Confidence Interval or the lack of it....... It is 1581 Anno .docx

Confidence Interval or the lack of it.......
It is 1581 Anno Domini. At the Undergraduate School of
UMUC, besides Assistant Academic Director of Mathematics
and Statistics, I am also the Undergraduate School-appointed
CPA, Coffee Pot Attendant.
It is a very important office sponsored by the Holy See.
I have taken this job very seriously, because I believe that I am
the key to increased productivity at the Undergraduate School.
Why, by mid-morning, many of my colleagues act as if they
were
It is imperative that I restore productivity via a secret naturally-
occurring molecule, caffeine........
In order to see if my secret molecule works, I have observed
the time, in hours, a random selection of ten of my colleagues
who could stay awake at the extremely long-winded Dean's
meeting as soon as it started. Oh, yes, one fell asleep even
before the meeting started!
1.9
0.8
1.1
0.1
-0.1
4.4
5.5
1.6
4.6
3.4
Disclaimer: I was not in the picture above.
Now, I have to complete a report to the Provost's Office on

the effectiveness of my secret molecule so that UMUC can file
for a patent at the United Provinces Patent and Trademark
Office as soon as possible. Oh, yes, I am waiting for a
handsome reward from the Provost.....
But I need the following information:
· What is a 95% confidence interval for the time my colleagues
can stay awake on average for all of my colleagues?
· Was my secret molecule effective in increasing their attention
span, I mean, staying awake? And, please explain.....
OK, take your time, but hurry up !!!
Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition
Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin
Racial and Ethnic Relations
NINTH EDITION
Chapter
Arab Americans
and Other
Middle Eastern Americans
12

Big Picture QuestionsWhat role have Arab Americans played in
building up this country’s wealth and institutions?What effect
has the ideology of Orientalism had on U.S. society?How have
Arab Americans challenged U.S. religious and racial
stereotypes?
MIDDLE EASTERN AMERICANSPeople in the U.S. are
confused about 3 categories that overlapMiddle Eastern
AmericansArab Americans, and Muslim Americans
DistinctionsMiddle Eastern AmericansAn umbrella term for
Americans whose ancestry is in any of the Middle Eastern
countriesMay be non-Arab and/or non-MuslimUmbrella group
more important since 9/11Arab AmericansPeople from
numerous Arab countriesThis is just one group within the
category of Middle Eastern Americans, and some are not
MuslimMuslim AmericansEncompasses many people who are
not Middle EasternIncludes many African Americans, South
Asian Americans, and whites

ARAB AMERICANSEuropean civilization heavily influenced
by advanced Arab cultures in the 10th-12th
centuriesWidespread use of the Arabic language indicates how
far Arab empire once spreadSince the 1960s Arab-Israeli
conflicts, a very strong pan-Arab identity has developed in the
Middle EastIn the United States a strong pan-ethnic Arab
American identity has also emerged, in part as a reaction to the
stereotyping of Arab Americans and in part as a reaction to
what is seen as an anti-Arab tilt by the U.S. government in
Middle Eastern conflicts
Population with Arab Ancestry by Detailed Group (2008)
MIGRATIONToday, many Arab Americans are immigrants or
the children of immigrantsSojourner ImmigrationThe plan of
immigrants to earn money and return homeMost Arab
immigrants have entered U.S. since 1967Since 9/11, Arab
immigrants, Muslim and non-Muslim, and other Muslim
immigrants have faced much racial profiling by U.S.
government officialsImmigration regulations have been violated
or applied disproportionatelyHomeland Security Act has gained

control of immigrants
CoalescenceAmerican-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee
(ADC)Has fought racial profiling and discriminationIn recent
decades, immigrant groups have coalesced into an Arab
American umbrella group for social and political goalsDetroit
study surveyed leaders of Middle Eastern organizations to
discern if there were cultural traits share across diverse
groupsMost stressed the importance of extended kinship
networks
STEREOTYPING AND PREJUDICEIn first period of Arab
immigration, classified as “Turks” or “Syrians”Between 1909
and 1944, at least eight court decisions legally constructed
whether Arabs were “white,” and four ruled that by “common
knowledge” or “legal precedent,” they should not be considered
whiteRight of Arab immigrants to citizenship and to claim
whiteness continued to be challenged in many
institutionsSuffered extreme stereotypes that whites drew from
an entrenched white racist frame

Recent Stereotyping and
U.S. PoliticsStrong negative images of Arab Americans and
Middle Eastern Americans have been circulating for
decadesSince 1960s, U.S. government policies have helped
spread negative stereotypesToday, as in past, political figures in
Middle East characterized in biologically racist termsTelevision
and movies have often circulated stereotyped images
Challenging StereotypingFew U.S. leaders outside Middle
Eastern American communities have been willing to challenge
racialized imagesAfrican American leader Jesse JacksonFirst
major U.S. political leader to speak publicly of Arab Americans
in strongly positive termsArab and other Middle Eastern
American leaders have expressed concernFrequency of negative
images and infrequency of positive media commentaries
Stereotypes and Arab American WomenArab women frequently
portrayed as exotic, passive, or totally dominated by
menSeveral Arab and Middle Eastern countries have had a
greater percentage of women in their governing bodies than the

U.S.Women in numerous Arab countries face issues of imposed
hijab or burka, though in many cases they choose covering out
of respect for traditions or to be liberated from a “sex object”
status
Arab American Women, continued“Many . . . report feeling full
of dignity and self-esteem and enjoy that physical, personal self
does not enter into social interactions”Traditional values in
Arab countries emphasize family honor and stipulate that
women be modest and protected when around male
strangersCentrality of certain body imagery in U.S. media
creates problems for Arab American womenAs a result, “dark
pigmentation and, especially, dark body hair, have been sources
of shame to Arab American girls growing up in U.S.”
OPPRESSION, DISCRIMINATION, AND CONFLICTEarly
Arab immigrants and their children faced racialized
discriminationEspecially in southern areas where self-defined
whites often classified Arabs as non-whiteAlthough U.S. Census
Bureau now defines Arab immigrants and descendents as white,
most non-Arab Americans still view them as “not white”Array
of contemporary discrimination is broad

International Politics and DiscriminationCommonplace
“Orientalist” distortions of Arab and Middle Eastern people
have serious implications for U.S. government policiesIn recent
decades, various kinds of discrimination have been linked to
international issues and to stereotypes held by many non-Arab
AmericansAnti-Arab stereotyping has persisted since the 1970s
at the highest levels of governmentSince the 1970s, Arab
American activists have been targets of harassment and violence
Before 9/11The 1990s Anti-Terrorism and Effective Death
Penalty Act and the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant
Responsibility Act have given federal authorities powers to
detain and interrogate immigrants suspected of links to terrorist
organizations without the usual constitutional and civil rights
protectionIn the 1990s, the FBI and the Immigration and
Naturalization Service also developed a plan to imprison Arab
Americans in the event of a war between the United States and
any Arab country

Effect of the Attacks on
World Trade Center & Pentagon9/11 attacks generated many
hate crimes against Arab Americans or those who were thought
to look like Arabs2001 Patriot Act gave federal government
broad authority to detain noncitizens with little or no due
process and to carry out searches and surveillance with less
judicial reviewMany Arab and Middle Eastern Americans have
been targeted by federal agents and private security because of
the way they look
Taking Action Against DiscriminationLawsuits by Arab civil
rights groups have been aimed at Homeland Security for using
racial profilingAntidiscrimination groups have protested several
movies that show Arabs as terrorists and/or threats to the
U.S.Many Arab Americans have supported civil rights
organizations such as the Council on American-Islamic
Relations (CAIR) that have taken action against anti-Arab and
anti-Muslim discrimination
using various strategies
Local Conflict and Cooperation with Other GroupsIn Detroit,
Arab businesses have periodic conflicts with other racial and
ethnic groupsSome black groups report being treated with

disrespect or discriminationIn recent years, local Jewish and
Arab American groups have made substantial efforts to increase
contacts and dialogue
POLITICS AND POLITICAL EMERGENCEArab and Muslim
Americans have increased their political activityMajor voter
registration drives have led to a substantial increase in Arab
voter participationConsumer advocate, Ralph Nader (Lebanese
American) has run for president in several recent
electionsNegative images of Arab Americans, however, have
interfered with their ability to participate fully in politics
International Politics and LinkagesSocial and political ties to
nations of origin remain importantRecently, Arab and Muslim
Americans have been critical of U.S. foreign policy for tilting
too far in support of IsraelRecent surveys show that majorities
of both Arab Americans & Jewish Americans favor an
independent Palestinian state and the right of Israel to be secure
and independentArab American activists and organizations have
also focused on domestic issues of immigration and health care

