Child psychology :psycho-dynamic theories

Child Psychology
Dr. Pooja Mapara
PG student
Department of Paedodontics and Preventive Dentistry

Contents
• Introduction to child psychology
• Importance of studying child psychology
• History and Evolution of child psychology
• Classification of theories of psychology
• Biography of SIGMUND FREUD
• Psychoanalytic Theory / psychosexual theory with its
clinical application.
• Critical analysis of the theory

Introduction
Children should not be studied as
embryonic adults, but in their
essential child nature so as to
understand their capacities and
know how to deal with them.
John Comenius

Science dealing with human nature, function and phenomenon of his soul in main
Psychology
Improvement in human
learning and memory
Relieving the misery of any
psychological disorders
Treating the young children
and old with greater
sensitivity and humanity.
Application of psychology

The main aim of studying psychology is to gain an
increased understanding of why people respond as they do.
• Early scientific studies of children, concentrated on specific areas of child
behaviour, such as speech, emotions or play interests and activities.
• The name given to this new branch of psychological research was “Child
Psychology”- a label which suggested that interest was centered on the
psychological phenomena of the pre-schooler and school-age child.

Child Psychology
It is the science or study of child’s mind and how it functions, it
also deals with the mental power or an interaction between the
conscious and subconscious element in a child.

Importance of Child psychology
• Understand Know the child patients better
• To know the problem of psychological origin
• Deliver dental services in a meaningful and effective way
• Establish effective communication and gain confidence of the child and the parent
• Teach the parent and the child, the importance of primary and preventive care
• Produce a comfortable environment for the dental team to work on the patient

• For treating a child successfully or to manage a child in a dental setting, we as
paediatric dentists should have thorough knowledge on personality
development of the child.
• This will help us in handling the fears of children and knowing their needs so
that we can gain their trust and provide them better treatment.
“The dentist who fails to attend to the psychological needs
of a child will soon deal with an uncooperative patient”
David C Johnsen.

History: Child Psychology
From Speculation To Science:
How Psychology Developed?

• The first use of the term "psychology" is attributed to the humanist Marko
Marulić (1450-1524) in the title, “Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae”
which was subsequently lost.
• But the term did not fall into popular usage until the German idealist
philosopher; Christian Wolff used it in his Psychologia empirica and
Psychologia rationalis (1732-1734).

ROOTS OF PSYCHOLOGY
Philosophy
Physiology
• Psychology’s intellectual parents were the discipline of
Philosophy date as far back as the early Greek thinkers Socrates (470 – 399 B.C) and
his followers such as Plato and Aristotle;
Physiology is also as old as philosophy and date as far back as Greek physician
Hippocrates (460 – 377 B.C).
Barbe C. Freud, science and soul: a review essay. J. Relig Health.2007;46:607-624.

A New Science Is Born
• 1879 : psychology’s “Date of Birth”,
Because the psychology appeared as a subject discipline in its own right in 1879,
when Wilhelm Wundt opened up the first psychology laboratory, at the University
of Leipzig in Germany.
• Wilhelm Wundt is now known as “Father of Scientific Psychology”

• Wundt and his colleagues were attempting to investigate the mind through
introspection (method of studying consciousness in which subjects report on their
subjective experiences) which really marked the separation of the “new psychology”
from its parent discipline of philosophy.
• According to Wundt, the subject matter of the psychology was consciousness – the
awareness of immediate experience.
• Thus, psychology became the scientific study of conscious experience and this
orientation made psychology to focus mainly on the mind. Wundt’s conception of
psychology dominated for about two decades.

The battle of the school begins:
structuralism vs functionalism
Psychology the two major schools of thought were structuralism (Wundt) and functionalism
Structuralism (structure of consciousness)
Structuralists wanted to identify and examine the fundamental components of
conscious experience, such as sensations, feelings and images and most of their work
concerned sensation and perception in vision, hearing, and touch.
To examine the contents of consciousness, the structuralists depended on the method
of introspection.

