHRM: A Key to Success
Three levels of strategy apply to HRM activities:
Strategic
(Long Term)
Managerial
(Medium
Term)
Operational
(Short Term)
The HRM activities involved are:
Employee
Selection/
Placement
Rewards
Appraisal
Development
11. SHRM: A Key to Success
Strategic HRM planning leads to:
Growth
Profits
Survival
Planning also:
Expands awareness of possibilities
Identifies strengths and weaknesses
Reveals opportunities
Points to the need to evaluate the impact of internal and
external forces
12. Traditional HRM v.s. SHRM
Point of distinction
Traditional HR
Strategic HR
Focus
Employee Relations
Partnerships with internal and
external customers
Role of HR
Transactional change
follower and
respondent
Transformational change
leader and initiator.
Initiatives
Slow, reactive,
fragmented
Fast, proactive and integrated
Time horizon
Short-term
Short, medium and long (as
required)
Control
Bureaucratic-roles,
policies, procedures
Organic-flexible, whatever is
necessary to succeed
Job design
Tight division of labor;
independence,
specialization
Broad, flexible, cross-training
teams
Key investments
Accountability
Responsibility for HR
Capital, products
Cost centre
Staff specialists
People, knowledge
Investment centre
Line managers
13. Shifts in HR management in India
Emerging HR practice
Traditional HR practice
Administrative role
Strategic role
Reactive
Proactive
Separate, isolated from
Key part of organizational
mission
company mission
Production focus
Service focus
Functional organization
Process-based organization
Individuals
Cross-functional
teams, teamwork most
encouraged, singled out for
important
praise, rewards
People as expenses
People as key
investments/assets
Human Resource Management
13
14. Strategic Management Process
Environmental Scanning
Strategy Formulation
• Corporate level
• Business unit level
• Functional level
Strategy Implementation
Strategy Evaluation
15. HR Role in Strategic Management
In strategy formulation
HR manager supplies competitive intelligence that is
useful
In strategy implementation
Encouraging proactive behavior
Explicit communication goals
Stimulate critical thinking
Productivity
Quality and Service
Proficient strategic management
23. Green Human Resource Management (GHRM)
Green HR is one which involves two essential
elements: environmentally friendly HR
practices and the preservation of knowledge
capital.Green HR involves reducing your
carbon footprint via less printing of
paper, video conferencing and interviews, etc.
24. The kinds of action taken within green HRM initiatives
include educating employees about climate change and
other environmental issues, training in working
methods that reduce the use of energy and other
resources, promoting and incentivizing more
sustainable means of travel to work (e.g. car sharing,
cycling, public transport), and auditing employee
benefits to eliminate those that are environmentally
damaging (e.g. unnecessary provision of a high
powered company car)
25. Essential Green HR Activities
Corporate
Office Building
Separate
Department
Conduct A
Research
Decreased
Printing
Recycling
Cleanliness
Drive
Reusable
Articles
Power Savings
26. Impact of Green HRM
• Gaining perception, reputation and good will.
• Economically useful, hence direct impact on
profit and enhances the return on investments.
• Better Power Utility
• Better Utilization of Resources
• Cost Effective
• Smarter Performance translated into Cheaper
Products.
27. “During the past 2 decades, a worldwide consensus has begun to
emerge around the need for pro-active environmental
management.in Response , scholars from management systems
as diverse as accounting , marketing and Supply-chain
Management have been analyzing how managerial practices in
these areas can contribute to environmental management
Goals.”
28. Companies who Have adopted GREEN HRM
General Electrics
Uses six sigma technique for optimizing their operations to
improve environmental and social outcomes in a manner that
increases overall performance.
Google
Uses green recruiting technique- Believes that most talented
people get attracted because of it.
Infosys
eRecruiting Staffing Solutions
Hewlett Packard
Product take-Back programs, green packaging and integrating
desgins.
Editor's Notes
An expatriate is an employee sent by his or her employer to work in a foreign country. The firm is normally referred to as the parent company, while the country of employment is known as the host country.Factors determining the success of expatriatesTechnical competenceRelational skillsAbility to cope with environmental variablesFamily situationReasons for expatriate failure:Inability of spouse to adjustOwn inability to adjustOther family reasonsInability to cope with larger international responsibilties.
In the last two decades there has been an increasing awareness that HR functions were like an island unto itself with softer people-centred values far away from the hard world of real business. In order to justify its own existence HR functions had to be seen as more intimately connected with the strategy and day to day running of the business side of the enterprise. Many writers in the late 1980s, started clamoring for a more strategic approach to the management of people than the standard practices of traditional management of people or industrial relations models. Strategic human resource management focuses on human resource programs with long-term objectives. Instead of focusing on internal human resource issues, the focus is on addressing and solving problems that effect people management programs in the long run and often globally. Therefore the primary goal of strategic human resources is to increase employee productivity by focusing on business obstacles that occur outside of human resources. The primary actions of a strategic human resource manager are to identify key HR areas where strategies can be implemented in the long run to improve the overall employee motivation and productivity. Communication between HR and top management of the company is vital as without active participation no cooperation is possible.