THE ECONOMYMost early 20th century Arab immigrants
bypassed new industrial occupations and instead became small
merchantsEarly immigrants often working-classRecent
immigrants professionals and business peopleArab Americans
are more prosperous economically than some other racial and
ethnic groupsArab Americans are concentrated in a few major
cities, with the largest number in the Detroit area
Occupational Distribution (2008)
Median Family Income and Poverty Rates (2008)
EDUCATIONAverage Arab American better educated than
average AmericanSome send children to private Muslim
schools, but most attend public schoolsEducator Wendy

Schwartz: “Because prejudice against Arab Americans
increases when political events involve Arabs . . . , educators
need to be prepared to respond to possible harassment of Arab
American students”Educators also need to be sensitive to major
cultural practices of Arab Americans
Educational Attainment of
Those 25 Years and Older (2008)
RELIGIONReligion has long been central to Middle Eastern
countries and culturesMost early Arab immigrants were
ChristianSince the 1960s, most immigrants have been
MuslimIslam practiced in North America since 1st century of
European settlementSome enslaved Africans were
MuslimsArrival of Arab and other Middle Eastern Muslim
immigrants since 1960s has brought conflicts to some Islamic
mosques and organizations

ReligiosityRecent Pew poll: Nearly 75% of Muslim Americans
said religion was very important in their everyday lives, as
compared with 60% of those Americans who indicated they
were Christians40% of the Muslims went to mosque services at
least once a week, as compared to 45% of Christian Americans
who attended church at least once a week
Intolerance
Unlike various denominations of Christianity, Islam not yet
fully accepted in U.S.U.S. media periodically connect
mainstream Islam to extremists and terrorismRecurring linkage
of Islam to extremist terrorism creates serious dilemmas for
Muslim AmericansReligious intolerance still confronts them
dailySome have decided to deny or “de-emphasize their Arab or
Islamic background”
ADAPTATION AND ASSIMILATION ISSUESPartial cultural
assimilation has come relatively quickly for most Arab
immigrants and their childrenIn the sphere of structural
assimilation at the secondary level of economics and politics,
early Arab Americans advanced and gradually achieved
substantial successIn contrast, immigrants since the 1960s have

assimilated more slowly because numbers have been larger and
more intense anti-Arab sentiment has existed in the U.S.
Contemporary Assimilation Issues and Patterns Issues receiving
greatest emphasisImmigration, cultural preservation,
citizenship, and assimilationSignificant language and other
cultural assimilation is taking place in Arab American
communitiesAlthough some oppose marriage outside the group
because it threatens solidarity, intermarriage is increasingAlong
with vertical economic progress has come horizontal mobility,
especially suburbanization
Assimilation and Generational ConflictsToday, Arab and
Middle Eastern American groups are relatively youngMany are
under the age of 25Like children of other immigrants, Arab
children are caught between parents’ culture and dominant U.S.
cultureYoung are enticed away from traditional values and
practices by negative aspects of U.S. cultureDrugs, sexual
promiscuitySome community leaders fear anti-Arab prejudice
and discrimination will cause youth to abandon heritage and
ancestry more rapidly

Creating a Hybrid CultureEthnogenesis perspective seems to fit
Arab American experience in certain waysConstituted of more
than a single Middle Eastern groupOne study found that
Michigan’s Arab American organizations have helped young
people become assimilated to good features of U.S. culture &
society while cautioning them about its bad features and
emphasizing traditional Arab family & religious valuesMediated
AssimilationThe process whereby Arab American organizations
act as cultural filters to screen out some undesirable features of
U.S. culture
Power-Conflict IssuesDominant European American majority
has major say in how Arab Americans are portrayed in the
media and how they are viewed and treated in U.S.
institutionsContinuing societal stereotyping and discrimination
have pressed some Arab Americans to deny or deemphasize
their Islamic or Arab tiesRacial-ethnic identity of Arab
Americans today is more than a “symbolic identity” without
lasting significance

NINTH EDITION
Chapter
Japanese Americans
10
Big Picture QuestionsWhat role have Japanese Americans
played in building up this country’s wealth and
institutions?How has a white racial framing shaped negative
perceptions of Japanese Americans?Does the “middleman
minority” theoretical perspective fit the experiences of Japanese
Americans?
INTRODUCTION: ASIAN AMERICANSAsian-American &
Asian-Pacific AmericanUmbrella terms for Americans with
ancestral roots in Asia or the Pacific IslandsChanges in U.S.
immigration laws since 1965, especially elimination of
discriminatory quotas, have allowed a substantial increase in
immigration from Asia and Pacific Islands

JAPANESE AMERICANSNow nearly 1.3 million and one of the
oldest Asian-American groupsModel Minority
StereotypeCharacterizes certain Asian American groups as
exemplary in socioeconomic and moral characteristics, often as
compared to other people of colorMost heavily concentrated in
western statesStill impacted by stereotypes of “crafty
Orientals,” images of militaristic expansionism from the 1930s,
resentment of “unfair” economic competition
MIGRATION: AN OVERVIEWAsian and Pacific Americans
include many immigrant groupsHistorically, immigration of
early Asian groups proceeded seriallyResult of white employers
seeking new laborers and of white workers motivated by racism
to stop immigration by Asian worker groupsPrevention of
Chinese immigration in 1880sJapanese workers were recruited
to fill demand for labor
Asian-Pacific American Groups (1980-2008)

Early ImmigrationGunboat ImperialismImperialism backed by
the use or threat of military forceJapan’s initial contact with
U.S.Hawaii became first destination for Japanese immigrants in
U.S.231,000 migrated there between 1868 and 1929Became part
of racial hierarchy headed by white plantersLearned they could
not “advance themselves through individualism and small
business” as on the mainlandBecame laborers and adopted
strategy of “unionization, politics, and collective action”
Mainland MigrationBetween 1880s and Gentleman’s Agreement
in 1908More than 150,000 enteredMainland immigrants moved
into greater diversity of economic positionsWhite employers
favored labor immigrationWhite workers and unions opposed
itUnlike earlier Chinese immigrants, Japanese were able for a
time to bring in families
More Racist Agitation and RestrictionsWhite writers and
politicians expressed fear of Asian immigrantsThe American
Legion and California Farm Bureau Association pressed for

exclusionCongress succumbed and passed 1924 Immigration
ActEstablished racist quotas that gave preference to “Nordic”
countriesGovernment action against Asians spurred by white
unions and hate groupsJapanese were largest group of Asian
Americans at about 1 million in 1965
STEREOTYPESStereotypes of Asian Americans take a variety
of formsRobert Lee – “Six Images”“Pollutant,” “coolie,”
“deviant,” “yellow peril,” “model minority,” and “gook”Within
short period, early laborers gained farm land by contract or
leaseU.S. presidents, senators, and ordinary whites exaggerated
differences between themselves and Japanese immigrantsU.S.
movie industry played important role in circulation of
stereotypes
War PropagandaJapanese were considered an “inferior race”
with the brashness to challenge European and American
interests in the PacificCalifornia attorney general and later U.S.
chief justice Earl Warren depicted Japanese as
dangerousNational press argued there were many enemy agents
in this populationNo Japanese American ever proven to have
collaborated with enemy during WWIIStereotypes slowly began
to change after WWII

