This study examined retention rates of first-time students at 2-year public, private nonprofit (independent), and private for-profit (proprietary) institutions using data from the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System. The study found that private 2-year institutions, whether proprietary or independent, had higher retention rates for first-time full-time students than public institutions. Full-time students at all types of 2-year institutions were retained at higher rates than part-time students. The study aimed to determine if there were statistically significant differences in retention rates between the categories of institutions.
This study examined retention rates of first-time students at 2-year public, private non-profit (independent), and private for-profit (proprietary) institutions using data from the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS). The study found that private 2-year institutions, whether proprietary or independent, had higher retention rates of full-time first-time students than public institutions. Full-time students also had higher retention rates than part-time students across all institution types. The study used multivariate analysis of variance to test for differences in retention rates between institution types.
Lipe, david the impact of a program specific orientation course focus v7 n1 2013William Kritsonis
Dr. Kritsonis has traveled and lectured extensively throughout the United States and world-wide. Some international travels include Australia, New Zealand, Tasmania, Turkey, Italy, Greece, Monte Carlo, England, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Russia, Estonia, Poland, Germany, Mexico, the Caribbean Islands, Mexico, Switzerland, Grand Cayman, Haiti, St. Maarten, St. John, St. Thomas, St. Croix, St. Lucia, Puerto Rico, Nassau, Freeport, Jamaica, Barbados, Martinique, Canada, Curacao, Costa Rico, Aruba, Venezuela, Panama, Bora Bora, Tahiti, Latvia, Spain, Honduras, and many more. He has been invited to lecture and serve as a guest professor at many universities across the nation and abroad.
Staying in College: Student services and Freshman RetentionDawn Follin
This document summarizes a study that examined the relationship between freshman retention and student services at three private historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs). Over 1,000 freshmen at these HBCUs were surveyed about their perceptions of enrollment management, financial assistance, residence life, extracurricular activities, counseling services, and academic support services. The findings provide empirical support that students' perceptions of the quality and availability of these services are significantly related to freshman retention. Improving student services may help HBCUs address retention problems.
This document summarizes a presentation about two Title 1 charter schools that have achieved academic success with high-poverty students. The presentation aims to provide research on effective practices and allow discussion between secure care school staff. It describes the background of poverty's impact on education and the schools' demographics. The findings address the research questions about the schools' success factors, such as tutoring programs, high expectations, smaller class sizes, and preparing students for college while in high school.
This chapter discusses secondary schooling in America. It covers the history and development of intermediate schools like junior high schools and middle schools. It also discusses the organization and curriculum of modern high schools, including the three main tracks of general, academic, and vocational education. The chapter also examines some of the key problems facing secondary students, such as dropout rates, substance abuse, teenage pregnancy, and suicide.
Williams, Monica National Focus On Postmodernism In Higher EducationWilliam Kritsonis
Postmodernism in higher education is a widely debated issue. Critics argue that postmodernism breeds an unruliness of knowledge in higher education. Some academics choose to educate students through prescription rather than innovating classroom delivery and incorporating postmodernism.
The document provides a summary and critique of the book "The Innovative University" by Clayton Christensen and Henry Eyring. It summarizes the book's key points that American higher education is in crisis and facing pressures to change, and disruptive innovation through online education could help institutions adapt. It also critiques that the book focuses too much on Harvard and BYU-Idaho and not other diverse institutions, and does not clearly define goals for applying disruptive innovation across the sector.
This article discusses two major challenges facing public schools: teacher quality and student achievement. It notes that the No Child Left Behind Act has increased pressures around these issues. Specifically, it points out that teacher shortages exist in certain subject areas, especially in urban and rural schools serving low-income students. It also discusses the rise of alternative certification programs to help address these shortages. The article concludes that teacher quality and student achievement are crucial issues that will be profoundly impacted by the requirements of the No Child Left Behind Act.
This study examined retention rates of first-time students at 2-year public, private non-profit (independent), and private for-profit (proprietary) institutions using data from the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS). The study found that private 2-year institutions, whether proprietary or independent, had higher retention rates of full-time first-time students than public institutions. Full-time students also had higher retention rates than part-time students across all institution types. The study used multivariate analysis of variance to test for differences in retention rates between institution types.
Lipe, david the impact of a program specific orientation course focus v7 n1 2013William Kritsonis
Dr. Kritsonis has traveled and lectured extensively throughout the United States and world-wide. Some international travels include Australia, New Zealand, Tasmania, Turkey, Italy, Greece, Monte Carlo, England, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Russia, Estonia, Poland, Germany, Mexico, the Caribbean Islands, Mexico, Switzerland, Grand Cayman, Haiti, St. Maarten, St. John, St. Thomas, St. Croix, St. Lucia, Puerto Rico, Nassau, Freeport, Jamaica, Barbados, Martinique, Canada, Curacao, Costa Rico, Aruba, Venezuela, Panama, Bora Bora, Tahiti, Latvia, Spain, Honduras, and many more. He has been invited to lecture and serve as a guest professor at many universities across the nation and abroad.
Staying in College: Student services and Freshman RetentionDawn Follin
This document summarizes a study that examined the relationship between freshman retention and student services at three private historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs). Over 1,000 freshmen at these HBCUs were surveyed about their perceptions of enrollment management, financial assistance, residence life, extracurricular activities, counseling services, and academic support services. The findings provide empirical support that students' perceptions of the quality and availability of these services are significantly related to freshman retention. Improving student services may help HBCUs address retention problems.
This document summarizes a presentation about two Title 1 charter schools that have achieved academic success with high-poverty students. The presentation aims to provide research on effective practices and allow discussion between secure care school staff. It describes the background of poverty's impact on education and the schools' demographics. The findings address the research questions about the schools' success factors, such as tutoring programs, high expectations, smaller class sizes, and preparing students for college while in high school.
This chapter discusses secondary schooling in America. It covers the history and development of intermediate schools like junior high schools and middle schools. It also discusses the organization and curriculum of modern high schools, including the three main tracks of general, academic, and vocational education. The chapter also examines some of the key problems facing secondary students, such as dropout rates, substance abuse, teenage pregnancy, and suicide.
Williams, Monica National Focus On Postmodernism In Higher EducationWilliam Kritsonis
Postmodernism in higher education is a widely debated issue. Critics argue that postmodernism breeds an unruliness of knowledge in higher education. Some academics choose to educate students through prescription rather than innovating classroom delivery and incorporating postmodernism.
The document provides a summary and critique of the book "The Innovative University" by Clayton Christensen and Henry Eyring. It summarizes the book's key points that American higher education is in crisis and facing pressures to change, and disruptive innovation through online education could help institutions adapt. It also critiques that the book focuses too much on Harvard and BYU-Idaho and not other diverse institutions, and does not clearly define goals for applying disruptive innovation across the sector.
This article discusses two major challenges facing public schools: teacher quality and student achievement. It notes that the No Child Left Behind Act has increased pressures around these issues. Specifically, it points out that teacher shortages exist in certain subject areas, especially in urban and rural schools serving low-income students. It also discusses the rise of alternative certification programs to help address these shortages. The article concludes that teacher quality and student achievement are crucial issues that will be profoundly impacted by the requirements of the No Child Left Behind Act.
This document outlines 9 principles for creating a college culture in K-12 schools based on a partnership between UCLA and a cluster of 24 schools. The principles are: having college talk, clear expectations, providing information/resources, comprehensive counseling, testing/curriculum, faculty involvement, family involvement, college partnerships, and articulation between schools. The principles aim to ensure all students are prepared for postsecondary options.
Diversifying course options in an urban high school curriculum proposalLaKeisha Weber
This curriculum proposal outlines new course options for an urban high school serving grades 9-12. It proposes adding electives such as Forensic Science, Public Speaking, Consumer Math and courses on human anatomy and sexuality. Core subjects would continue like English, math, science and history. Electives aim to diversify options and engage more students. The proposal discusses the school's demographics and mission to develop resilient, socially conscious students. It provides rationales for proposed courses based on historical developments in curriculum and society.
Dr. Elias Alex Torrez, Dissertation PPt. - The Impact of Smaller Learning Com...William Kritsonis
This dissertation examines the impact of smaller learning communities (SLCs) on closing achievement gaps among student populations in Texas high schools. It contains 3 research questions comparing student achievement, attendance, and completion rates between career-themed SLC schools and traditional high schools. Statistical analysis found some significant differences in achievement but no differences in attendance or completion rates. The recommendations include supporting SLC designs for 7-10 years, using data to guide professional development, and conducting further research comparing different SLC types and multiple years of data.
Brown, sidney l. the impact of middle schools health on dropout rates schooli...William Kritsonis
Dr. Kritsonis has traveled and lectured extensively throughout the United States and world-wide. Some international travels include Australia, New Zealand, Tasmania, Turkey, Italy, Greece, Monte Carlo, England, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Russia, Estonia, Poland, Germany, Mexico, the Caribbean Islands, Mexico, Switzerland, Grand Cayman, Haiti, St. Maarten, St. John, St. Thomas, St. Croix, St. Lucia, Puerto Rico, Nassau, Freeport, Jamaica, Barbados, Martinique, Canada, Curacao, Costa Rico, Aruba, Venezuela, Panama, Bora Bora, Tahiti, Latvia, Spain, Honduras, and many more. He has been invited to lecture and serve as a guest professor at many universities across the nation and abroad.
Assessing Transfer Student PerformanceHyder Abadin
This document is a thesis that assesses the performance of transfer students at Minnesota State University, Mankato. It begins by discussing societal, demographic, and university initiatives that have led to an increase in transfer students. It then defines transfer students and native students. The literature review shows that previous research has found transfer students generally have lower GPAs, retention rates, and graduation rates than native students. However, the thesis aims to compare the performance of transfer students and native students at Minnesota State University, Mankato.