Fundamental components like
sensation and perception in
vision, hearing, and touch
Conscious experience
Kept in mind and such
conscious experiences
(consciousness) develops
human psychology (based
on concept of
introspection).
Functionalism (function of consciousness)
was based on the belief that psychology should investigate the
function or purpose of consciousness, rather than its structure.
What is the function or purpose of consciousness

Functionalism (function of consciousness)
• The chief architect of functionalism was William James
• James was impressed by Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection.
• The cornerstone notion of Darwin’s evolutionary theory suggested that “all the
characteristics of a species must serve some purpose.”
• Applying this idea to humans, James noted that consciousness is an important
character of human which helps the individual to adapt their behavior to the
demands of the real world around them.

Fundamental components like
sensation and perception in
vision, hearing, and touch
Conscious experience
helps the individual to adapt
their behavior to the demands
of the real world around them
Behavior Psychology

Behaviorism Makes Its Debut
Behavioral Perspective
• Behavior refers to an overt response (observable response) or activity by an
organism.
• Behavioural approach emphasizes the scientific study of observable behavioural
responses and their environmental determinants.
• The key assumption of behavioral psychology is that if psychology is to be a
science, it must study only that which is “Observable” – namely behavior
Behavior Psychology

Freud Brings The Unconsciousness Into Picture
Psychodynamic Perspective
• Unconscious forces exert important influence on human behavior (Unconsciousness).
• Freud made disconcerting suggestion that people are not masters of their own minds
and their behavior is greatly influenced by how people cope with their sexual urges
• 1920 psychoanalytical theory was widely known around the world
McLeod, S. (2014). Psychodynamic approach. Simply Psychology.
https://positivepsychologyprogram.com/psychoanalysis/

Evolution of child psychology
Plato believed that children are born with special talents and that their training
should stress those talents. His views are consistent with modern thinking about
individual differences and education.
In the 18th century the French philosopher Jean-Jacques seemed to echo Plato
when he stated that children should be free to express their energies in order to
develop their special talents. His view suggests that normal development occurs
best in a nonrestrictive, supportive environment. Similar concepts are popular
today.

The American psychologist John B. Watson also stressed the role of the
environment in shaping children's development. His views were consistent with
those of behaviourism, an approach to psychology that had a great impact in the
1950s on research about children.
Sigmund Freud, who emphasized the effects of environmental variables on
development, particularly stressed the importance of parental behavior during
infancy.
To this day, Freud's theory continues to influence child psychologists.

Theories of child psychology
Psychodynamic Behavioural Others

Different theories of psychology which have an application in pediatric dentistry
• Theories on personality Development (psychodynamic)
Psychoanalytic theory or psychosexual theory by Sigmund Freud 1905
Psychosocial theory or Erikson’s model of Personality development 1963
Cognitive development theory by Jean Piaget 1952

• Theories on Learning and development of Behavior (behavioural)
Classical conditioning by Ivan Pavlov 1927
Operant conditioning by B.F. Skinner 1938
Social or Observational learning by Albert Bandura 1963
• Other relevant theories
Separation-Individuation theory by Margaret S Mahler
Theory of Hierarchy of Needs by Abraham Maslow 1954

Psychoanalytic
Or
Psychosexual Theory

The Founder of Psychoanalysis: Sigmund Freud and His Concepts
Freud was born in Austria but spent most of his
childhood and adult life in Vienna.
He entered medical school and trained to
become a neurologist, earning a medical degree
in 1881.
Grunbaum A. et al. A century of psychoanalysis: Critical retrospect and
prospect. Int Forum Psychoanal.2001; 10:105-112.
Soon after graduation, he set up a private
practice and began treating patients with
psychological disorders. He often treated
people troubled by nervous problems such as
irrational fears, obsessions, and anxieties.