Recent Distortions, Stereotypes, and OmissionsStudy of
Japanese Americans in 1970s found numerous distortions in
history textbooksMost omitted brutal exploitation by U.S.
employers in Hawaii and CaliforniaJapanese and other Asian
Americans reported whites frequently congratulate them on how
well they speak English as though they were foreign bornRacist
framing and actions often involve mocking language and
cultures of Americans of color
Continued Racist FramingDebates about negative images in
media, 2000s reemergenceDisney film Pearl Harboruse of
derogatory epithet “Japs” and one-sided portrayal of
WWIIParamount film The Goods: Live Hard, Sell Harddepiction
of white executive making derogatory references to “Japs” and
citing Pearl Harbor attack to incite coworker violence against
Asian American employeeOther examplesSan Francisco radio
station – anti-Asian remarksToledo, Ohio, radio station –
language mockingRosie O’Donnell – language mockingAdidas -
- caricature of buck-toothed, slant-eyed Asian as logoSuch
stereotypes integral part of old white racial framing of society

REPRESSION AND
VIOLENT ATTACKSAnti-Japanese movements sometimes
turned to violenceFirst acts came within decade of their
arrivalScientists sent by Japan to help with earthquake relief
after the San Francisco quake of 1906 were attacked by white
menEscalated at beginning of WWII1942: whites carried out
attacks on Japanese Americans and their property
The Ugly Specter of U.S. Concentration Camps
Japanese military victories in the Pacific increased fear of
Japanese invasion on the U.S. mainland1st major phase of
federal action: Americans whose ancestry was linked to
countries at war with the U.S. were moved from sensitive areas
and their travel restricted2nd stage: Executive Order 9066:
Residence was restricted and Japanese Americans were
detained, their businesses sold at a lossIn 1942, more than 2/3
Japanese detained inland were native-born U.S.
citizensProtested their discrimination in numerous
demonstrations

Why the Camps Were CreatedU.S. Supreme Court upheld
military decision though clear violation of Constitutional civil
rightsAmerican leaders saw struggle in the Pacific as a racial
warJapanese Americans fought unsuccessfully in courts and
with demonstrationsThis racialized oppression of U.S. citizens
occurred at a time when U.S. government was proclaiming
values of freedom and democracy to a war-torn world
Later ImpactAfter WWII, Japanese Americans on west coast
still faced economic discrimination and violent attacksFastest-
growing category of hate crimes in recent decades has been
against Asian AmericansLieutenant Ehren WatadaProtested Iraq
War by refusing deploymentArgued that Iraq War violated U.S.
and international lawConnected his conscientious stand with
those of the concentration camp era who actively stood up
against oppression
THE POLITICAL ARENA1929: Japanese American Citizens
League (JACL) formedSince WWII, JACL and other
organizations have won political and legal
victoriesOrganizations continued to press government for
adequate repayment for losses1987: $1.2 billion in reparations
approved2001: memorial to Japanese Americans who were
incarcerated or were soldiers who served in U.S. military was

dedicated in Washington, D.C.
Government OfficialsJapanese-American World War II veterans
elected to Hawaiian state legislature led to statehood of islands
in 1950sPolitical victories on mainland difficult because of
dilution of Japanese votes in predominantly non-Asian
populationsHistorically, many Asian Americans reluctant to
participate actively in politicsFear of intensifying
discrimination against their groupsJapanese and other Asians
who enter political arena encounter overtly racist reactions
Politics, Stereotyping, and Competition with JapanActs of
vandalism and violence by whites against Japanese Americans
motivated by fear of economic competition with JapanIn recent
decades, Japan’s economic development has surpassed U.S. in
many areasIncreasing unemployment in local and national
recessions have periodically fueled tendency to blame Asians
for U.S. economic troublesAnti-Japanese hostility among non-
Asians can still turn to threats of violence today

Protest Organizations
and Group PrideVoluntary associations formed in early 1900s to
combat anti-Japanese discrimination1960s: pan-Asian
organizations appeared, often established by younger
generationsNumerous colleges and universities have developed
Asian-American studies programsIn recent years, however, hate
crimes directed against Asians have persisted on campuses –
and off
*
THE ECONOMYFirst four generations of JapaneseIssei (born in
Japan), Nisei, Sansei, and YonseiIssei played “middleman
minority” roleMost early immigrants came from eleven Japanese
prefectures which were represented by an association in the
U.S.1913 California Alien Land LawStipulated “aliens” could
not buy land or lease it for more than 3 yearsOften became
gardeners or nursery operators

EmploymentEvelyn Nakano Glenn: “Japanese-American women
labored along with men to secure their own and their families’
livelihood”Some worked as domestic servants to whitesResisted
oppression in covert waysAs need for labor grew after WWII,
white employers finally began to hire JapaneseSecond and later
generations gradually moved from small business economy to
professional and other white-collar jobs
Occupational MobilityIncome data reveal economic successYet,
they face exclusion from certain positions in many business,
entertainment, political, and civil service areasGlass CeilingAn
unwritten policy in some organizations that limits advancement
of certain people based on their racial group or gender
EDUCATIONIssei had strong commitment to educationJapanese
Americans developed their own schools to educate children in
the Japanese language and cultureBy 1930s, making great
strides despite discriminationWartime imprisonment interrupted
educational pursuitsJapanese Americans among the most
educated Americans

RELIGIONImmigrants brought Buddhism and Shintoism White
exclusionists claimed temples were areas of emperor
worshipToday, many Japanese Americans are members of
Protestant churchesChurches second in importance only to
family in cementing the communityResurgence in Buddhism in
recent decades among Asians and non-Asians
ASSIMILATION PERSPECTIVESJapanese Americans are
probably the most assimilated to Euro-American core culture of
all Americans of colorAssimilationists argue that some cultural
assimilation came early for Issei2nd generation Nisei became
bicultural3rd generation Sansei and 4th generation Yonsei
closed the gap in some aspects with the dominant
cultureLater generations highly oriented to norms of white
middle-class culture, retaining few Asian traditions
AssimilationStructural assimilation at secondary-group levels
significant for Japanese AmericansBehavior-receptional and
attitude-receptional assimilation showed little change until after
WWIIDiscrimination and prejudice marred lives of Issei and
Nisei for first 60 yearsBy 1980s whites did “not see [Japanese

Americans] as very different from themselves”High rate of
intermarriage with whitesStill experience substantial levels of
subtle, blatant, and/or covert discrimination
Intermarriage and TraditionsAsian-white marriages illegal until
late 1940sOut-marriage rates to whites now high in
California2006 census: A majority were married within the
Asian-American umbrella groupFew have rejected their
Japanese cultural heritage or identityYounger Japanese
Americans retaining some distinctive organizations and
traditions
Measuring AssimilationEven with signs of significant
acculturation to the core culture, most Japanese-American
college students hold values close to those of their
parentsKitano and Daniels: Asian Americans can be grouped
into major categories based onDegree of overall assimilation to
dominant Eurocentric culture and institutionsStrength of “ethnic
identity”Many Japanese Americans (and other Asian Americans)
in 3rd and later generations are in “high assimilation, low
ethnic identity” categoryHapaThe Hawaiian word for “those of
mixed ancestry”

*
Power-Conflict ViewFew analysts have interpreted Japanese-
American experience from power-conflict perspectiveBecause
the U.S. was an imperial power in the Pacific, U.S. labor agents
had easy entry into Asian countries and could dictate
agreements benefiting U.S. employersAt first Japanese
Americans were forced by white-generated discrimination to
become low-wage workers
Power-Conflict View, continuedPressure to acculturate largely
coercive for first two generationsEarly commitment to cultural
assimilation in Japanese communities was a reaction to severe
racial discrimination Implicit bias in traditional assimilation
modelAssimilation theory emerged in a period of intense white
agitation against Japanese immigration and reflected racist
views of white scholarsU.S. government played role in defining
racial groups