The document discusses curriculum leadership and 21st century learning methods. It summarizes research showing that while U.S. student performance on standardized tests is high, they struggle with real-world problem solving. Initiatives like No Child Left Behind and programs assessing skills like PISA aimed to improve skills, but funding limited ability to fully incorporate 21st century testing. Challenges included adequately supporting diverse learners under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act.
Apa style dissertation why does effective leadership make a difference in hig...CustomEssayOrder
This document discusses the importance of effective leadership in high poverty schools. It begins by providing background on the challenges faced by high poverty schools and how some have overcome obstacles through strong leadership. The purpose is to examine how effective leadership impacts academic performance in high poverty elementary schools. A qualitative study using interviews and observations of principals in 20 Title I schools will determine the relationship between leadership and performance. Key research questions focus on identifying attributes of effective principals and the leadership styles and challenges they face in improving student outcomes.
The document discusses strategies for achieving the goal of universal college completion or a "college for all" system. It outlines several approaches currently used, including honors courses, Advanced Placement (AP), International Baccalaureate (IB), dual enrollment, and early college high schools. Early college high schools, which offer the most intensive integration of high school and college coursework, may be the most effective strategy for increasing college attainment rates, especially among low-income and underrepresented students. The document makes the case for expanding early college high schools to help achieve the goal of a college credential for all.
The document discusses gaps in college preparation for African American students through the high school educational experience. It finds that African American students are far less likely to be ready for college, especially those attending high-poverty schools. This is due to deficiencies and disparities in school systems, as high-minority schools provide inadequate courses, resources, and supports compared to low-minority schools. Specifically, there are deep disparities between school types in access to rigorous college preparatory courses, experienced teachers, and school counselors, which are critical for college readiness. Understanding these factors is important for developing policies and practices to improve preparation for all students.
This document reviews literature on inequality in education. It finds that educational inequality exists due to various individual, social, and systemic factors. At the individual level, characteristics like socioeconomic status, gender, and ethnicity can influence educational attainment. At the social level, interactions and relationships within society can also impact inequality. Systemic factors like policies, school resources, and decentralization of education funding have been shown to exacerbate inequality between regions. The literature demonstrates that inequality is both a micro-level phenomenon stemming from individual differences, and a macro-level phenomenon influenced by broader social and institutional conditions.
Jennifer K. LeBlanc, Abiola A. Farinde. Published in NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS,...William Kritsonis
This document summarizes a journal article that discusses culturally responsive science teaching techniques to encourage African American students. It begins with historical context on the underrepresentation and low achievement of African Americans in science. Current data shows a persistent achievement gap, with African Americans scoring lower than other groups on science assessments. The article then discusses movement expressiveness as an important part of African American culture and recommends incorporating movement into science lessons as a culturally responsive teaching strategy. Specific movement-based teaching techniques are described, such as using stations, observation walks, storytelling with gestures, and dances or skits to review concepts. The goal is to improve engagement and science achievement among African American students.
This document provides a summary of a technical report about patterns of student mobility in urban schools and its implications for local school reform. It finds:
1) Student mobility is extremely high in many urban schools, with some schools losing over a third of their students each year. This level of instability has consequences for student learning and school organization.
2) Mobility is driven both by residential moves as well as school-related factors, and some students change schools multiple times. Distinct patterns emerge between clusters of schools exchanging mobile students.
3) High mobility undermines the goals of school reform efforts seeking to allow schools to better address student needs, as mobile students and schools lose continuity of services. Mobility thus
The document discusses changes in higher education demographics from 2000 to present. Following World War II, there was a shift as students were no longer predominantly young, traditional students but also included older, returning students. Universities expanded to accommodate rising enrollments. Intercollegiate sports also grew in popularity during this time, enhancing school spirit and increasing enrollments despite rising costs. Overall, higher education has continued evolving to meet the changing needs and interests of diverse, non-traditional student populations.
Davidson, barry s. book review schooling v4 n1 2013[1]William Kritsonis
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief, NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Founded 1982). Dr. Kritsonis has served as an elementary school teacher, elementary and middle school principal, superintendent of schools, director of student teaching and field experiences, professor, author, consultant, and journal editor. Dr. Kritsonis has considerable experience in chairing PhD dissertations and master thesis and has supervised practicums for teacher candidates, curriculum supervisors, central office personnel, principals, and superintendents. He also has experience in teaching in doctoral and masters programs in elementary and secondary education as well as educational leadership and supervision. He has earned the rank as professor at three universities in two states, including successful post-tenure reviews.
Resisting Total Marginality: Understanding African-American College Students’...QUESTJOURNAL
This document summarizes a research paper that explores how African American students attending predominantly white institutions (PWIs) develop their racial identity and achieve academic success despite facing marginalization. The paper examines how total marginality, defined as the cumulative dissonance Black students face on campus, impacts identity development and success. It reviews literature on racial identity and oppositional culture theories. The study was conducted through interviews at a Midwestern state university to understand how successful Black students resisted total marginality and developed their racial identity. The findings provide insight into how peer groups, environment, and embracing their racial identity can help Black students graduate from PWIs.
This document discusses the challenges school leaders face in administering programs that serve English language learners (ELLs) and diverse student populations. It notes that the number of ELL students has grown significantly and that teachers are often unprepared to meet their needs. School leaders must work to improve achievement for all subgroups and hire culturally competent teachers. Creating a professional learning community within schools can help address the unique needs of ELLs through collaborative development of best practices. Principals play an important role in developing such communities and supporting teachers to use inclusive, cooperative practices that respect diversity.
Minority students’ Institution perception of successful resources supporting ...PaulOkafor6
This document reviews literature on factors that influence minority students' sense of belonging, persistence, and academic success in higher education. It finds that sense of belonging - feeling accepted and valued by peers and faculty - is strongly linked to student retention and performance. The literature examines how different minority groups experience belonging. African American and Hispanic students often face barriers like racial stereotypes, lack of faculty validation, and limited social capital. Asian cultures generally promote education, leading to higher persistence rates. Overall, positive relationships with faculty and peers, feeling part of the campus community, and validation of students' cultural identities and experiences are tied to improved outcomes for minority students.
AN INVESTIGATION OF THE IMPACT OF ATYPICAL PRINCIPALO PREPARATION PROGRAMS ON...William Kritsonis
AN INVESTIGATION OF THE IMPACT OF ATYPICAL PRINCIPALO PREPARATION PROGRAMS ON SCHOOL ACCOUNTABILITYH AND STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT IN HIGH-POVERTY SCHOOLS by Sheri L. Miller-Williams, PhD
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD, Dissertation Chair, PVAMU-The Texas A&M University System
The document summarizes a presentation on two effective Title 1 charter schools in Phoenix, Arizona. It discusses how the schools help high-poverty students achieve academic success. Both schools implement programs like tutoring, data-driven curriculum adjustments, and high expectations to increase test scores and prepare students for college. The schools' small size, flexibility as charters, and college preparatory models also contribute to their success with students from low-income backgrounds.
The document discusses the evolution of liberal arts colleges. It notes that while a liberal arts education aims to develop broad skills and knowledge, liberal arts colleges have faced challenges in recent decades due to rising costs, competition from other institutions, and students' focus on post-graduation careers. As a result, some liberal arts colleges have closed, merged with larger universities, or expanded their academic offerings. However, liberal arts degrees still provide value, with graduates earning competitive salaries. To remain competitive, liberal arts colleges must effectively communicate the benefits of their education to prospective students.
Exploring the For-Profit ExperienceAn Ethnography of a For-.docxlmelaine
Exploring the For-Profit Experience:
An Ethnography of a For-Profit College
Constance Iloh
University of California, Irvine
The for-profit college sector is arguably the most controversial and least
understood sector of higher education today. The past decade has ushered
in a wealth of public concern and scrutiny as to whether for-profit colleges
and universities are providing a quality education to underserved student
populations. While their politicization has captured immense attention,
there is far less empirical research on student experiences at for-profit insti-
tutions to better inform conceptual, institutional, and practical understand-
ing of this sector of postsecondary education. Using ethnographic data from
one midsize for-profit college in a suburban city, the author spent seven
months exploring educational culture from the perspective of enrolled stu-
dents. The findings illuminate four themes: (a) student desire for institu-
tional transparency, (b) the perception of high-quality in-person
instruction, (c) varied experiences based on student schedule and learning
needs, and (d) the role of age in shaping peer interactions.
KEYWORDS: for-profit colleges, ethnography, qualitative research, higher
education, student experiences, vocational education, adult learners, institu-
tional culture, privatization, social context, proprietary education
For-profit colleges and universities are rapidly changing the look, feel, andoutcomes of college attendance, particularly among students most
CONSTANCE ILOH is a UC Chancellor’s Postdoctoral Fellow at the University of California,
Irvine, 2064 Education Building, Irvine, CA 92697, USA; e-mail: [email protected] Her
research addresses: (a) college access and choice, (b) educational stratification and the
experiences of underserved populations in postsecondary education, and (c) for-profit
higher education and community colleges. Iloh has authored several peer-reviewed
journal articles on the changing landscape of postsecondary education, including
‘‘Understanding For-Profit College and Community College Choice’’ in Teachers
College Record. She is the principal investigator of a grant exploring online learning in
vocational higher education. In 2016, Iloh was recognized as one of the nation’s brightest
stars and change agents in education as a Forbes 30 under 30 honoree. Iloh’s forthcom-
ing book on contemporary college-going narratives and for-profit higher education will
be published by the Johns Hopkins University Press.