The matching modelEarly interest in the ‘matching’ model was evident in Devanna et al.’s (1984) work:‘HR systems and organizational structure should be managed in a way that iscongruent with organizational strategy’ (p. 37). This is close to Chandler’s (1962)distinction between strategy and structure and his often-quoted maxim that ‘structurefollows strategy’. In the Devanna et al. model, HRM–strategy–structure follow and feedupon one another and are influenced by environmental forces (Figure 2.6). Similarly, the notion of ‘fit’ between an external competitive strategy and theinternal HR strategy is a central tenet of the HRM model advanced by Beer et al. . The authors emphasize the analysis of the linkages between the twostrategies and how each strategy provides goals and constraints for the other. Theremust be a ‘fit between competitive strategy and internal HRM strategy and a fit amongthe elements of the HRM strategy’ (Beer et al., 1984, p. 13). The relationship betweenbusiness strategy and HR strategy is said to be ‘reactive’ in the sense that HR strategyis subservient to ‘product market logic’ and the corporate strategy. The latter isassumed to be the independent variable (Boxall, 1992; Purcell & Ahlstrand, 1994). AsMiller (1987, cited in Boxall, 1992, p. 66) emphasizes, ‘HRM cannot be conceptualizedas a stand-alone corporate issue. Strategically speaking it must flow from and bedependent upon the organization’s (market oriented) corporate strategy’. There issome theorization of the link between product markets and organizational design, andapproaches to people management. Thus, for example, each Porterian competitivestrategy involves a unique set of responses from workers, or ‘needed role behaviours’,and a particular HR strategy that might generate and reinforce a unique pattern ofbehaviour (Cappelli & Singh, 1992; Schuler & Jackson, 1987). HRM is therefore seento be ‘strategic by virtue of its alignment with business strategy and its internal consistency
This second approach to developing typologies of HR strategy is grounded in thenature of the reward–effort exchange and, more specifically, the degree to whichmanagers view their human resources as an asset as opposed to a variable cost. Superior performance through workers is underscored when advanced technology andother inanimate resources are readily available to competing firms. The sum ofpeople’s knowledge and expertise, and social relationships, has the potentialto providenon-substitutable capabilities that serve as a source of competitive advantage(Cappelli & Singh, 1992). The various perspectives on resource-based HRM modelsraise questions about the inextricable connection between work-related learning, the‘mobilization of employee consent’ through learning strategies and competitiveadvantage. Given the upsurge of interest in resource-based models, and in particularthe new workplace learning discourse, we need to examine this model in some detail.The genesis of the resource-based model can be traced back to Selznick (1957), whosuggested that work organizations each possess ‘distinctive competence’ that enablesthem to outperform their competitors, and to Penrose (1959), who conceptualized thefirm as a ‘collection of productive resources’. She distinguished between ‘physical’ and‘human resources’, and drew attention to issues of learning, including the knowledgeand experience of the management team. Moreover, Penrose emphasized what manyorganizational theorists take for granted – that organizations are ‘heterogeneous’(Penrose, 1959, cited in Boxall, 1996, pp. 64–5). More recently, Barney (1991) has argued that ‘sustained competitive advantage’ (emphasis added) is achieved notthrough an analysis of a firm’s external market position but through a careful analysisof its skills and capabilities, characteristics that competitors find themselves unable toimitate. Putting it in terms of a simple SWOT analysis, the resource-based perspectiveemphasizes the strategic importance of exploiting internal ‘strengths’ and neutralizinginternal ‘weaknesses’ (Barney, 1991). The resource-based approach exploits the distinctive competencies of a work organization: its resources and capabilities. An organization’s resources can be divided intotangible (financial, technological, physical and human) and intangible (brand-name,reputation and know-how) resources. To give rise to a distinctive competency, an organization’s resources must be both unique and valuable. By capabilities, we mean thecollective skills possessed by the organization to coordinate effectively the resources.According to strategic management theorists, the distinction between resources andcapabilities is critical to understanding what generates a distinctive competency (see,for example, Hill & Jones, 2001). It is important to recognize that a firm may not needa uniquely endowed workforce to establish a distinctive competency as long as it hasmanagerial capabilities that no competitor possesses. This observation may explainwhy an organization adopts one of the control-based HR strategies.