Criticizing the “Model Minority” Stereotype
Paramount weakness in assimilation analysis is reliance on a
“model minority”Whites intentionally created model minority
during period of Africa- American protest to suggest that
African Americans could achieve by working harder rather than
protesting institutional discriminationEducational opportunities
not available to blacks helped Asians get white-collar jobs after
the war
“Success”Success came at the price of marginalization in small-
business economy and later in certain professionsEconomic
success a result of carving distinctive niches, which is not in
line with idealistic assimilation modelsBias in traditional
cultural-background explanationThe idea that racial or ethnic
groups whose values are closest to those of the dominant white
group are the ones who should be and will be successful
Evolving PatternsJanice TanakaNisei greatly affected by
internment and placed pressure on themselves and their children
to conform to white perspectives and customsJapanese
immigration and Japanese-American integration into the
dominant society have been shaped by U.S. corporations’

intervention in the world economyNew economic alliances in
the Pacific Rim are bypassing U.S.
What RemainsJapan is powerful in Pacific Rim alliancesThis is
part of the reason there has been relatively little recent
migration from Japan to U.S.Some non-Asian Americans, angry
over domestic troubles, confuse Japanese Americans (and other
Asian Americans) with the Japanese Asian Americans are
blamed unfairly for economic troubles caused by U.S.
employers investing overseas
What RemainsJACL: “[For a time] Japan was perceived as
‘taking over’ the U.S. by buying companies and real estate.
There was not much awareness that Great Britain and Canada,
respectively, were the largest foreign investor and the largest
foreign owner of real estate in the U.S. at the time

NINTH EDITION
Chapter
Chinese, Filipino, Korean, Vietnamese, and Asian-Indian
Americans
11
Big Picture QuestionsWhat role have Asian-American groups
played in building up this country’s wealth and
institutions?How has systemic racism affected the Asian-
American experience?Why have numerous Asian groups
recently migrated to the United States?
MIGRATION: AN OVERVIEWAsian Americans often find
themselves pressured by dominant Eurocentric culture to
conformSince 1980s, Filipinos, Chinese, Koreans, Vietnamese,
and Asian Indians have been among the fastest-growing U.S.
immigrant groups1924 Immigration Act excluded people in
Asian countries from immigrating to U.S.

Legal Permanent Residents, by Country of Last Residence
(1820–2009)
Immigration Acts1952 Immigration and Nationality
ActEstablished principles for immigration policy1 –
Reunification of families2 – Protection of the domestic labor
force3 – Immigration of persons with needed skills1965
Immigration Act and its amendments gave preference to family
members of people already in U.S., so recent legal permanent
residents are relatives of previous immigrants
MIGRATION:
Chinese AmericansChinese immigration began in substantial
numbers in the decade before the U.S. Civil War, with a
quarter-million coming during three decades after 1860Most
were men who entered as low-wage workers, brought in to do
the “dirty work” for white employers in the WestThe few
women who immigrated came alone, often brought by force to
work as prostitutes

MIGRATION:
Chinese Americans, continued1870s: U.S. economy depression
led whites to accuse Chinese of driving wages to substandard
level and taking white jobs1882: Chinese Exclusion Act:
Officially prohibited direct immigration2nd major period of
immigration took place after 1965 immigration
reformBetween1960 and 1979, more than 300,000 Chinese,
mainly from Hong Kong and Taiwan, came to U.S.
MIGRATION:
Filipino AmericansU.S. took over Philippines after Spanish-
American WarImperialistic relationship establishedPhilippines a
U.S. colonyFilipinos exempt from anti-Asian exclusionary
provisions of 1917 and 1924 immigration actsFilipinos held
ambiguous legal position until allowed U.S. citizenship30,000
were recruited to fight during WWIIThese veterans were not
granted right to U.S. citizenship until Immigration Act of
1990Most still ineligible for many veterans’ benefits until 2009,
when key provisions of Filipino Veterans Equity Act went into
effect

MIGRATION:
Korean AmericansImmigration began in early 1900s Picture
BridesKorean men sent their pictures to prospective brides in
their homeland, and marriages were arranged on the basis of
photographs, without the bride and groom having met1910-
1924: More than 1000 such brides came to U.S.U.S.
intervention during Korean War led to admiration of Americans
and U.S.Changes in immigration laws in 1965 opened up
possibilitiesRecent Census estimate: 1.6 million Americans
with Korean ancestry, nearly 10% of Asian American population
MIGRATION:
Vietnamese AmericansMost Vietnamese immigrants have come
since 1975, when U.S. involvement in Vietnam War ended U.S.
military was ally of South Vietnamese governmentLarge
numbers of Vietnamese refugees were admitted outside usual
immigration process as political refugees1980-1990: Number of
Americans with Vietnamese ancestry grew 142%1990-2000:
Population again increased dramatically20,000-30,000
immigrate annuallyPopulation over 1.7 million today

MIGRATION:
Asian-Indian AmericansOf all Asian-Pacific groups, least well
known
– Asian Indians from India1800s: 1st were Sikhs --
worked on railroads, in agricultureThree periods evident in the
migrations1960s: male professionals--wives uneducated1970s:
included more of an occupational mixture -- more well-educated
women1980s on: larger, more diverse group – some similar to
earlier immigrants & some relatives sponsored by earlier
immigrantsHave had economic resources to move directly into
suburbs, resulting in more geographical dispersion
Asian Women as ImmigrantsStereotyped as being withdrawn
and docileAsian immigrant families include many women who
are strong in their own rightAgents of their own destiny, often
making painful decision to come to U.S.Immigration experience
often reshapes traditional gender relationshipsTake a more
active role in providing economic and other support for their
familiesThis reshapes their relationships with men in their
families

STEREOTYPESOrientalismUninformed and stereotypical way
of thinking of Asian peopleCommon stereotype is that Asians
are the same, physically and culturallyTelevision and films
portray as criminal, dangerous, or fanaticalModel minority
stereotype overstates economic situation and progress and
underplays racist barriers faced
Specific Images
of Asian Americans West Coast whites angry over Chinese
arrivalsCalled “coolies,” “heathens,” “mice-eaters,” or
“Chinks”Modest changes in white attitudes came after U.S.
declared war on Japan in 1941Stereotypes of Filipino
immigrants have fluctuated according to their usefulness to
white employers as low-wage workersVietnamese arrived when
unemployment high, creating fears refugees would take jobs or
drain government resources
Effects of StereotypingMovie industry long perpetuated variety
of negative stereotyped images of Asian men & womenMen
portrayed as weak, sexless, or effeminate,
especially in recent yearsOne severe type of

stereotypingAsian-American women as exotic sex objectsMany
have written that white men seek them out with images of exotic
sexual relationships and/or submissive wives in their heads3
most common surgeries to look white:Eyelid surgery, nose
reshaping, and breast augmentation
More Stereotyping in the MediaOver many decades, mostly
white-controlled media have negatively stereotyped and mocked
Asian groupsStudy found widespread trivialization of Asian
customs, ridicule of pronunciation, and use of inflammatory
phrasesRecently, several Asian Americans targets of
stereotyping in investigation of alleged illegal Clinton campaign
contributions Old racist images resurfacedU.S. Chinese-
language media subsequently turned away from San Francisco
Clinton fundraiser in 2008
PerceptionsElite, media, and public stereotypes of Asian
Americans still include notions of the latter as threatening,
relatively unassimilated, culturally odd foreignersAsian
immigrants interviewed by researchers noted that they did not
see themselves in racialized terms until arrival in U.S.