American Educational Research Journal
June 2016, Vol. 53, No. 3, pp. 427–455
DOI: 10.3102/0002831216637338
� 2016 AERA. http://aerj.aera.net
http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.3102%2F0002831216637338&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2016-06-01
marginalized in postsecondary education. When compared with their counter-
parts attending other higher education institutions, for-profit college students are
more likely to be older, women, students of color, and come fro ...
This document outlines 9 principles for creating a college culture in K-12 schools based on a partnership between UCLA and a cluster of 24 schools. The principles are: having college talk, clear expectations, providing information/resources, comprehensive counseling, testing/curriculum, faculty involvement, family involvement, college partnerships, and articulation between schools. The principles aim to ensure all students are prepared for postsecondary options.
Diversifying course options in an urban high school curriculum proposalLaKeisha Weber
This curriculum proposal outlines new course options for an urban high school serving grades 9-12. It proposes adding electives such as Forensic Science, Public Speaking, Consumer Math and courses on human anatomy and sexuality. Core subjects would continue like English, math, science and history. Electives aim to diversify options and engage more students. The proposal discusses the school's demographics and mission to develop resilient, socially conscious students. It provides rationales for proposed courses based on historical developments in curriculum and society.
Dr. Elias Alex Torrez, Dissertation PPt. - The Impact of Smaller Learning Com...William Kritsonis
This dissertation examines the impact of smaller learning communities (SLCs) on closing achievement gaps among student populations in Texas high schools. It contains 3 research questions comparing student achievement, attendance, and completion rates between career-themed SLC schools and traditional high schools. Statistical analysis found some significant differences in achievement but no differences in attendance or completion rates. The recommendations include supporting SLC designs for 7-10 years, using data to guide professional development, and conducting further research comparing different SLC types and multiple years of data.
Brown, sidney l. the impact of middle schools health on dropout rates schooli...William Kritsonis
Dr. Kritsonis has traveled and lectured extensively throughout the United States and world-wide. Some international travels include Australia, New Zealand, Tasmania, Turkey, Italy, Greece, Monte Carlo, England, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Russia, Estonia, Poland, Germany, Mexico, the Caribbean Islands, Mexico, Switzerland, Grand Cayman, Haiti, St. Maarten, St. John, St. Thomas, St. Croix, St. Lucia, Puerto Rico, Nassau, Freeport, Jamaica, Barbados, Martinique, Canada, Curacao, Costa Rico, Aruba, Venezuela, Panama, Bora Bora, Tahiti, Latvia, Spain, Honduras, and many more. He has been invited to lecture and serve as a guest professor at many universities across the nation and abroad.
Assessing Transfer Student PerformanceHyder Abadin
This document is a thesis that assesses the performance of transfer students at Minnesota State University, Mankato. It begins by discussing societal, demographic, and university initiatives that have led to an increase in transfer students. It then defines transfer students and native students. The literature review shows that previous research has found transfer students generally have lower GPAs, retention rates, and graduation rates than native students. However, the thesis aims to compare the performance of transfer students and native students at Minnesota State University, Mankato.
The document discusses curriculum leadership and 21st century learning methods. It summarizes research showing that while U.S. student performance on standardized tests is high, they struggle with real-world problem solving. Initiatives like No Child Left Behind and programs assessing skills like PISA aimed to improve skills, but funding limited ability to fully incorporate 21st century testing. Challenges included adequately supporting diverse learners under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act.
Apa style dissertation why does effective leadership make a difference in hig...CustomEssayOrder
This document discusses the importance of effective leadership in high poverty schools. It begins by providing background on the challenges faced by high poverty schools and how some have overcome obstacles through strong leadership. The purpose is to examine how effective leadership impacts academic performance in high poverty elementary schools. A qualitative study using interviews and observations of principals in 20 Title I schools will determine the relationship between leadership and performance. Key research questions focus on identifying attributes of effective principals and the leadership styles and challenges they face in improving student outcomes.
The document discusses strategies for achieving the goal of universal college completion or a "college for all" system. It outlines several approaches currently used, including honors courses, Advanced Placement (AP), International Baccalaureate (IB), dual enrollment, and early college high schools. Early college high schools, which offer the most intensive integration of high school and college coursework, may be the most effective strategy for increasing college attainment rates, especially among low-income and underrepresented students. The document makes the case for expanding early college high schools to help achieve the goal of a college credential for all.
The document discusses gaps in college preparation for African American students through the high school educational experience. It finds that African American students are far less likely to be ready for college, especially those attending high-poverty schools. This is due to deficiencies and disparities in school systems, as high-minority schools provide inadequate courses, resources, and supports compared to low-minority schools. Specifically, there are deep disparities between school types in access to rigorous college preparatory courses, experienced teachers, and school counselors, which are critical for college readiness. Understanding these factors is important for developing policies and practices to improve preparation for all students.
This document reviews literature on inequality in education. It finds that educational inequality exists due to various individual, social, and systemic factors. At the individual level, characteristics like socioeconomic status, gender, and ethnicity can influence educational attainment. At the social level, interactions and relationships within society can also impact inequality. Systemic factors like policies, school resources, and decentralization of education funding have been shown to exacerbate inequality between regions. The literature demonstrates that inequality is both a micro-level phenomenon stemming from individual differences, and a macro-level phenomenon influenced by broader social and institutional conditions.
Jennifer K. LeBlanc, Abiola A. Farinde. Published in NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS,...William Kritsonis
This document summarizes a journal article that discusses culturally responsive science teaching techniques to encourage African American students. It begins with historical context on the underrepresentation and low achievement of African Americans in science. Current data shows a persistent achievement gap, with African Americans scoring lower than other groups on science assessments. The article then discusses movement expressiveness as an important part of African American culture and recommends incorporating movement into science lessons as a culturally responsive teaching strategy. Specific movement-based teaching techniques are described, such as using stations, observation walks, storytelling with gestures, and dances or skits to review concepts. The goal is to improve engagement and science achievement among African American students.
This document provides a summary of a technical report about patterns of student mobility in urban schools and its implications for local school reform. It finds:
1) Student mobility is extremely high in many urban schools, with some schools losing over a third of their students each year. This level of instability has consequences for student learning and school organization.
2) Mobility is driven both by residential moves as well as school-related factors, and some students change schools multiple times. Distinct patterns emerge between clusters of schools exchanging mobile students.
3) High mobility undermines the goals of school reform efforts seeking to allow schools to better address student needs, as mobile students and schools lose continuity of services. Mobility thus
The document discusses changes in higher education demographics from 2000 to present. Following World War II, there was a shift as students were no longer predominantly young, traditional students but also included older, returning students. Universities expanded to accommodate rising enrollments. Intercollegiate sports also grew in popularity during this time, enhancing school spirit and increasing enrollments despite rising costs. Overall, higher education has continued evolving to meet the changing needs and interests of diverse, non-traditional student populations.
Davidson, barry s. book review schooling v4 n1 2013[1]William Kritsonis
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief, NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Founded 1982). Dr. Kritsonis has served as an elementary school teacher, elementary and middle school principal, superintendent of schools, director of student teaching and field experiences, professor, author, consultant, and journal editor. Dr. Kritsonis has considerable experience in chairing PhD dissertations and master thesis and has supervised practicums for teacher candidates, curriculum supervisors, central office personnel, principals, and superintendents. He also has experience in teaching in doctoral and masters programs in elementary and secondary education as well as educational leadership and supervision. He has earned the rank as professor at three universities in two states, including successful post-tenure reviews.
Resisting Total Marginality: Understanding African-American College Students’...QUESTJOURNAL
This document summarizes a research paper that explores how African American students attending predominantly white institutions (PWIs) develop their racial identity and achieve academic success despite facing marginalization. The paper examines how total marginality, defined as the cumulative dissonance Black students face on campus, impacts identity development and success. It reviews literature on racial identity and oppositional culture theories. The study was conducted through interviews at a Midwestern state university to understand how successful Black students resisted total marginality and developed their racial identity. The findings provide insight into how peer groups, environment, and embracing their racial identity can help Black students graduate from PWIs.
This document discusses the challenges school leaders face in administering programs that serve English language learners (ELLs) and diverse student populations. It notes that the number of ELL students has grown significantly and that teachers are often unprepared to meet their needs. School leaders must work to improve achievement for all subgroups and hire culturally competent teachers. Creating a professional learning community within schools can help address the unique needs of ELLs through collaborative development of best practices. Principals play an important role in developing such communities and supporting teachers to use inclusive, cooperative practices that respect diversity.
Minority students’ Institution perception of successful resources supporting ...PaulOkafor6
This document reviews literature on factors that influence minority students' sense of belonging, persistence, and academic success in higher education. It finds that sense of belonging - feeling accepted and valued by peers and faculty - is strongly linked to student retention and performance. The literature examines how different minority groups experience belonging. African American and Hispanic students often face barriers like racial stereotypes, lack of faculty validation, and limited social capital. Asian cultures generally promote education, leading to higher persistence rates. Overall, positive relationships with faculty and peers, feeling part of the campus community, and validation of students' cultural identities and experiences are tied to improved outcomes for minority students.
AN INVESTIGATION OF THE IMPACT OF ATYPICAL PRINCIPALO PREPARATION PROGRAMS ON...William Kritsonis
AN INVESTIGATION OF THE IMPACT OF ATYPICAL PRINCIPALO PREPARATION PROGRAMS ON SCHOOL ACCOUNTABILITYH AND STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT IN HIGH-POVERTY SCHOOLS by Sheri L. Miller-Williams, PhD
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD, Dissertation Chair, PVAMU-The Texas A&M University System
The document summarizes a presentation on two effective Title 1 charter schools in Phoenix, Arizona. It discusses how the schools help high-poverty students achieve academic success. Both schools implement programs like tutoring, data-driven curriculum adjustments, and high expectations to increase test scores and prepare students for college. The schools' small size, flexibility as charters, and college preparatory models also contribute to their success with students from low-income backgrounds.