History of Psychoanalytic theory
Method to treat
patients
Psychoanalysis Psychoanalytic
theory
Influenced by
must know
‘Anna O’ case

Beginning of psychoanalysis - Case of Anna O
Josef Breuer, a prominent Viennese physician who was a
close friend of Freud. The patient, Bertha Pappenheim,
consulted Breuer in December 1880 (She was referred by
Breuer as “Anna O.”) who suffered from physical
symptoms(hysteric) with no apparent physical cause.
She manifested two distinct states of consciousness after
placing Anna O. in a hypnotic state. one, relatively normal
young woman, the other, a troublesome and naughty child.
Dr. Breuer found that her symptoms abated when he helped
her recover memories of traumatic experiences that she
had repressed, or hidden away from her conscious mind

Being fascinated by Breuer’s treatment of Anna O, in 1887 Freud began to use
hypnosis as a routine part of his clinical practice. He was determined to
investigate what lay behind the symptoms of hysterical patients. This led him
to introduce a procedure known as Psychoanalysis
He found that there were all sorts of unconscious and half-conscious fears and
preoccupations behind his patient’s psychological symptoms.
In this procedure he encouraged his patients to lie down in a relaxed position,
on a couch, and to try to say exactly what was passing through their minds
from moment to moment. He sat out of sight behind them, so as not to distract
them. He kept a strictly professional setting that was confidential and avoided
judgement or blame, with sessions at regular times.

Publication
• Freud pioneered new techniques for understanding human
behaviour,
• Comprehensive theory of personality and psychotherapy
ever developed
• By 1895, the year he published Studies on Hysteria with
Josef Breuer
• The Interpretation of Dreams in 1900 and Psychopathology
of Everyday Life in 1901.
• Beyond the Pleasure Principle in 1920
• The Ego and the Id

From- Freud S. The Interpretations of Dreams; 1900
Psychoanalysis by Dr. Sigmund Freud

• It describes how personality develops during childhood.
• While the theory is well-known in psychology, it is also one of the most
controversial theories.
• It suggested that personality is mostly established by the age of 5.
• Early experiences play a large role in personality development and
continue to influence behavior later in life.
Psychoanalytical Theory

Influence
personality
development
and behaviour
in future
Causes deep
rooted
impact on
mind
Unpleasant/
traumatic
childhood
This case sparked Freud’s interest in the unconscious mind and spurred the development
of some of his most influential ideas.
Perhaps the most impactful idea put forth by Freud was his model of the human mind.

Described human mind with the help of two models:
• Topographic model
• Psychic model/ psychic triad
Models of the Mind

• Introduction
TOPOGRAPHIC APPROACH

• According to this model human
mind consist
1. Conscious
2. Preconscious/ Subconscious
3. Subconscious/ Unconscious mind.
Topographic model

Conscious mind Preconscious mind Unconscious/
subconscious mind
Is where we are
paying attention at the
moment
Involves ordinary
memory and
knowledge
is where the process
and content are out of
direct reach of
conscious mind.
It includes only our
current thinking
processes and
objects of attention
and constitutes a large
part of our current
awareness.
Things of which we
aware, but we are
not paying attention
at all moments but
can deliberately
bring them into
conscious mind by
focusing.
This is the home of
everything we can
recall or retrieve
from our memory.
It consists of that part of
mind which thinks and
acts independently, acts
as a dump box for
urges, feelings and
ideas and exerts
influence on our actions
and our conscious
awareness.

• Freud described human mind is
like an iceberg. Only 10% of
iceberg is visible (conscious),
whereas 90% is beneath
(unconscious).

• The human psyche (personality) structured into 3 parts (i.e. tripartite)
all developing at different stages in our lives.
Psychic
model/Triad
Id
EgoSuper
Ego

Id: “Inherited reservoir of unrecognized drives”
• Basic structure of personality.
• only component of personality that is present from birth.
• Impulse ridden and strives for immediate pleasure and gratification
• The id is driven by the pleasure principle, which strives for
immediate gratification of all desires, wants, and needs.
• If these needs are not satisfied immediately, the result is a state anxiety or
tension and aggressive personality.