DISCRIMINATION AND CONFLICTHarassment and violence
have occurred since earliest days of Asian
immigrationPeriodically, some anti-Asian hate crime is reported
in the mediaU.S. Commission on Civil Rights has noted that
such hate crimes are underreportedPolice distrust and limited
understanding of civil rights along with language barriersFew
interpretive services for those who don’t speak EnglishAdequate
police protection often not providedControversial police
strategy is photographing youth because they fit “gang profile”
DISCRIMINATION:
Chinese Americans19th century: Openly anti-Chinese
sentiments and discrimination common in union policies and
political platforms1982: Murder of Vincent ChinKillers
sentenced to 3 years probation and fine of $3780Commission on
Civil Rights concluded “suggestive of very little value placed
on an Asian American life”Anti-Asian attacks often illustrate
not only racist violence but also confusion of non-Asians about
Asian Americans2009 survey: 7 in 10 Chinese Americans said
they faced “a lot or some prejudice”

DISCRIMINATION:
Filipino Americans
Among earliest of Asian-Pacific immigrants and suffered many
violent attacks White workers bitter about farmers’ use of
FilipinosProlonged riot by whites in 1930Reflected decade of
tensions exacerbated by newspaper commentariesIn more recent
decades, whites have periodically directed hostility towards
FilipinosAlso targeted via racial profiling by government
DISCRIMINATION:
Korean AmericansKorean-American merchants in some
communities of color have faced hostilityBlack residents have
sometimes charged that some merchants treat black customers
rudely and discriminate against black employees and
customersMerchants cite high level of crime they face from
black criminalsEach group accuses the other of racially
motivated violenceDuring LA riot, Koreans felt betrayed as
police officers protected larger shopping centers owned by
whitesOne factor contributing to tensions is that many Asian
immigrants already have antiblack stereotypes

Korean-Black RelationsNegative stereotypes Korean and other
Asian immigrants bring with them can become basis for
negative interactions with African AmericansSuch conflict is
not just about stereotyping by blacks or Koreans, but is a
reflection of a larger system of mostly white-generated racial
framingAnother source of bitterness for blacks is unfounded
belief that federal government helps Koreans start small
businessesKoreans usually pool family resources to start
businesses
DISCRIMINATION:
Vietnamese AmericansMany fished as a livelihood in their
homeland, and some have moved to fishing communities on
U.S. Gulf CoastGenerally took low-paying jobs such as cleaning
fish or working in kitchens; mostly accepted in these jobsWhen
they began to buy boats and started to compete with white
fishers, white attitudes changedHave also faced conflict with
black residents in communities where they operate their
businesses
DISCRIMINATION:

Asian-Indian AmericansTheir children have been called
derogatory names such as “dot heads” and “terrorists”They have
been the subject of racist remarks by white politiciansThey have
faced significant violenceThey have faced significant
harassment by police and other community membersEdison,
N.J., rally was held recently to protest incidents seen as police
brutality
ORGANIZING AND ACTIVISMNumber of Asian-American
voters increasing dramaticallyVote called a “sleeping giant” of
U.S. politicsNationally, large proportion have immigrated too
recently to be eligible to vote, and registration rate of eligible
voters is low, though this is changingRecently, face periodic
discrimination at the pollsFaulty translations of candidates’
names, racist remarks, and lack of assistance
Little Representation2008: Representative Anh Cao (R-La.)
became the only Vietnamese American to ever serve in
Congress2003: Bobby Jindal (R-La.) became only the second
Asian-Indian American ever elected to Congress; he then
became governor of Louisiana Over the decades, only a few
Asian Americans have served in the U.S. Congress; just11
voting members in both houses of Congress as of early
2010Advances at state level slow though growing numbers have

run for office since 1990s
Pan-Asian
Organizations and CoalitionsPanethnicityThe generalization of
solidarity among ethnic subgroupsBegan on college campuses in
the 1960sWomen, however, restricted to subordinate roles in
panethnic organizationsTerm “Asian American” now generally
preferred to the term “Oriental,” which has its roots in European
colonialism and imperialismCoalitions with non-Asian groups
also created
ORGANIZING:
Chinese AmericansLong history of immigration and among the
most politically activeWith new immigration after 1965 came
renewed political activityIn 2000s, concerned about local and
national issues, Asians became more politically activeChinese
Americans are growing in political influence and are
increasingly active in national politics

ORGANIZING:
Filipino AmericansUnited Farm Workers created by merger
between Mexican American organizing drive and Filipino labor
organizationThe National Filipino American CouncilFought for
fairer immigration lawsIn spite of commitment to becoming
citizens, Filipinos rarely elected or appointed to major political
officesNumerous Filipino organizations have responded to
Philippine government call for investment in the islands to
overcome economic crises
ORGANIZING:
Korean AmericansSince the 1980s, Korean American Coalition
chapters have been formed in several citiesBecame very active
after 1992 LA riotPeriodically have vigorously demonstrated
against discrimination and other mistreatmentMany maintain
close ties to KoreaAfter riots, officials from Korea visited area
even before U.S. presidential candidatesSent more than $1
million dollars for North Korean food shortageHave become
involved in U.S. policy debates over the securing of nuclear
weapons by North Korea

ORGANIZING:
Vietnamese AmericansHome country remains important for
Vietnamese AmericansHalf favor establishment of diplomatic
ties with Communist homelandLike other Asians, still
stereotyped as foreignersRecently created numerous important
community organizations and institutionsDeveloped important
national organizations working for southeast Asian-American
concerns
ORGANIZING:
Asian-Indian AmericansBecause of relatively recent arrival in
large numbers, have relatively little political visibilityBy 1990s,
forming organizations designed to increase political influence
and fight discrimination1990s: New York Taxi Workers
AllianceOrganized large group of South Asian taxi drivers to
protest poor working conditions and poor treatment by city
officialsOrganized to counter numerous hate crimes since 9/11
THE ECONOMYRecently U.S. Civil Rights Commission has
documented exploitation of Asian and other immigrant

groupsEven highly educated Asians have faced significant
barriers 1990s study found discrimination to be even more
severe for Asian-American womenDiscrimination based on
physical appearance, language proficiency, or verbal accent is
common
Occupational Distribution by Group (2008)
THE ECONOMY:
Chinese Americans19th century: Chinese immigrants recruited
to fill less-skilled jobs in the U.S.Recently, Chinese
immigrants’ prospects not good because they lack money, skills,
and ability to speak English wellMost have settled in
preexisting urban Chinese communitiesBetter educated among
these postwar immigrants have generally found better
jobsGlobalization of U.S. economy since 1970s seen in major
growth in high-tech industries with a desire for cheap labor
*

THE ECONOMY:
Chinese Americans, continuedBy early 2000s, white executives
at some major companies doing business in Asia discovered
hiring Chinese and other Asian Americans for management
positions smarter than sending white executivesChinese
community represented at both extremes of economic
spectrumAt other end, nearly 9.2% of Chinese families live
below poverty lineEconomic discrimination takes many forms
Income Level by Group (2008)
THE ECONOMY:
Filipino AmericansFirst recruited as farm workers for Hawaiian
sugar plantations and west coast farms1930s: Filipino Labor
Union formedLed strike of workers met with violent force by
whites backed by policeMilitary-related Filipino communities
were created on West Coast when military recruited Filipinos as

civilian workforceHave faced serious job discrimination for
decades
THE ECONOMY:
Korean AmericansLanguage barriers and racial discrimination
kept early Korean immigrants from obtaining employment in
accordance with their abilitiesMany moved into self-
employment because of exclusion from professions in which
they were trainedMany prefer the freedom of self-employment
given discriminatory barriersMany arrived with some capital
and often have the support of the larger Asian community
THE ECONOMY:
Vietnamese AmericansRelatively short history in U.S.Those
who immigrated right after the Vietnam war more affluent and
better educated than those who came laterMany faced downward
mobilityLater immigrants faced low-wage jobs and povertyNot
been as economically successful as first arrivalsStill face
significant discrimination As with other Asians, many live in
relatively high-cost state of California

THE ECONOMY:
Asian-Indian AmericansMost of country’s more than 2.7 million
Asian-Indian Americans are relatively recent immigrantsMany
brought monetary capital and cultural capital in form of college
education and professional trainingSince 1980s many skilled
immigrants have gone to California’s Silicone ValleyThose
reporting only Asian-Indian ancestry are by far the largest
proportion of college graduates and professional/managerial
employees of all Asian-Pacific American groups
EDUCATIONIn earlier decades, Asian children often segregated
in separate schools1927 Supreme Court decision upheld
Mississippi’s segregation of children of “Mongolian race”Began
to break down after WWII, but de facto segregation
persistedMost Asian American groups place heavy stress on
educational successSome, particularly suburban youth, have
come to accept this stereotype of themselves