The document discusses the evolution of liberal arts colleges. It notes that while a liberal arts education aims to develop broad skills and knowledge, liberal arts colleges have faced challenges in recent decades due to rising costs, competition from other institutions, and students' focus on post-graduation careers. As a result, some liberal arts colleges have closed, merged with larger universities, or expanded their academic offerings. However, liberal arts degrees still provide value, with graduates earning competitive salaries. To remain competitive, liberal arts colleges must effectively communicate the benefits of their education to prospective students.
Exploring the For-Profit ExperienceAn Ethnography of a For-.docxlmelaine
Exploring the For-Profit Experience:
An Ethnography of a For-Profit College
Constance Iloh
University of California, Irvine
The for-profit college sector is arguably the most controversial and least
understood sector of higher education today. The past decade has ushered
in a wealth of public concern and scrutiny as to whether for-profit colleges
and universities are providing a quality education to underserved student
populations. While their politicization has captured immense attention,
there is far less empirical research on student experiences at for-profit insti-
tutions to better inform conceptual, institutional, and practical understand-
ing of this sector of postsecondary education. Using ethnographic data from
one midsize for-profit college in a suburban city, the author spent seven
months exploring educational culture from the perspective of enrolled stu-
dents. The findings illuminate four themes: (a) student desire for institu-
tional transparency, (b) the perception of high-quality in-person
instruction, (c) varied experiences based on student schedule and learning
needs, and (d) the role of age in shaping peer interactions.
KEYWORDS: for-profit colleges, ethnography, qualitative research, higher
education, student experiences, vocational education, adult learners, institu-
tional culture, privatization, social context, proprietary education
For-profit colleges and universities are rapidly changing the look, feel, andoutcomes of college attendance, particularly among students most
CONSTANCE ILOH is a UC Chancellor’s Postdoctoral Fellow at the University of California,
Irvine, 2064 Education Building, Irvine, CA 92697, USA; e-mail: [email protected] Her
research addresses: (a) college access and choice, (b) educational stratification and the
experiences of underserved populations in postsecondary education, and (c) for-profit
higher education and community colleges. Iloh has authored several peer-reviewed
journal articles on the changing landscape of postsecondary education, including
‘‘Understanding For-Profit College and Community College Choice’’ in Teachers
College Record. She is the principal investigator of a grant exploring online learning in
vocational higher education. In 2016, Iloh was recognized as one of the nation’s brightest
stars and change agents in education as a Forbes 30 under 30 honoree. Iloh’s forthcom-
ing book on contemporary college-going narratives and for-profit higher education will
be published by the Johns Hopkins University Press.
American Educational Research Journal
June 2016, Vol. 53, No. 3, pp. 427–455
DOI: 10.3102/0002831216637338
� 2016 AERA. http://aerj.aera.net
http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.3102%2F0002831216637338&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2016-06-01
marginalized in postsecondary education. When compared with their counter-
parts attending other higher education institutions, for-profit college students are
more likely to be older, women, students of color, and come fro ...
Taxonomy of Research on At-Risk StudentsJohn Charles
This document provides a summary of research on at-risk students in higher education. It begins by defining at-risk students as those who face dangers of attrition due to academic, pedagogical, or non-academic risk factors. The document then reviews literature on at-risk students and identifies three main categories of risk factors: 1) academic, 2) socio-economic, and 3) emotional/psychological. It aims to develop a taxonomy of at-risk students by examining these risk factors in depth and identifying ways to improve support for such students.
r_ j- 1 Th »,1Forging 21st Century Partnerships .docxanhlodge
This document discusses different perspectives on how embryos created through IVF should be classified and regulated. It describes how some courts have viewed embryos as either persons or as property, while other approaches try to balance the interests of progenitors. The document also discusses how concepts of procreation and intellectual property are sometimes used analogously to define relationships between people and the products or creations. Specifically, it examines debates around who has control and decision-making authority over frozen embryos if a couple separates, and whether this is a question of property rights or reproductive rights and liberties.
Robinson, petra enhancing faculty diveristy focus v7 n1 2013William Kritsonis
This document discusses enhancing faculty diversity at community colleges. It argues that increasing the racial/ethnic diversity of community college faculty can help advance completion rates. Community colleges are focusing on completion as a national priority. Faculty professional development is important, but efforts are lacking in diversifying faculty. Doing so has benefits like providing role models for diverse students and enriching the educational experience. The document outlines strategies for recruiting, retaining, and developing faculty of color at community colleges.
Running head CASE STUDY ESSAY 1 Case St.docxjoellemurphey
Running head: CASE STUDY ESSAY 1
Case Study Essay
Sung Kim
University at Albany
CASE STUDY ESSAY 2
Case Study Essay
The practice referred to as “tracking” started as a response to the incursion of immigrant
children joining America’s schools in the early 20th century. To provide efficient education to
these immigrants who arrived in large population, it was significant to sort the children into
various tracks based on their past performance or ability. As stated by a school reformer called
Ellwood P. Cubberley in 1909, “Our city schools will soon be compelled to abandon the
exceedingly democratic idea that all are equal and our community devoid of classes… and start a
specialization of educational effort along numerous lines.” The process of sorting children into
different tracks was made easy by IQ test and standardized achievement tests.
In the early days of tracking, high school students and junior high students were given
assignments to evaluate them academically, and through vocational tracks. At the extreme, many
students received grooming to prepare them for college and others were being prepared to enter
trades such as secretarial work and plumbing. In the mid-century, many schools had mastered
some form of tracking. Presently, the extreme form of tracking has diminished because
policymaker, political players, and educators hold the fear that America is almost losing its
competitive edge (Burris & Garrity, 2008). This compelled educators to ensure that all the
students are grilled to have access to a rigorous academic curriculum. Politicians and states
passed minimum graduation standards that demanded that students must take a particular number
of courses in core subjects such as Mathematics, English, Science and Social studies. Later on,
during 1983, A Nation at Risk report made a recommendation that tougher standards are set and
in the ensuing two decades, the percentage of students taking four years of each academic
subject escalated profoundly.
Cubberley (1909), "Our..." (p. ?).
CASE STUDY ESSAY 3
With laying emphasis on preparing all the students for college, tracking plays an
important role of grouping students by ability within subjects. In every subject, students must be
assigned to advance, basic and regular courses depending on their performance. For example,
students in advanced track may opt to pursue pre-calculus as juniors in high school and calculus
as seniors, while students in basic tracks must take as far as geometry or algebra II. The
development of Advanced Placement courses is one example of the manner in which tracking
has become a long-standing groundwork.
It is noteworthy that the amount of fluidity and the methods by which students are
assigned tracks within a particular tracking system varies depending on the school’s mission.
Some schools may allow students to be placed into advanced class for a single subject, w ...
This document discusses economic success for underserved students through college access. It begins by establishing that education is seen as key to upward mobility, but that underserved students like those from low-income backgrounds face barriers to accessing and completing higher education. The document then provides a history of underserved students in college access, noting gaps remain in the US compared to other countries. It discusses initiatives to help underserved students with college preparation and awareness of financial aid options. The document also examines assessment methods used to evaluate programs supporting underserved students and measures like attendance and course completion that can predict higher education success.
This document discusses the impact of high-stakes testing on English Language Learners (ELLs) in major urban high schools in Texas. It analyzes issues and challenges faced by ELLs under standardized testing policies. Quantitative data will be gathered from 10 high schools, and qualitative data from an online questionnaire on respondents' views of how standardized tests impact ELLs. Both positive and negative consequences, or "washback effects", of assessments on ELLs and other stakeholders will be examined.
Dr. Rosa Maria Abrero and Dr. Kimberly S. Barker, Published National Refereed...William Kritsonis
Dr. Rosa Maria Abrero and Dr. Kimberly S. Barker, Published National Refereed Article in NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS
NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS
Founded 1982
NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS are a group of national refereed, juried, peer-reviewed, blind-reviewed professional periodicals. Any article published shall earned five affirmative votes from members of our National Board of Invited Distinguished Jurors and must be recommended for national publication by members of the National Policy Board representing all National FORUM Journals. Journal issues are distributed both nationally and world-wide.
Our website features national refereed articles that are published daily within our National FORUM Journals Online Journal Division. Over 1,000 articles are available to scholars and practitioners world-wide. Over 250,000 guests visit our website yearly. About 56,000 articles are downloaded for academic purposes at no charge. We have about an 88% rejection rate. See: www.nationalforum.com
Founded in 1982, National FORUM Journals has published the scholarly contributions of over 5,200 professors with over 2,000 articles indexed. Our journals are indexed with many global agencies including Cabell’s Directories, ERIC, EBSCO, SWETS International, Library of Congress National Serials Data Program, and the Copyright Clearance Center, Danvers, Massachusetts.
Global Website: www.nationalforum.com
This study examined the effectiveness of a modified after-school tutoring program for 157 disadvantaged and underperforming students at an elementary school. The tutoring program operated once a week for 1.5 hours over 27 weeks. The study compared students' grades in reading, English, and math before and after participating in the tutoring program, as well as compared their grades to non-participating students. It also interviewed 6 teachers involved. Results showed significant benefits in all subjects for students who participated at least moderately (11-20 hours), and greater math benefits for boys who participated highly (over 20 hours). Teachers viewed the program positively and felt it should be expanded. The study recommends continuing and possibly expanding the program, and further
Institutional Retention Strategies at Historically Black Colleges and Univers...Dawn Follin
This document summarizes a study examining the effects of institutional spending and resource allocation on cohort default rates at Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs).