Example
• An increase in hunger or thirst should produce an immediate
attempt to eat or drink.
• The id is very important early in life, because it ensures that an
infant's needs are met.
• If the infant is hungry or uncomfortable, he or she will cry until
the demands of the id are met.
Segrist DJ. What’s going on in your professor’s head? demonstrating
the id, ego, and superego. Teach Psychol. 2009;36:51-54.

Ego : component of personality that is responsible for dealing with reality
• Develops out of id in 2nd to 6th month of life when the infant begins to distinguish
between itself and outside world.
• It is “that part of the id which has been modified by the direct influence of the
external world”
• It is concerned with memory and judgement.
• It is developed after birth, expands with age and it delays, modifies and controls
id impulses on a realistic level(reality principle). Ensures that the impulses
of the id can be expressed in a manner acceptable in the real world.

• Little children discover that id-impulses often cannot be gratified immediately.
Sometimes, to get what you want, you must be rational or tolerate a delay.
• The ego develops as a result of this clash between desires of the id and realities of the
world. With the development of the ego comes, conscious rational thinking.
• Freud described the reality principle as the ability of the ego to make plans that take
reality into account, even if it means postponing pleasure or enduring pain.
• Eg: hunger must wait until food is given.

It is the prohibition learned from environment (more from parents
and authorities).
• It acts as a censor of acceptability of thoughts, feelings and
behavior.
• It is determined by regulations imposed upon child by parents, society
and culture (ethics and morals). Freud believed that we learn morals
and values from the people who take care of us in childhood
• It develops around the age of 3 – 5 years during the phallic stage of
psychosexual development.
Super ego : (above I )

• Gradually these values are internalized or taken inside us, and the result is the super-
ego.
• He said the super-ego, as an "internalization of parental values," was responsible for
both pride and guilt.
• It also has the function of persuading the ego to turn to moralistic goals rather than
simply realistic ones and to strive for perfection.
• The superego acts to perfect and civilize our behavior.

There are two parts of the superego:
The ego ideal:
• Includes the rules and standards for good behaviors.
• Obeying these rules leads to feelings of pride, value and accomplishment
The conscience:
• Includes information about things that are viewed as bad by parents and society.
• These behaviors are often forbidden and lead to bad consequences, punishments or
feelings of guilt.

• Freud said the ego is often caught in
a struggle between the id and super-
ego, which pull in opposite
directions.
• Ego's function: to serve as the master
executive, juggling all the priorities,
planning out the best course of action.

The id was totally unconscious, the super-ego was partly
unconscious, and the ego was mostly accessible to consciousness

The Interaction of the Id, Ego and Superego
• Personality disorders exist because of a conflict between the ego and the superego
• SUPEREGO comes in conflict with the EGO
• EGO also develops the defense mechanism to hide the SUPEREGO
• key to a healthy personality is a balance between the id, the ego, and the superego

DEFENSE MECHANISMS
• According to Freud anxiety is a danger signal to the ego.
• Defense mechanisms are unconscious strategies that people use to
reduce anxiety by concealing the source from themselves and others.
• Without defence mechanisms, Freud believed that the
person with conflicting personality components would be
under so much stress that they develop mental illness or
kill themselves.

Defense Mechanism Includes
• Denial
• Repression
• Regression
• Displacement
• Sublimation
• Projection
• Intellectualization
• Rationalization
• Reaction formation

DENIAL
• It is probably one of the best known defense
mechanisms, used often to describe situations in
which people seem unable to face reality or
admit an obvious truth.
• Denial is an outright refusal to admit or
recognize that something has occurred or is
currently occurring.
• E.g. Drug addicts or alcoholics
I FEEL SO
GOOD!