School ProblemsMany immigrant children face problems of
limited English proficiency and shock of unfamiliar culture
when they enter schools1990s report of U.S. Civil Rights
Commission reported only small proportion of limited-English-
proficiency Asian children had teachers who spoke their native
languagePublic schools in various cities are settings for
substantial hostility against Asian students
Educational AchievementResearch indicates problems faced by
Asian college students; anti-Asian hate crimes common on
numerous college campusesMany observers noted fact that
Asian Americans have higher educational levels than population
as a wholeVarious explanations offered to explain
successRooted in Asian culture’s traditional reverence for
learning or in strong family supportEducational achievement
often compared by whites with black or Latino/Latina
groupsComparison, however, is not so simple
FULL ASSIMILATION
FOR ASIAN AMERICANSAssimilation analysts underscore
Asian American progress in economic integrationArgue that
anti-Asian discrimination is collapsing and assimilation into
dominant institutions is well underwayNational Asian Pacific

American Bar Association (NAPABA)Opposed appointment of
Clarence Thomas to U.S. Supreme Court, challenging his image
of Asian Americans as “model minorities”
TransitionsAsian Americans who fall into high assimilation/low
ethnic identity category are more “core American” than
AsianAsian Americans in high assimilation/high ethnic identity
category differ from those in first category because they retain
strong group identityStudy of Chinese and Japanese Americans
found that those in 3rd and 4th generations often highly
oriented to white middle-class cultural stylesYet, most still
have strong sense of group identity
Transitions, continuedLow assimilation/high group identity
Asians are usually recent immigrants or those who have spent
their lives in traditional enclavesRecent surveys of children of
Asian immigrants indicate 70-90% can speak only English; few
are fluent in parents’ languageIn Asian-American communities,
generational conflicts are still conspicuousVietnamese
Americans, as an example, use various methods to combat a too-
rapid assimilation of the younger generation

Ties to Culture of OriginMany 1st generation Korean
immigrants also committed to home-country language and
cultureStudies of Korean youth show a significant assimilation
to dominant culture, especially with regard to popular culture,
but a respect for traditional filial obligationsMany Asian-Indian
Americans relatively well integrated into dominant cultureOften
know English well -- once colonized by BritainStill marry
within group and maintain religious institutionsOne sign of
slower overall assimilation of most Asian-Pacific groups
compared to Japanese Americans is lower out-marriage rates to
non-Asians
Relationships and IdentityIn some areas, rate of marriage within
Asian American umbrella group has grown in recent
yearsRecent study of Asian-white interracial relationships in
Southwest found that “interracial intimacy is still regulated by
racial, gender, class, and national hierarchies”Construction of
Asian American identity is a “process that involves recognition
of the shared personal experiences and orientations of Asian-
origin persons, including that of being racially labeled as Asian
by the dominant society”

Questions from a Power-Conflict PerspectiveImage of Asian
immigrants is often one of poor immigrants working their way
up to successHowever, majority of Asians who came between
1960s and mid-1970s were middle-class with white-collar
backgroundsPower-conflict analysts showed how, over
centuries, powerful whites have positioned non-European
groups in the established racial hierarchy
Power-Conflict Perspective, continuedNew immigrant groups
are placed somewhere in the long-established white-to-black
hierarchy of exploitation and statusAt certain times in U.S.
history, powerful whites have elevated some Asians as
individuals or groups from a lower rung to an intermediate
rungHowever, at earlier points in history, most Asians were
placed on or near the bottom rung of the racial hierarchyToday,
certain Asian Americans constructed as “nearer-to-white,” but
this serves white purposes
Power-Conflict Perspective, continuedWhites can move to
criticize African or Latino/Latina Americans for not being like
stereotyped Asian American modelModel minority perspective
obscures problems and needs of many Asian Americans who

face continuing discrimination, stereotyping, and social
problemsSecondary-structural integration of Asian Americans
into economy is not untroubled; many suffer racial
discrimination in employment and educational institutions
ConclusionPressure to conform to whiteness is intense, yet
conforming does not bring acceptance because of the white
racial framing of Asian AmericansNonetheless, Asian
Americans have long struggled to protect their civil rights and
growing political power
NINTH EDITION
Chapter
Puerto Rican and Cuban Americans
9

Big Picture QuestionsWhat roles have Puerto Rican and Cuban
Americans played in building this country’s wealth and
institutions?What are the persisting barriers to social and
economic mobility of Puerto Rican and Cuban Americans?How
would assimilation and power-conflict theorists explain current
Puerto Rican and Cuban American socioeconomic realities?
Puerto Rico and CubaSpanish-speaking islands in the
AntillesPoint of origin for large numbers of
Latinos/LatinasPuerto RicoAll Puerto Ricans are U.S. citizens,
but Puerto Rico is not a stateIsland’s future debated; 3
possibilities
-- Independence, statehood, and
commonwealthCuba“[Oscillation] between a corrupt democracy
and dictatorship”
PUERTO RICOBorinquénOriginal name for Puerto
RicoIndigenous population in 1493 when Spanish imperialists
arrivedUsed as forced labor in minesGenocidal declineForced
labor, disease, brutal killings, violent suppression of
rebellionEnslaved Africans importedProportion of whites and
people of color almost equalPeople product of several racial and
ethnic heritages

FROM SPANISH TO U.S. RULE1897: Puerto Ricans pressured
Spanish into granting autonomy
1899: Spanish-American War TreatySpain gave Puerto Rico to
America
1917: Jones Act awarded U.S. citizenship to Puerto Ricans
1940s: Operation Bootstrap
-- Program designed by Puerto Rican governor to bring
economic development by attracting U.S. corporations
Since 1970s: high unemployment encouraging migration to
mainland
MIGRATION TO MAINLAND1920s: Significant immigration
to U.S. mainland began1940: numbered almost 70,000Over next
two decades: increased to 887,000Since 1970 involved in return
or circular migrationFled island’s economic crises and
encountered problems of unemployment and poverty on the
mainland in addition to racial discriminationLate 2000s: Half
of all Puerto Ricans resided in mainland communities, where
they made up about 9% of all Latinos/Latinas

Current Issues
U.S. Congress recently ended the tax incentive encouraging
U.S. corporations to locate in PuertoOctober 2009: Thousands
of workers took to the streets to protest government employee
cutbacks, which had brought the unemployment rate to at least
15 percent
Joined by Other Latinos/Latinas: Diversity in the New York
AreaBy 1990s: city Anglo population decreased significantly;
now about 35% of city’s populationEarly 2000s: Latino/Latina
population of Long Island increased to 282,693 (more than 10%
of population)Of that, a significant portion is Puerto Rican,
Mexican, and CubanOthers: Caribbean or Central or South
American originIncreasingly Salvadoran, Colombians, and
DominicansLatino/Latina diversity has encouraged pan-
Hispanic (pan-Latino/a) consciousness
PREJUDICES AND STEREOTYPESPuerto Ricans long suffered
racial stereotypes similar to MexicansImages as lazy,
submissive, emotionalOften referred to derogatorily as spics
and viewed as criminalsStereotype of criminals and drug users

influence police actions in Puerto Rican
communitiesUnderrepresented on television programsEsai
Morales co-founder of Washington’s National Hispanic
Foundation for the Arts
Other Negative ImagesCulture of Poverty
– anthropologist Oscar LewisStereotyped idea that poor
people develop a defective and deviant subcultureFrequently,
whites emphasize accents of Latinos and Latinas as problematic
when they do not do the same for those with other types of
accentsImage of lazy Puerto Ricans on welfare still found at
high levels of governmentWhites couple negative images of
Latinos/Latinas with fearful views of immigrants
Color Coding and
White PrejudiceIn Puerto RicoAs in other Latin countries, a
spectrum of racial categories based on multiple physical and
cultural characteristics is recognizedSociety is more integrated
than mainland societyDark-skinned individuals still face
significant discrimination at timesThere is often an attempt to
disguise a particular family’s African ancestryColor
CodingSocial stratification or discrimination based on
skin color