The study was motivated by the fact that HBCUs have much higher cohort default rates than average, putting some at risk of losing federal student aid eligibility. It analyzes factors associated with reducing default rates at HBCUs that have been successful, hoping to identify practices that could help other HBCUs.
The study uses a conceptual framework focusing on student retention to identify factors potentially related to default rate reductions. It analyzes spending in areas like instruction, academic support, and student services to determine which are most closely correlated with lower default rates. The
Evaluation of College Preparatory Curriculum in Milwaukee’s Urban SchoolsGriffin Muckley
This document provides an evaluation of Hope's College Preparatory Curriculum in Milwaukee's urban schools. It begins by discussing the increasing importance of post-secondary education for all Americans. While more students are attending college, many are unprepared for the academic rigor, especially minority students.
The document then examines Hope High School, an urban private school that gets 100% of its students into college but struggles with retention and graduation rates. It analyzes four key aspects of Hope's college preparatory curriculum: content taught, counseling provided, parent involvement, and extracurricular activities. When compared to research and other urban schools, Hope's curriculum is found to be lacking in some areas, such as offering authentic college coursework and developing
This document summarizes a study conducted by Walden University to improve student progress and retention, especially in the first year. It details the university's cultural shift to establish a clear student progress strategy and methodology for a multi-year study of retention initiatives. The study found initiatives improved student satisfaction, performance, and retention. The introduction provides historical context on the focus of retention in higher education beginning in the 1960s. It also notes challenges in online programs include competing responsibilities, lack of direct contact between students and faculty, and need for support specific to distance learners.
Dr. Rosa Maria Abreo and Dr. Kimberly S. Barker, NATIONAL FORUM OF EDUCATIONA...William Kritsonis
Dr. Rosa Maria Abreo and Dr. Kimberly S. Barker, NATIONAL FORUM OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION JOURNAL, 30(3) 2013.
Dr. David E. Herrington, Invited Guest Editor, NFEAS JOURNAL, 30(3) 2013
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief (Since 1982)
CHAPTER 5 School Issues that Relate to At-Risk Children and Youth.docxchristinemaritza
CHAPTER 5: School Issues that Relate to At-Risk Children and Youth
· If families do not…Then schools must
· Provide roots for children…So they stand firm and grow,
· Provide wings for children…So they can fly.
· Broken roots and crippled wingsDestroy hope.
· And hope sees the invisible,Feels the intangible,And achieves the impossible.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
The Value of Education
Box 5.1 Separate and Unequal 15-Year-Olds
Research on Effective Schools
Variables in Research on School Effects
· Leadership behaviors
· Academic emphasis
· Teacher and staff factors
· Student involvement
· Community support
· Social capital
Definitional Issues in Research on School Effects
Case Study: The Diaz Family
· School culture
· Student climate
· Peer involvement
· Teacher climate
Box 5.2 Teacher Climate
Educational Structure: Schools and Classrooms
School Structure
School Choice
Charter Schools
Classroom Structure
Curriculum Issues
Conclusion
· In education, the term at risk refers primarily to students who are at risk of school failure. As we discussed earlier, at risk actually means much more than flunking reading or math, or even dropping out of school. Yet from an educator’s perspective, educational concerns define at-risk issues. School problems and dropout are linked to many other problems expressed by young people (Suh, Suh, & Houston, 2007; Henry et al., 2009; Rumberger & Ah Lim, 2008). The strong relationships between school difficulties and other problems, as well as evidence that educational involvement is a protective factor influencing resilience (Search Institute, 2006), highlight the pivotal position of schools. In schools, prevention efforts can reach the greatest number of young people; therefore, examining the educational environment is critical.
THE VALUE OF EDUCATION
There are a number of indicators of the value placed on education in the United States. News reports compare the scores of students in the United States and in other countries on tests in geography and spelling, math and science. These reports consistently favor students in other countries. They imply that learning in U.S. schools is somehow not quite up to par. Does a student’s ability to spell reflect his or her ability to think? Does recall of dates, locations, or facts indicate a student’s problem-solving skills? The answer to these questions is “No.” Learning is the act of acquiring knowledge or a skill through observation, experience, instruction, or study, yet these comparisons suggest a view of learning that reduces this complicated act to an isolated and mechanical process. In addition, these comparisons often fail to note that in the United States all children are expected to attend school through high school graduation, not just wealthy or middle-class urban or college-bound students.
How learning is valued is also reflected in the following statistics. In 2000, the average household income was about $55,000 (Census Bureau, 2001). Nearly 10 years later, the average teac ...
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis & Steven Norfleetguestfa49ec
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis & Steven Norfleet
In 2004, Dr. William Allan Kritsonis was recognized as the Central Washington University Alumni Association Distinguished Alumnus for the College of Education and Professional Studies. Dr. Kritsonis was nominated by alumni, former students, friends, faculty, and staff. Final selection was made by the Alumni Association Board of Directors. Recipients are CWU graduates of 20 years or more and are recognized for achievement in their professional field and have made a positive contribution to society. For the second consecutive year, U.S. News and World Report placed Central Washington University among the top elite public institutions in the west. CWU was 12th on the list in the 2006 On-Line Education of “America’s Best Colleges.”
Dr. William Kritsonis, Dissertation Chairguestfa49ec
This dissertation examines the relationship between African American student experiences with school practices deemed important to achievement and performance in developmental education mathematics courses. A mixed methods approach was used, including administering a survey to 98 students measuring their experiences with seven correlates of effective schools. Qualitative interviews were also conducted with 34 students in focus groups. The study aimed to identify school leadership practices that resonate with African American learners and inform efforts to close achievement gaps.
Jones fayettevvile principals and counselors perceptions of freshmen academy ...William Kritsonis
This study explored the perceptions of North Carolina freshmen academy principals and counselors regarding social and educational issues impacting student academic success. The researchers conducted a survey of 103 principals and 103 counselors. Two key themes emerged from their responses: (1) the need for a student-centered environment within the academy and (2) beliefs that the academy model could lead to improved student outcomes. Respondents identified challenges such as high teacher turnover, a lack of respect from the regular high school staff, and insufficient parental involvement. Prior to implementing the academies, schools commonly faced issues like high absenteeism, discipline problems, and low student performance among ninth-graders. The study provided insights into freshmen transition programs from
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Clark, tampa a comparison of retention rates focus v6 n1 2012[posted]
1. FOCUS ON COLLEGES, UNIVERSITIES, AND SCHOOLS
VOLUME 6, NUMBER 1, 2012
1
A Comparison of Retention Rates Among America’s 2-Year
Institutions of Higher Education
Tampa J. Clark, EdD
Academic Dean
Jacksonville College
Jacksonville, TX
L. Rusty Waller, PhD
Associate Professor
Department of Educational Leadership
College of Education and Human Services
Texas A&M University-Commerce
Commerce, TX
Rick Lumadue, PhD
Assistant Professor
Department of Educational Leadership
College of Education and Human Services
Texas A&M University-Commerce
Commerce, TX
LaVelle Hendricks, EdD
Assistant Professor
Department of Psychology, Counseling, and Special Education
College of Education and Human Services
Texas A&M University-Commerce
Commerce, TX
______________________________________________________________________________
Abstract
The problem of this study was to determine the extent to which 2-year public, proprietary, and
independent institutions in the United States are able to retain first-time, first-year students from
one fall semester to the next. The study sought to determine if differences in retention rates
existed between and among 2-year public, proprietary, and independent institutions.
The study indicated that first-time, full-time students were more easily retained in private 2-year
institutions, whether proprietary or independent, than were first-time, full-time students in public
institutions. Full-time students had higher retention rates in all sectors of 2-year institutions than
did part-time students.
______________________________________________________________________________
2. FOCUS ON COLLEGES, UNIVERSITIES, AND SCHOOLS
2___________________________________________________________________________________________
Since colonial times, higher education has played a significant role in American history.
The first institution of higher learning, Harvard University, opened as a private college in 1636.
As higher education developed in America, the battle raged between educational leaders as to the
direction that higher education should take. The German research model was prevalent (Nieli,
2007). As the system evolved, displeasure arose among university faculty who did not want to
teach lower division courses, preferring the more rigorous, advanced courses within their
disciplines.
In the mid-to-late nineteenth century, the first 2-year institutions were established to
teach the lower division courses (Cohen & Brawer, 2003). Like the trail-blazing universities
before them, these institutions were private. The private, nonprofit junior college dates back to
1851 to Lasell Female Academy. Lasell Female Academy was a liberal arts college whose
mission was to make the first two years of a degree more accessible to the population.
Approximately 34% of the 2-year private colleges still in existence today were founded between
1890 and 1945 (Williams & Colby, 1991). The 2-year for-profit or proprietary institution dates
back to the same time period, about 1870 (Kinser, 2006). However, with the advent of the public
community college at the turn of the twentieth century, the role of the 2-year college began to
weave itself into the fabric of higher education in America.
These institutions, both public and private, nonprofit and proprietary, have evolved into
much more than the first two years of a 4-year degree. Two-year colleges are typically open
admission institutions, offering transfer credit, vocational education, and contract education for
local employers, remediation, and even community service (Cohen & Brawer, 2003). Their
students are as diverse as America herself. No longer are the doors of higher education open
only to the elite of society. These schools are the embodiment of democracy as they are the
vehicle by which much of society betters itself whether for self-improvement, life-long learning,
or career enhancement. Recent estimates indicate that 2-year institutions enroll approximately
half of all American undergraduates (Roman, 2007). While 2-year colleges have made great
strides in providing access to higher education, access alone is not enough. Without persistence
toward educational goals, student success may not be achieved.