Repression : motivated forgetting
• Primary defense mechanism in which
unacceptable or unpleasant ID impulses are
pushed back into the unconscious.
• People tend to repress desires that make them feel
guilty, conflicts that make them anxious, and
memories that are painful.
• e.g. repressed memories of abuse suffered as a
child

Regression
 It is a reversion to immature patterns of
the behaviour.
 For example, a child, who is frightened
by the first day at school, may indulge in
infantile behaviour, such as weeping,
sucking the thumb, an adult has a temper
tantrum when he doesn’t get his way.

DEFENSE MECHANISMS
Regression -
• During the dental treatment , when the child
becomes anxious and feels that his security is
threatened, he tends to go back (regress) to
an earlier stage of development which
provides relief to his anxiety when
threatened.
• An older child may start thumb sucking
which was a normal trait at his younger stage
of development

Displacement
 The expression of an unwanted feeling
or thought, directed towards a weaker
person instead of a more powerful one.
 Displacement involves taking out our
frustrations, feelings and impulses on
people or objects that are less
threatening.

DEFENSE MECHANISMS
• Anxiety of a child in a dental set up sometimes is exhibit in the form
of throwing temper tantrums at parents/ siblings as he is unable to
express his feelings to the dentist.
Displacement

Sublimation
• A defense mechanism considered healthy by
Freud, in which a person diverts unwanted
impulses into socially acceptable thoughts,
feelings or behavior
• E.g. a person experiencing extreme anger might
take up kick-boxing as a means of venting
frustration. Freud believed that sublimation was
a sign of maturity that allows people to
function normally in socially acceptable ways.
Freud felt that sublimation was extremely
important for civilized existence and social
achievement.

Projection
• A defense mechanism in which people attribute
their own inadequacies or faults to someone else
• E.g., if you have a strong dislike for someone,
you might instead believe that he or she does not
like you.

DEFENSE MECHANISMS
• A child may feel pain due to toothache.
• He gets examined by the dentist. Suddenly he starts crying
and blames the dentist for the reason of his pain.
Projection

Intellectualization
• works to reduce anxiety by thinking about events in a cold, clinical
way.
• E.g., a person who has just been diagnosed with a terminal illness
might focus on learning everything about the disease in order to
avoid distress and remain distant from the reality of the situation.

Rationalization
 A defense mechanism whereby people
justify a negative situation in a way that
protects their self esteem.
 Example:- student might blame a poor
exam score on the instructor rather than
his or her lack of preparation.

Reaction formation
• Reduces anxiety by taking up the opposite feeling,
impulse or behavior.
• An example of reaction formation would be treating
someone you strongly dislike in an excessively friendly
manner in order to hide your true feelings. Why do people
behave this way? According to Freud, they are using
reaction formation as a defense mechanism to hide their
true feelings by behaving in the exact opposite manner.

Psychosexual stages of
personality development

• Freud proposed that psychological development in childhood takes place in a series
of fixed stages.
• Freud described 5 psychosexual stages. Each stage define how human personality
develops from our birth up to early adulthood.
• At each stage sexual energy is invested in a particular part called an erogenous zone.
 Without a proper resolution following each stage, we may experience faults in future
personalities
AN OVERVIEW

Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development
Freud in 1921

THE ORAL STAGE (0 - 1½ Y)
• The earliest stage of development, in which the infant’s
needs, perceptions, and modes of expression are primarily
centered in the mouth, lips, tongue, and other organs related
to the oral zone, hence known as oral stage
• The oral zone maintains its dominant role in the
organization of the psyche through approximately the first
18 months of life.

• Oral sensations encountered during this period are thirst, hunger, pleasurable tactile
stimulations evoked during milk suckling and also sensations relating to
swallowing.
• It is the period during which mouth experiences most tension and requires the most
tension-reducing stimulation.
• Id component of personality which operates during this period tries to
gratify/reduce tension in and around the mouth by sucking, even on a thumb or
pacifier.