ECONOMIC AND RELATED CONDITIONS: THE MAINLAND
Discrimination common for Puerto Rican immigrantsThose with
darker skin suffered the mostPuerto Ricans brought many
talents and skillsYet, skills went unused on the
mainlandUnemployment much higher for mainland Puerto
Ricans than for white workers
Employment DiscriminationInstitutionalized discrimination
long rooted in color coding and linguistic
prejudiceUnderrepresented in government jobs relative to their
population percentage in New York CityInstitutionalized
discrimination seen in height and weight requirements that
disqualify Puerto Rican applicantsEmployment opportunities
heavily shaped by discriminationWhite job applicants with
felony records as likely to be called back as Puerto Ricans with

no felony records
Industrial RestructuringA variety of changing structural factors
in the economy has contributed to high unemploymentNew York
City moved from industrial to service-oriented
economyPresence of employed workers is crucial to a
community’s survivalUnemployed Puerto Ricans reside next to
employed blue-collar workers who help them and maintain the
community’s social institutionsMainland Puerto Ricans
relatively poor compared to
other U.S. groups
Housing ProblemsHousing discrimination a significant problem
for Americans of Puerto Rican descentHave been excluded from
most good housing marketsCompared with other major groups,
More likely to live in dilapidated housingUse a larger
percentage of their income for housingIn recent years, Puerto
Rican neighborhoods have experienced
gentrificationLatinos/Latinas pressed New York’s attorney
general for action against housing discriminationDiscrimination
by local officials still persists despite even federal measures to
stop it

EDUCATION2008 American Community SurveyNearly 73% of
Puerto Ricans had completed high school compared with 90% of
whitesHigh dropout/pushout rates remain a nationwide
problemLow college graduation rate for mainland Puerto Ricans
restricts socioeconomic mobilityPuerto Rican parents struggle
against an educational system that has typically failed their
children
Barriers to
Social and Economic MobilityFew Puerto Ricans in influential
positions in educationPuerto Rican communities have little
control over educational decision-makingCurriculum often
based on assumption that Puerto Ricans are culturally or
linguistically deficientPublic schools are de facto
segregatedRacially segregated schools have negative
implications
LanguageFew schools today are structured to deal with non-

English-speaking studentsIn current atmosphere of hostility to
bilingual education, limited English proficiency creates barriers
for Latinos/LatinasOften inaccurately assigned to low-ability
groupsPuerto Rican students do less well than white students on
conventional achievement testsHermán La Fontaine
-- viable “definition of cultural pluralism”“Must include
the concept that our language and our culture will be given
equal status to that of the majority population”
Official English Policies and Spanish SpeakersSupport for
English as the official language has grown dramatically in
recent yearsXenophobic Americans often praise English-only
policies as a means to unify diverse groups and promote
“traditional” (European) valuesEducator Catherine Walsh:
“[E]fforts toward linguistic cohesion resonate with a kind of
colonial domination . . . that threatens to silence the less
powerful”Language reflects and imbeds a group’s history and
culture and is inseparable from group and personal identity
POLITICSAmong mainland Puerto Ricans, voting ratesHave
been relatively lowHave increased since 1990, especially in
areas where government is responsive to community
needsElection to major political office has come slowlyLate

2000s: Still just 3 Puerto Ricans in U.S. House of
Representatives and none in U.S. Senate2009: Sonia Sotomayor
became the very first Puerto Rican (and first Latina) on the U.S.
Supreme Court
Local and State GovernmentIn recent decades, Puerto Ricans
have served on numerous city councils and as mayors of small
towns and a few citiesLong-term effects of institutional
discrimination seen in state and city government Many report
poor treatment by government and private agencies1980s:
Puerto Rican governor announced campaign to register mainland
voters, thus expanding their political power
Politics and
Recent Intergroup ConflictIn New York City, Puerto Ricans and
African Americans make up about half the populationLong
history of successful coalitions and periodic
tensionsLatino/Latina voters critical to election of David
Dinkins (1989) – 1st black mayorAl Sharpton assisted in protest
of U.S. Navy test bombing of a Puerto Rican island Puerto
Rican mayoral candidate, Fernando Ferrer, supported by blacks

PROTESTIn Puerto Rico, protest against colonial status
periodically punctuated U.S. rulePuerto Ricans fought hard to
retain their culture Pro-statehood sentiment on the island has
increased over the decadesSupporters of statehood argue
commonwealth status is second-classOpponents fear economic
and cultural changes of statehoodRubén Berríos Martínez,
president of Puerto Rican Independence Party:
“Assimilation is unacceptable to Puerto Ricans”Recent
meeting in Panama supported independence
On the MainlandArriving poor and stigmatized as inferior,
Puerto Ricans developed significant organizations to cope with
discrimination and other barriersLatino-Justice PRLDEF
(formerly the Puerto Rican Legal Defense and Education
Fund)National Puerto Rican Coalition (NPRC)Young Lords
were long involved in social actionIn recent decades, numerous
Puerto Rican organizations have worked for better quality of
life and increased participation in political processSocial and
cultural clubs seek to preserve elements of traditional culture

More Community ProtestPuerto Rican communities have long
protested discrimination by local whitesLatinidad - Idea of
Latino/Latina cultural unity in struggles against
gentrificationSome protest movements have brought significant
changesFounding of community college in South Bronx and
supportive programs at City University of New YorkCoalitions
between grassroots organizations and established groups have
been created to improve economic conditionsPuerto Rican Day
Parades held since 1950s
RELIGIONCatholicism has long been main religion among
Puerto RicansPuerto Rican and Cubans developed distinctive
branching religionsOn mainland, Puerto Rican Catholics led by
non-Puerto Rican clergyLatino/Latina caucuses have pressed for
Spanish-language services and more Latino priestsMany left for
evangelical Protestant churchesWarmer reception and
community feelingMany communities now have numerous
evangelical churches
ASSIMILATION AND COLONIALISMOver the decades Puerto
Ricans have resisted complete acculturationThere is continuing
racialization of Puerto Ricans by whitesOvert job discrimination
appears to be declining, though covert and subtle discrimination

remainsStructural assimilation at primary-group level and
marital assimilation have not reached levels comparable to
those of most European immigrantsGenerational conflict is
sometimes a problem
Power-Conflict PerspectivesAnglo-conformity pressure on
Puerto Ricans has been heavyAssimilation into economic and
political institutions relatively slowAnalysts of U.S. treatment
of Puerto Ricans generally concerned more about negative
effects of racial discrimination, unemployment, and
deteriorating housing on the lives and futures of Puerto Ricans
External colonialism: still a U.S. “possession”Internal
colonialism: “urban enterprise zones” in numerous cities
exploit Latino and black communities
CUBAN AMERICANS:
PATTERNS OF IMMIGRATION
One of the largest Latino/Latina groupsLike Puerto Ricans,
group has its roots in an important Caribbean island close to
U.S.Most migration stemmed from political upheaval or
economic distress on the islandEarly Cuban immigrants were
committed to Cuba’s independence from Spain and contributed
to U.S. efforts in war with Spain

HistoryCuba became U.S. protectorate in 1902Political
turbulence accompanying succession of repressive dictators
brought many refugees to U.S.Large numbers immigrated to
U.S. after 1959 revolution of Fidel Castro overthrew Fulgencio
BatistaVictory brought hope for economic and political
reformThreat to U.S. businesses, suspicion of communism, and
Castro’s declarations of non-tolerance led to break in
diplomatic relations with U.S.
Immigration Waves1st major immigration after revolution was
Cuba’s moneyed elite2nd wave began in 1961: middle- and
upper-income who chose exile rather than life under
CastroEarly groups composed of lighter-skinned Cubans, and
Florida was usual destinationImmigrants and U.S. viewed
Cubans as refugees who intended to return when Castro was
overthrown3rd group arrived between 1965 and 1970s