Purpose of the Study
The focus of this study was on the retention rates of 2-year institutions of higher learning
in the United States and included public, proprietary, and independent colleges. The purpose of
the study was first to calculate the full-time and part-time retention rates for each category of 2-
year institution and to examine the differences, if they existed, between and among the three
types of colleges. Secondly, the study explored the differences in the full-time and part-time
retention rates of first-time students within each category of 2-year institutions.
Overview
In 2006, the Secretary of Education’s Commission on the Future of Higher Education,
appointed by the Secretary of the U.S. Department of Education Margaret Spellings, reported the
findings of a yearlong study of the effectiveness of postsecondary education in the United States
3. TAMPA J. CLARK, L. RUSTY WALLER, RICK LUMADUE, AND LAVELLE HENDRICKS
___________________________________________________________________________________________3
in A Test of Leadership: Charting the Future of U.S. Higher Education. The Commission noted
some troubling signs of the ineffectiveness and even obsolescence of institutions of higher
learning. As a result of notable events such as the First Morrill Act in 1862, the Serviceman’s
Readjustment Act of 1944, and the extraordinary growth of the community colleges in the 1960s
and 1970s, the United States far exceeded the rest of the world in educational attainment during
the twentieth century. However, the Commission reported that in 2006 the United States had
fallen to 12th among industrialized nations in educational attainment, with a half a dozen
countries close on her heels (U.S. Department of Education, 2006).
The Spelling’s Commission proposed four areas of concern in which recommended
adjustments could reasonably improve the effectiveness of postsecondary education. These areas
include access, affordability, quality, and accountability. In some way, each of these target areas
affects the retention of students as they persist toward the attainment of their educational goals.
Although access typically conjures thoughts of availability, the underprepared student also has
limited access to a postsecondary education. Students with inadequate preparation must enroll in
remedial classes. The Commission reported that approximately 40% of all entering college
freshmen are required to enroll in at least one preparatory class. The percentage may be
approximately 20 to 25 points higher for those freshmen in 2-year institutions. Students who
begin their college careers in non-credit, preparatory courses persist to graduation at much lower
rates than those who are college ready upon matriculation (Hoyt, 1999). To some degree, these
surprisingly high percentages of students requiring remediation may be explained by the larger
numbers of students pursuing postsecondary education; however, Sanoff (2006) reported that
44% of college faculty members said that students are not well-prepared for college-level
writing, while 90% of high school teachers thought that high school graduates were prepared.
Disparity existed in the perception of the level of skills necessary to perform at a collegiate level.
The Commission proposed closing the “expectation gap” between high school and college (U.S.
Department of Education, 2006).
The rising costs of higher education are of concern to students, parents, college
administrators, and the general public. Affordability directly affects the retention of all students,
but students in 2-year institutions are particularly vulnerable to the economic throws of higher
education due to their varying stages and stations in life. Frequently, students must interrupt
their studies in order to work and save the funds necessary to return to school. Graduation is
postponed, sometimes inevitably. The Spelling’s Commission proposed a restructuring of the
financial aid system. The restructuring included an increase in need-based funding. The
Commission projected that an increase in financial aid would result in, among other things,
“increased retention, or graduation by, students who might not have been able to complete
college due to cost” (U.S. Department of Education, 2006, p. 19).
Statement of the Problem
The effectiveness of an institution of higher education is measured in part by the ability
of that institution to retain students from semester to semester and year to year until a program is
completed (Wild & Ebbers, 2002). From a fiscal standpoint, Wild and Ebbers (2002) reported
that the cost of retaining a student is considerably less than the cost of recruiting a student.
Academically, persistence in collegiate studies is paramount if the student is to realize his or her
4. FOCUS ON COLLEGES, UNIVERSITIES, AND SCHOOLS
4___________________________________________________________________________________________
educational goals. A review of the literature indicates that studies regarding retention rates of 4-
year institutions are abundant; however, only recently has research begun that focuses on the 2-
year institution. Students enter these institutions with a variety of educational goals and tend to
leave and return sporadically as their educational needs change and as their finances allow
(Derby & Smith, 2004). The problem of this study was to examine the extent to which 2-year
public, independent, and proprietary institutions are able to retain first-time students from one
fall semester to the next. Furthermore, the study sought to determine if differences in retention
rates existed between and among 2-year public, proprietary, and independent institutions.
Research Questions
The following research questions formed the basis for the study:
1. What percentage of full-time and part-time, first-time students in a 2-year public,
proprietary, or independent colleges return to the same institution from one fall to the
next?
2. Do differences exist in retention rates for full-time and part-time, first-time students
between and among 2-year public, proprietary, and independent institutions?
Hypothesis
The following hypothesis was tested at the 0.05 level of significance:
No differences exist in the retention rates of full-time and part-time, first-time students
between or among 2-year public, proprietary, and independent institutions.
Significance of the Study
In a day in which institutions of higher learning are called to accountability, one measure
of the success of an institution is the persistence of students in attaining their educational goals.
In A Test of Leadership: Charting the Future of U.S. Higher Education, the Commission,
appointed by Secretary of Education Margaret Spellings (U.S. Department of Education, 2006),
pointed to retention as a measure of institutional effectiveness. For the 2-year institution, this
concept bears further investigation. The term retention in and of itself requires clarification. In
the traditional university context, retention is generally thought of as “on-time graduation (within
four to five years)” (Walleri, 1981, p. 3). Superimposing this definition onto the 2-year
institution implies graduation within two to three years.
The task of defining student retention in the truly American 2-year institutional
environment is not as simple as tracking graduation rates (Wild & Ebbers, 2002). The
educational goals of students within the 2-year school, whether public or private, vary widely,
encapsulating a smorgasbord of personal objectives. Many traditional students are pursuing
academic transfer courses. Even within these ranks student goals vary. Some students desire to
5. TAMPA J. CLARK, L. RUSTY WALLER, RICK LUMADUE, AND LAVELLE HENDRICKS
___________________________________________________________________________________________5
attain an associate degree while others seek to complete basic courses at a reduced cost and in
smaller classes before transferring into typical 4-year baccalaureate programs. A growing
number of students seek a vocational degree or perhaps vocational courses to enrich an already
established career.
With the cost of higher education increasing sharply, the effect of student attrition on
collegiate finance is a matter of great concern. A study of Mountain Empire Community College
indicated that a 10% reduction in student attrition saved the institution almost $95,000 in annual
cost (Sydow & Sandel, 1998). In a case study of Bronx Community College, Ritze (2006)
suggested that effective enrollment management addresses the community college’s financial
dependence upon student enrollment issues such as retention. Although an institution will incur
certain expenses in order to retain students, Wild and Ebbers (2002) recommended a cost
analysis to determine the point at which the institution would realize the financial benefit of
retaining students as opposed to recruiting students to replace those who dropped out. Wild and
Ebbers contended that the cost of retention would be less than the cost of recruiting and would,
therefore, not change the overall cost factor used to determine tuition costs. Additionally, in
some states, retention rates serve as a benchmark for state funding (Derby & Smith, 2004). As
the cost of higher education rises, the concern over state funding escalates.
A search of available literature revealed extensive research into the retention of students
in 4-year institutions and, recently, a significant amount of research in community colleges.
However, the research is primarily focused on public institutions. This study utilizes three
categories of 2-year institutions – public, independent, and proprietary. These classifications are
based upon the IPEDS classifications of public, private not-for-profit, and private for-profit,
respectively. Public and independent institutions share the status of nonprofit. Nonprofit
colleges often pride themselves in their missions to serve the common good rather than their
bottom lines. The private for-profit institutions are commonly known as proprietary schools.
They are private in that they are not supported by tax dollars, but, like their nonprofit, private
counterparts, may receive financial aid for their students. Typically, the curriculum of the for-
profit institution is very narrowly focused, lacking the breadth of the traditional nonprofit
institution (Berg, 2005).
Berg (2005) indicated that proprietary schools are not new to the higher education arena
but have come to the forefront of educational discussion in recent years, especially with the
advent of online degrees and the focus on postsecondary vocational training. Approximately
10% of these schools are accredited by the same regional accrediting agencies that accredit the
nonprofit schools, and they report to the Integrated Postsecondary Education System (Berg,
2005). However, research regarding student retention at proprietary institutions is apparently
absent from the literature. Furthermore, no research was identified that compared the retention
rates and practices of the three categories of 2-year institutions. The nonprofit institutions, both
public and private, have been a part of the fabric of higher education for approximately 100
years, and, yet, research is not readily available to compare retention between these
classifications. Perhaps one category of institution is outperforming the others in the area of
student retention. Since a student’s educational goals cannot be met and success cannot be
achieved without persistence, research is necessary to compare the student retention rates at all
three types of 2-year colleges and to determine if significant differences exist between and
among the retention rates of public, independent, and proprietary institutions.
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Method of Procedure
The study began with the collection of national data extracted from the Integrated
Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), which is maintained by the Department of
Education. The IPEDS collection system provides a large data base from which patterns and
relationships may be discovered. The techniques of data mining focus on such patterns and
relationships (Friedman, 1997). Friedman indicated that although data mining and statistics are
obviously related, most of the techniques of data mining have originated outside the realm of
statistics and are somewhat questioned as to their relevance in academic research. The
emergence of very large databases, such as IPEDS, combined with advances in computer
technology produce an increased interest in the benefits of data mining in research. Friedman
discussed several data mining techniques, one of which is clustering methods or data
segmentation. According to Friedman, if statistics is to remain a relevant information science,
statisticians “must foster a climate of innovation and change for meeting new data analytic
challenges of the present and future” (1997, p. 6).