Bamberger and Meshoulam (2000) integrate the two main models of HR strategy, onefocusing on the strategy’s underlying logic of managerial control, the other focusingon the reward–effort exchange. Arguing that neither of the two dichotomousapproaches (control- and resource-based models) provides a framework able to encompass the ebb and flow of the intensity and direction of HR strategy, they build a modelthat characterizes the two main dimensions of HR strategy as involving ‘acquisitionand development’ and the ‘locus of control’. Acquisition and development are concerned with the extent to which the HR strategydevelops internal human capital as opposed to the external recruitment of humancapital. In other words, organizations can lean more towards ‘making’ their workers(high investment in training) or more towards ‘buying’ their workers from theexternal labour market (Rousseau, 1995). Bamberger and Meshoulam (2000) call thisthe ‘make-or-buy’ aspect of HR strategy. Locus of control is concerned with the degree to which HR strategy focuses on monitoring employees’ compliance with process-based standards as opposed to developinga psychological contract that nurtures social relationships, encourages mutual trust andrespect, and controls the focus on the outcomes (ends) themselves. This strand ofthinking in HR strategy can be traced back to the ideas of Walton (1987), who made adistinction between commitment and control strategies (Hutchinson et al., 2000). AsFigure 2.8 shows, these two main dimensions of HR strategy yield four different ‘idealtypes’ of dominant HR strategy: commitment collaborative paternalistic traditional.The commitment HR strategy is characterized as focusing on the internal development of employees’ competencies and outcome control. In contrast, the traditional HRstrategy, which parallels Bamberger and Meshoulam’s ‘secondary’ HR strategy, isviewed as focusing on the external recruitment of competencies and behavioural orprocess-based controls. The collaborative HR strategy, which parallels Bamberger andMeshoulam’s ‘free agent’ HR strategy, involves the organization subcontracting workto external independent experts (for example consultants or contractors), givingextensive autonomy and evaluating their performance primarily in terms of the endresults. The paternalistic HR strategy offers learning opportunities and internal promotion to employees for their compliance with process-based control mechanisms. EachHR strategy represents a distinctive HR paradigm, or set of beliefs, values and assumptions, that guide managers. Similar four-cell grids have been developed by Lepak andSnell (1999). Based upon emprical evidence, Bamberger and Meshoulam suggest thatthe HR strategies in the diagonal quandrants ‘commitment’ and ‘traditional’ are likelyto be the most prevalent in (North American) work organizations.It is argued that an organization’s HR strategy is strongly related to its competitivestrategy. So, for example, the traditional HR strategy (bottom right quantrant) is mostlikely to be adopted by management when there is certainty over how inputs aretransformed into outcomes and/or when employee performance can be closely monnitored or appraised. This dominant HR strategy is more prevalent in firms with a highlyroutinized transformation process, low-cost priority and stable competitive environment. Under such conditions, managers use technology to control the uncertaintyinherent in the labour process and insist only that workers enact the specified corestandards of behaviour required to facilitate undisrupted production. Managerialbehaviour in such organizations can be summed up by the managerial edict ‘You arehere to work, not to think!’ Implied by this approach is a focus on process-basedcontrol in which ‘close monitoring by supervisors and efficiency wages ensureadequate work effort’ (MacDuffie, 1995, quoted by Bamberger & Meshoulam, 2002, p. 60). The use of the word ‘traditional’ to classify this HR strategy and the use of a technological ‘fix’ to control workers should not be viewed as a strategy only of ‘industrial’ worksites. Case study research on call centres, workplaces that some organizationaltheorists label ‘post-industrial’, reveal systems of technical and bureacratic controlthat closely monitor and evaluate their operators (Sewell, 1998; Thompson &McHugh, 2002).The other dominant HR strategy, the commitment HR strategy (top left quantrant),is most likely to be found in workplaces in which management lacks a full knowledgeof all aspects of the labour process and/or the ability to monitor closely or evaluate theefficacy of the worker behaviours required for executing the work (for example singlebatch, high quality production, research and development, and health care professionals). This typically refers to ‘knowledge work’. In such workplaces, managers mustrely on employees to cope with the uncertainties inherent in the labour process andcan thus only monitor and evaluate the outcomes of work. This HR strategy is associated with a set of HR practices that aim to develop highly committed and flexiblepeople, internal markets that reward commitment with promotion and a degree of jobsecurity, and a ‘participative’ leadership style that forges a commonality of interestand mobilizes consent to the organization’s goals (Hutchinson et al., 2000). In addition, as others have noted, workers under such conditions do not always need to beovertly controlled because they may effectively ‘control themselves’ (Thompson,1989; Thompson & McHugh, 2002). To develop cooperation and common interests,an effort–reward exchange based upon investment in learning, internal promotionand internal equity is typically used (Bamberger & Meshoulam, 2000). In addition,such workplaces ‘mobilize’ employee consent through culture strategies, including thepopular notion of the ‘learning organization’.As one of us has argued elsewhere(Bratton, 2001, p. 341):For organizational controllers, workplace learning provides a compelling ideology in thetwenty-first century, with an attractive metaphor for mobilizing worker commitmentand sustainable competitiveness … [And] the learning organization paradigm can be