The Mariel ImmigrantsMariel Boatlift4th group of 125,000
Cubans who came to U.S. in 1980Popular stereotypes
characterized them as “undesirables”Less education and
containing large percentage of criminals and mentally ill, but
latter claims greatly exaggeratedSome left voluntarily; others,
considered undesirable by Cuban government, forced to
leaveKey difference: Unlike earlier immigrants, approximately
40% were darker skinnedAbout 1.6 million Cubans in the U.S.
today
INTERGROUP CONFLICTMajor result of Cuban migrations is
significant change in population of FloridaBy 1980s,
Latinos/Latinas majority in MiamiTension accelerated between
Cuban immigrants and black residents of MiamiBlacks felt
Cubans getting too much government assistance and taking
jobsToday, larger and generally more affluent Cuban American
community in south Florida controls numerous businesses;
many prefer to hire Cuban Americans, which creates friction
with the black population
INTERGROUP CONFLICT, continued
Cuban American leaders are critical of the friendliness of some
black leaders, inside and outside the United States, to the Cuban
Communist governmentCuban American leaders angered the

black community when they ignored visiting black
officialsPolitical tensions between African Americans and
Cuban Americans have surfaced periodically in presidential
elections since 2000Differential treatment of immigrants from
Cuba and Haiti has fueled significant tensions between Miami’s
Cuban and Haitian communities
Racial Division
Among Cuban AmericansCuban American population diverse in
terms of racial gradient central to U.S. societyBefore
revolution, Cuban society segregatedLighter-skinned Cubans
had more residential and economic privileges than darker-
skinned Cubans with more African ancestryCastro decreed
equality between the twoIn U.S. immigrants faced a world in
which societal privileges were linked to racial classification
STEREOTYPES AND DISCRIMINATIONCuban
Americans sometimes stereotyped as anti-Castro militants or
extremistsSome analysts stereotyped Cuban Americans as
predominantly successful group that does not face
discriminationSusan Eckstein“Anglo upper class and the Anglo
professional, and business community excluded Cuban
immigrants from their informal social circles and . . . economic

interest groups”Like other Latinos/Latinas, Cubans have
experienced discrimination at hands of Anglo whites
THE ECONOMIC SITUATIONCuban immigrants experienced
dramatic decline in occupational status when they entered U.S.
economyIncreased Cuban presence in Florida elevated Miami’s
importance as center for Latin American and other international
commerceCompared with other Latino/Latina groups, Cuban
Americans enjoy greater economic successMotivated by concern
to “fight Communism,” large-scale U.S. programs played a
major role in advancing structural assimilation of these
immigrants
EmploymentWide range of occupations among Cuban
immigrants has facilitated development of large and
interdependent local economyAppeals to group solidarity helped
some business-people exploit their compatriots as low-wage
workersAnother factor of mobility is economic organization of
the Cuban familyGainful employment of women became
economic necessity for upward mobility in U.S.Among
Latino/Latina groups, Cubans have relatively high levels of
economic success

POLITICSExpectation of short-lived Castro regime led most
post-1959 Cuban immigrants to remain politically inactive in
U.S. for some yearsSince 1980s Cubans have become very
politically active2/3 of adults are citizens and they register and
vote
in large numbersMany remain involved in politics of
CubaCuban American National Foundation (CANF)Influential
group established in 1981
The U.S. and CubaCuban community currently divided over
proper U.S. government response to Cuban governmentPolitical
division substantially a result of different views and
experiences of immigrants who came before 1980 and those who
came afterIn the past, some engaged in paramilitary training and
terrorist acts against CastroExiles recruited by CIA involved in
unsuccessful
Bay of Pigs invasion of 1961Collapse of Soviet Union

brought severe economic hardships to Cuba’s people
RELIGIONSanteríaA type of syncretic religion that included
aspects of both Catholic and older African religionsSurveys
from late 2000s found Cuban Americans less likely than other
major Latino/Latina groups to say religion is most important
thing in their livesLess opposed to abortion, but more opposed
to gay marriage, than Puerto Ricans or Mexican AmericansPan-
Latino/Latina diversity leaves some Cuban parishioners feeling
alienated because of different approaches to Catholic religion
ASSIMILATION
OR COLONIALISMLike other Latinos/Latinas, Cubans have
faced prejudice and discrimination, including language
discrimination and restriction or exclusion in Anglo-dominated
organizations and institutionsIdentificational assimilation has
come slowly, especially for older Cubans who consider
themselves exilesMany of those say they have a “fractured
identity”Others, especially those who left as children or were
born in the U.S., say they have a double identity

IdentityIdentification of Cuban American women and African
American womenAfrican American women felt they were
“American,” but felt they were not seen as such by Anglo
whitesCuban American women did not feel they were American
and did not think Anglo whites saw them as
AmericanPreservation of Cuban culture and identity provides a
foundation for economic and political integration in U.S.
societyOver time, Cuban immigrants and their children have
made significant economic achievements
Cross-Generational DifferencesCultural assimilation pressures
created cross-generational problems similar to earlier European
immigrants1990s--Strategy Research Corporation (SRC)Ranked
Cubans least culturally assimilated of major Latino/Latina
groups, based on language use and behavioral and attitudinal
measuresMore recently, however, mid-2000s survey in Miami
found that nearly half of Cuban Americans spoke English
outside their homes and most worked with non-CubansRecent
U.S. Census survey also found that an overwhelming majority
of Cuban Americans under age 18 spoke English well

AdaptationCuban Americans especially in south Florida adapted
selectively to U.S.Nonetheless, younger generations are
assimilating more rapidly than Cuban-born to the dominant
cultureDominant Euro-American culture does regularly make
some modest adjustments to new groups entering the
societyLatino/Latina music and foods have become
popularChain retailers have discovered this group’s buying
power
Power-Conflict PerspectiveNo one has applied a sustained
power-conflict perspective to the case of Cuban
AmericansOpportunities and accomplishments of U.S.-born
generations (lighter-skinned majority) seem in some ways more
similar to those of older white ethnic groupsSubstantially
greater political and civic integration with dominant group can
occur only if later generations disperse residentiallyThere are
also major language-related obstacles to the full cultural and
structural assimilation of Cuban Americans
NINTH EDITION
Chapter

Mexican Americans
8
Big Picture QuestionsHow does corporate globalization
contribute to Latin American immigration to the United
States?What role have Mexican Americans played in building
up this country’s wealth and institutions?What are the societal
consequences of discrimination by European Americans against
Mexican Americans?
Latino/Latina and HispanicLatinos/LatinasPersons whose
national origins (or whose ancestors’ national origins) are in the
countries of Latin AmericaMexico, much of the Caribbean, and
Central and South AmericaHispanicAn English word
derived from Hispania which was the Roman name for Spain
THE CONQUEST PERIOD, 1500-1853Beginning in 1500s,

Spaniards conquered indigenous populations in what is now
Mexico and the southwestern U.S. for economic
exploitationOffspring of sexual liaisonsMestizos“Mixed
peoples”Outnumbered colonizers
The Texas Revolt:
Myths and RealityMexican government actions, including
freeing enslaved people and placing restrictions on U.S.
immigration, angered U.S. immigrantsMyths praising heroism
of white Texans persistTexas rebellionU.S. colonizers going
beyond an existing boundary and intentionally trying to
incorporate new land1845 annexation of Texas area by the U.S.
led to warTreaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
California and New MexicoDiscovery of gold in 1849 led U.S.
whites to enter CaliforniaAt the time of acquisition, the 50,000
Mexicans in what is now New Mexico had long maintained
cultural traditionsSoon many lost their lands to invading whites

Confidence Interval or the lack of it....... It is 1581 Anno .docx

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