The data for this study were drawn from all 2-year degree-granting institutions that
participate in the IPEDS collection process. The data collected were transferred to spreadsheets
and coded by type of institution. The data included the 2009 universe of institutions and were
limited to data from the 2008-2009 academic year, which was the most current, complete year of
data available at the time of the study. Using the IPEDS data cutting tool, the study was
delimited to degree-granting, 2-year institutions in the United States. The extraction was
replicated three times for each type of institution: public, independent (private not-for-profit),
and proprietary (private for-profit). The study provided retention rates for both full-time and
part-time degree-seeking, first-year students.
The study conducted multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) to examine
differences between and among the various institutional retention rates by institutional
classification. The statistical testing incorporated a 0.05 level of significance. Post hoc analysis
was conducted where required. Appropriate tests were conducted to test assumptions of
MANOVA. Specifically, the study employed the Box’s M test to examine the equality of
covariance across groups and a Levine’s test to examine the variance within groups. A Wilks’
lambda was utilized to determine the overall significance of the MANOVA model, and the
partial eta square provided the portion of variance explained by the independent variable. Power
was determined to demonstrate the probability of correctly accepting the null hypothesis.
Research Question 1
The first research question asks: What percentage of full-time and first-time students in a
2-year public, proprietary, or independent colleges return to the same institution from one fall to
the next? The retention rates for full-time and part-time students were extracted from the IPEDS
database for each of the three sectors of 2-year institutions. Once extracted using the IPEDS
Data Cutting Tool, the data were cleaned to include only those institutions that reported both
full-time and part-time retention rates. The names of the institutions were removed and the data
coded as to public, proprietary, or independent institution. Descriptive statistics for fulltime
cohorts were calculated for each sector and are reported in Table 1. The data for public 2-year
7. TAMPA J. CLARK, L. RUSTY WALLER, RICK LUMADUE, AND LAVELLE HENDRICKS
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institutions included 1,002 institutions. The mean retention rate for full-time, first-time students
was 57.9%, with a standard deviation of 10.4 percentage points. The retention rates ranged from
a minimum of 16% to a maximum of 100%. In the proprietary sector, 242 institutions reported a
mean retention rate for first-time, full-time students as 63.2% with a standard deviation of 17.9
percentage points. The reported rates ranged from a low of 21% to a high of 100%. The sample
of independent 2-year institutions was comprised of 52 schools. Retention rates ranged from
12% to 100%, with a mean of 62.2% and a standard deviation of 20.5 percentage points.
Table 1
Full-time Retention Rates
Sector N Range Minimum Maximum M SD
Public 1002 84 16 100 57.9 10.4
Proprietary 242 79 21 100 63.2 17.9
Independent 52 88 12 100 62.2 20.5
Retention rates for the first-time, part-time cohort of students for each of the three sectors
are reported in Table 2. For the 1,002 public institutions included in the study, the mean
retention rate for part-time students was 41.1% with a standard deviation of 13.8 percentage
points. Actual retention rates ranged from a minimum of 0% to a maximum of 100%. The mean
retention rate for the 242 proprietary institutions was 52.3% with a standard deviation of 27.7
percentage points. The range for proprietary schools was also 100 points with a low of 0% and a
high of 100%. The 52 independent colleges included in the study reported retention rates for
part-time, first-time students with a mean of 61.3% and a standard deviation of 28.5 percentage
points. Once again, the actual rates ranged from 0% to 100% for these institutions.
Table 2
Part-time Retention Rates
Sector N Range Minimum Maximum M SD
Public 1002 100 0 100 41.1 13.7
Proprietary 242 100 0 100 52.3 27.7
Independent 52 100 0 100 61.3 28.5
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Research Question 2
Research Question 2 examined differences in retention rates for full-time and part-time,
first-time students between and among 2-year public, proprietary, and independent institutions.
The hypothesis was tested at a significance of α < 0.05 by performing MANOVA.
The assumptions of MANOVA regarding independence and level of measurement of the
variables were satisfied. Linearity of the dependent variables was tested by calculating a Pearson
Correlation Coefficient within each sector of public, independent, and proprietary institution.
Table 3 reveals that in each case moderate correlation exists between the dependent variables.
Moderate correlation satisfies the assumption of linearity while preserving the power of the
MANOVA (Cole, Maxwell, Arvey, & Salas, 1994).
Table 3
Correlation of Dependent Variables
Sector Pearson Correlation Coefficient
Public 0.450
Independent 0.515
Proprietary 0.408
Levene’s Test of Equality of Error Variances tested the null hypothesis that error
variances of dependent variables were equal across groups. At p < 0.001, Levene’s Test found
significant differences in the error variances across groups. Box’s Test of Equality of
Covariance Matrices (Box M) determined that covariances were also significantly different at p
< 0.001. Thus, the assumption of homogeneity of variance-covariance was not met. Recall,
however, that Bray and Maxwell (1985) found that MANOVA is extremely robust when this
assumption is violated if sample sizes are large. The sample sizes for this study meet the
expectations of Bray and Maxwell.
Normality of the dependent variables was tested with the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test of
normality. The test failed to indicate normality in each instance, with p < 0.001 for both full-
time and part-time retention rates. However, histograms of each dependent variable demonstrate
that the data is approximately normal with the exception of outliers. Figures 1 and 2 are
provided to establish the normality of the dependent variables full-time and part-time retention
rates.
9. TAMPA J. CLARK, L. RUSTY WALLER, RICK LUMADUE, AND LAVELLE HENDRICKS
___________________________________________________________________________________________9
Figure 1. Histogram of full-time retention rates.
Figure 2. Histogram of part-time retention rates.
Based on the MANOVA, significant difference was found to exist in the retention rates
of full-time and part-time, first-time students in the three sectors of 2- year institutions as
10. FOCUS ON COLLEGES, UNIVERSITIES, AND SCHOOLS
10___________________________________________________________________________________________
indicated in Table 4. The research indicated a Wilks’ Λ = 0.906, F(4, 2584) =32.571, with a p <
0.001 leading to rejection of the null hypothesis that no differences exist. The multivariate
partial η2
= 0.048 indicated a small to medium effect size (Cohen, 1988). The Test of Between-
Subjects Effects revealed that both full-time, p < 0.001, and part-time, p < 0.001, retention rates
were significantly affected by the various sectors of public, independent, and proprietary. Of
additional interest is the effect size as signified by the partial η2
for each dependent variable.
The dependent variable full-time retention rate provided a small to moderate effect size, partial
η2
= 0.028, while the dependent variable part-time retention rate provided a medium to large
effect size, partial η2
= 0.089.
Table 4
Results of MANOVA
Dependent Variable Significance Partial Eta Squared
Full-time Retention 0.000 0.028
Part-time Retention 0.000 0.089
* Significance of 0.000 indicates p < 0.0005
A Tukey post-hoc test was conducted to determine where actual differences occurred.
Results are provided in Table 5. The post-hoc analysis indicated significant differences in full-
time, first-time retention rates between public 2-year institutions and independent 2-year
institutions, p = 0.042. Similarly, statistical significance was indicated between public and
proprietary, p < 0.001. No significant difference was revealed between independent and
proprietary institutions for full-time, first-time retention rates. All combinations of part-time,
first-time retention rates were found to be significant. The comparison of retention rates between
public institutions and either independent or proprietary were found to be significant at p <
0.001, while the comparison of independent and proprietary was significant at p = 0.003.
11. TAMPA J. CLARK, L. RUSTY WALLER, RICK LUMADUE, AND LAVELLE HENDRICKS
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Table 5
Results of Tukey Post-Hoc Tests
Dependent Variable Sector Sector Significance
Full-time Ret. Public Independent 0.042
Proprietary 0.000
Independent Public 0.042
Proprietary 0.877
Proprietary Public 0.000
Independent 0.877
Part-time Ret. Public Independent 0.000
Proprietary 0.000
Independent Public 0.000
Proprietary 0.003
Proprietary Public 0.000
Independent 0.003
* The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level. A significance of 0.000 indicates p <
0.0005.
Discussion of Findings
The MANOVA indicated statistical differences between the full-time retention rates of
public 2-year institutions and both sectors of private institutions. However, no statistical
differences existed between the full-time retention rates of proprietary and independent
institutions. The MANOVA calculated a mean full-time retention rate for 2-year proprietary
institutions at 63.2% and 2-year independent institutions at 62.2% followed by public institutions
at 57.9%. None of the administrators of 2-year institutions interviewed were surprised by these
results. As different as the proprietary and independent institutions are, the similarities that
positively affect retention rates prompt a worthwhile discussion. Both sectors of private 2-year
institutions exhibit two characteristics similar to those proposed by Scott, Bailey, and Kienzl
12. FOCUS ON COLLEGES, UNIVERSITIES, AND SCHOOLS
12___________________________________________________________________________________________
(2006) as traits of 4-year, private institutions that positively affect graduation rates. These
characteristics include both small size and selectivity.
As noted in the study completed by JBL Associates (2010), most 2-year proprietary
institutions are small, as are most 2-year independent institutions. The administrators
interviewed for this study perceived that the small size of the private institutions contributed to
their successes in regard to the retention of students. The smallness of these institutions in and of
itself is not the key to their successes, but the small size contributes to an environment in which
student retention and success is cultivated. Two aspects of this environment are faculty access
and the nurturing of faculty and staff.
As Tinto (2006) admonished, faculty involvement with students, both inside and outside
of the classroom, is vital to the persistence of students. The smaller, more intimate setting of the
private institution lends itself to greater access to instructors, whose primary role is to teach;
however, both private institutions included in the study also involve faculty directly in student
advising. The smaller environment allows faculty members to know their students by name, as
demonstrated by the administrators interviewed. The environment is one of mentoring,
reminiscent of the very early days of higher education in which a great teacher took only a few
students and taught them individually.
Tinto (2006) advocated faculty development in the area of pedagogy. He explained that
faculty performance in the classroom is critical to the success of students. Since postsecondary
instructors are educated in their respective disciplines and do not necessarily have a background
in pedagogy, Tinto suggested that such training may increase the effectiveness of instruction.
The academic dean at the proprietary institution in this study has implemented such training for
new faculty. His program is highly successful and reports a retention rate that is considerably
higher than the mean for all proprietary institutions included in Chapter 4 of this study.
Students in 2-year institutions tend to bring with them more concerns than students in a
typical 4-year, residential institution (Roman, 2007). The small size of the private 2-year college
fosters awareness of the needs of students beyond the classroom. Childcare, transportation, and
flexible hours for classes and tutorials are among the needs of many of these students. The
highly successful proprietary institution included in this study has addressed these needs through
its CARE program. The public school administrator indicated that many services are available to
students in the larger, public institutions; however, students seem not to know where to access
them. Perhaps the small environment of the private institutions facilitates the recognition of
individual student needs and the direction of the individual to available assistance.
The typical 2-year institution, whether public, independent, or proprietary, would classify
itself as open admission academically. However, the interviews revealed that both the
independent and the proprietary institution practice a measure of selectivity. Independent
institutions are primarily faith-based institutions. Students who seek admission to these
institutions come with certain expectations of a faith-based educational experience. Prior to
matriculation, students who choose an independent institution typically have considered the
spiritual fit of the institution for their needs. Morris, Beck, and Smith (2006) determined that
this spiritual fit positively affects retention at private, faith-based institutions. The proprietary
institution also practices a type of selectivity in the interview process required prior to admission.
Students are admitted to a program based upon their ability to successfully complete the
program. A student is denied admission or is redirected to an alternate program based upon the
admission officer’s perception of his or her ability to be successful. The open admission policy
13. TAMPA J. CLARK, L. RUSTY WALLER, RICK LUMADUE, AND LAVELLE HENDRICKS
___________________________________________________________________________________________13
practiced by the 2-year public institution does not permit even the minimal level of selectivity
built into the admissions processes of the private institutions.
Two notable differences exist between the proprietary institution and both the public and
independent colleges. Both differences surfaced during the interviews. The lack of student
preparedness for collegiate level coursework has been identified repeatedly throughout the
literature as detrimental to student retention and successful completion of educational goals.
Academically, student preparedness is most often synonymous with readiness to perform at the
college level in mathematics and English. Both public and independent 2-year institutions
remediate students in these disciplines by enrolling them in developmental courses designed to
bolster skills in these areas. All too often, students never achieve the desired level of
competence to move forward into credit-level courses and become a part of the attrition rates of
these institutions. The proprietary institution included in this study does not offer developmental
courses. Instead, remediation is embedded in the required coursework for the program in which
the student is enrolled. Although courses of study are different in proprietary schools than in the
more traditional liberal arts institutions, perhaps a lesson may be learned in regard to the
treatment of developmental studies. The public institution in this study is currently
implementing a modular style program of developmental education that will allow the student
more flexibility in scheduling of developmental studies. The independent institution has not yet
implemented such a program but is researching the possibility for the ensuing academic year.
Perhaps this innovative approach to a primary cause for attrition in 2-year institutions will
increase student persistence and academic success.
The second clear distinction between the proprietary programs and the liberal arts
programs is the focus of the student. Without exception the participants in this study referenced
focus of the student as key to the successful retention of that student. The proprietary student is
obviously focused on a career path. Those students in proprietary institutions who lose that
focus become a part of the attrition rate of the institution. The public and independent
institutions cite the lack of student focus as a primary cause for student attrition at their
respective institutions. The lack of student focus dominated the responses of the director of
enrollment management at the public college. Although the programs of the public and
independent institutions do not lend themselves as well to the concentrated focus of the
proprietary programs, the public college administrator pointed to the need for students to
matriculate with some measure of direction in order to be most successful. Obviously, a student
must have some educational goal in order to achieve it.
The discussion of part-time retention rates was far less productive than that of full-time
rates. The MANOVA indicated significant differences between the part-time retention rates of
each sector of 2-year institution. The independent colleges posted the highest part-time retention
rate at a mean of 61.3%, followed by the proprietary schools with 52.3% and the public
institutions with 41.1%. The mean part-time retention rate of each sector was lower than its
respective full-time retention rate; however, the part-time rate for the independent colleges was
only slightly lower than its full-time mean rate of 62.2%. In each sector the range of part-time
retention rates was 0% to 100% and standard deviations were larger than for full-time rates,
indicating that the spread of the data was greater for part-time rates and less clustered around the
means. A 0% retention rate would indicate that an institution either has no part-time cohort or
has so few first-time, part-time students that information gleaned regarding the retention and
attrition of these students may not be representative of the sector of institutions. The director of
14. FOCUS ON COLLEGES, UNIVERSITIES, AND SCHOOLS
14___________________________________________________________________________________________
enrollment management for a large public 2-year institution very honestly admitted that she
could not offer adequate answers as to the reasons for part-time student attrition. She simply
stated that they “are all over the place” and added that part-time students seem to drop in and
drop out almost on a whim. The academic dean of the proprietary institution, which reports a
72% retention rate of full-time, first-time students and a 0% retention rate of part-time, first-time
students does not have adequate numbers of part-time students to offer meaningful responses to
the questions regarding part-time students. The programs of this institution are not geared
toward part-time enrollment. The dean of students at the independent college proposed that part-
time students are typically non-traditional students who are in need of the nurturing and
individual attention provided by the smaller independent institution. Many of these students are
returning to school after an absence of several years and are particularly in need of the academic
advising and tutorial services available to them on most campuses, but the smaller, more intimate
environment of the independent institution may encourage these students to seek out the
assistance they need to be successful.
Recommendations for Further Study
The completion of this study has raised a number of questions for further research. The
first question emerges from the first limitation of the study. This study has captured the data for
a single academic year. While this may be the first study to compare the retention rates of all
three sectors of 2-year institutions, it should not be the last. A longitudinal study to compare the
retention rates of 2-year institutions over a period of time may yield valuable information for all
institutions as to what measures have been implemented by institutions that have demonstrated
continuous improvement in the area of student persistence. The quantitative data for such a
study are readily available through the IPEDS Data Center.
Secondly, the idea of student focus as a tool to improve retention is so obvious and yet so
absent from the literature reviewed for this study. Each representative interviewed referenced
student focus as a key to student retention and student success in the achievement of educational
goals. A study of advising techniques that focus the student on his or her reason for pursuing
postsecondary studies and the accomplishment of goals may provide direction for enrollment
management officers who are assisting students without direction.
Academic success is vital to the improvement of student retention rates, whether full-time
or part-time and regardless of the sector of institution. Two areas of academic success in the
classroom bear further study. The first is the ever-present problem of student preparedness for
collegiate level work. The literature consistently points to college readiness as paramount to
student retention and academic success. Students who begin in developmental classes often
become discouraged, and many fail to complete a program. The modular coursework in
developmental studies may offer an answer for underprepared students. A case study of an
institution in which the modular system has been implemented may offer a solution to one of the
primary causes for student attrition.
Another area of potential study is not first suggested by this study. Tinto (2006)
suggested research regarding the effect of faculty development in pedagogy on student
persistence. The literature clearly indicates that faculty/student interaction in the classroom
affects academic success. The proprietary institution in this study has demonstrated notable
15. TAMPA J. CLARK, L. RUSTY WALLER, RICK LUMADUE, AND LAVELLE HENDRICKS
___________________________________________________________________________________________15
success in retention. The administration of this institution has recognized that students in classes
with great teachers are more easily retained than those in classes with mediocre teachers. As a
part of the retention program of this institution, faculty members receive training in pedagogy. A
study that statistically evaluates the effect of such training on student success would make a
valuable contribution to the academic community of 2-year postsecondary institutions.
Conclusion
This study examined the full-time and part-time retention rates of public, independent,
and proprietary 2-year institutions. These institutions have woven themselves into the very
fabric of higher education in America. The literature suggests that perhaps 50% of all students in
higher education are enrolled in 2-year institutions. If these students are to attain their
educational goals, they must persist to completion of those goals.
Literature pertaining to the student retention rates of 4-year institutions is abundant.
Student retention rates in 2-year institutions have only recently come into focus with discussion
of student retention in the 2-year public community colleges. However, studies that compare the
retention rates of all three sectors of 2-year institutions are absent from the literature. Since
students in 2-year schools represent approximately half of the postsecondary population, a study
of student persistence in these institutions is important to the college-going culture in America.
As Tinto (2006) acknowledged, most studies of student retention were designed for residential
populations. Students in 2-year institutions are primarily commuter students. Their concerns and
reasons for pursuing a postsecondary education are often different from those of the traditional
student in a 4-year institution.
The format of this study created the opportunity for explanation of quantitative findings
extracted from the IPEDS Data Center through personal interviews with administrators
responsible for enrollment management. These academic officers offered a wealth of
information that may prove to be helpful to their colleagues in each sector of 2-year institution.
Although each category of 2-year school contributes its own attributes to postsecondary
education, by comparing the three categories, educators may be able to utilize innovative
solutions of one institution to assist students enrolled in another sector of higher education.
Recall the words of Tinto who suggested that educators must “join forces with larger educational
movements that seek to restructure the way we go about the task of educating all not just some of
our students” (2006, p.13).
The literature indicates the existence of no single appropriate plan to increase student
retention for all institutions and all students. Each institution must examine the needs of its own
students and design and implement processes that will meet those needs and assist those students
in the successful completion of their educational goals. Once again recall the words of Tinto
(2006) who stated, “It is one thing to identify effective action; it is another to implement it in
ways that significantly enhance student retention over time” (p. 8).
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16___________________________________________________________________________________________
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