FIXATION
• Both insufficient and forceful feeding can result in fixation
in this stage.
Symptoms of Oral Fixation :
• Smoking
• Constant chewing on gum, pens, pencils, etc.
• Nail biting

• The child enters the Anal stage, during this stage the locus of gratification
changes from oral region to anal region.
• Maturation of neuromuscular control occurs.
• Thus in this stage the bowel movements become a source of pleasure to the
child. (toilet training of child)
• Acquire the ability to withhold or expel faecal material at will.
ANAL STAGE 18mth -3 yrs

FIXATION
Anal-Expulsive Personality:
If the parents are too lenient and fail to instill the society’s rules about bowel
movement control, the child will derive pleasure and success from the expulsion.
Individuals with fixation in this mode of gratification are excessively sloppy,
disorganized, reckless, careless, and defiant.
Anal-Retentive Personality:
If a child receives excessive pressure and punishment from parents during toilet
training, the child will experience anxiety over bowel movements.
Individuals with such fixation are very clean, orderly and intolerant to those who
are not clean.

FIXATION
• Fixation to Anal stage leads to obstinate, passively aggressive behavior.
• These type of children do not listen to their parents or the dentist and are
extremely uncooperative. difficult to manage in the dental set up, as they
are unwilling to listen or follow instructions
• This kind of child behavior can be modified by modeling

URETHRAL STAGE (3-4yrs)
• Transition between anal and phallic stages.
• Derives pleasure by exercising control over urinary
sphincter.
• Objectives similar to anal stage.
• Shame, competitiveness and ambition.

THE PHALLIC STAGE (4-5Y)
• The most intricate of the stages; erogenous zone shifts
from the anus to the genitals
• Most challenging stage in a person’s psychosexual
development.
• Key events : Oedipus complex, Electra complex,
castration anxiety.
• Child’s feeling of attraction towards the parent of the
opposite sex together with envy and fear of the same sex
parent.
Rand N. Did women threaten the oedipus complex between 1922 & 1933.
Angelaki journal of the theoretical humanities.2004;9:53-66

Oedipus Complex – Electra complex
• Freud introduced the term ‘Oedipus complex’ in his
‘INTERPRETATION OF DREAMS’ in 1899.
• This concept is a desire for sexual involvement with the parent
of opposite sex, which produces a sense of competition with
the parent of the same sex.
Rand N. Did women threaten the oedipus complex between 1922
& 1933. Angelaki journal of the theoretical humanities.2004;9:53-
66

THE LATENCY STAGE (8-13Y)
• Lasts from 7yrs to Puberty
• The social environment around them, other
people, culture, values and their own skills,
capacities and interests.
• Children transfer there interest from parents to
peers
• Separation of sexes begins to change at age 12,
when young adolescents enter the Genital
Stage

THE LATENCY STAGE (8-13Y)
• Transitioning period between the Phallic and Genital stages.
• Focuses on areas like academics and athletics, etc. Same-sex
friendships develop during this time .

• Fixation to latency stage leads to introvert nature, rigidity.
• If the child does not interact with the social environment outside home, then
he tends to become introvert.
• Child shows the tendency to hide behind his or her mother or probably does
not at all look at the dentist due to hesitation and change in environment.
FIXATION

THE GENITAL STAGE ( 11-13Y)
• Primary objectives are ultimate separation from dependence, and
attachment to parents and establishment of mature relations.
• Child makes contact and form relationships with members of opposite
sex.
• SUPEREGO undergoes further development and become more flexible

Evaluation of FREUD’S Theory

• Early experience may have important effects on a person’s behavior in later
life still holds an important basis for modern psychoanalysis.
• Unconsciousness had a central role in Freud psychology.
• He believed that pulling back of unconscious memories into the conscious
could have a vital therapeutic effect.
• Freud’s TALKING CURE

WEAKNESSES
• Inadequate methodology for identifying developmental processes.
• Over emphasis on childhood sexuality.
• It offers no guidance for predicting which manifestation of the difficulty
will occur.
• The observations are derived from limited population.

Dental/ clinical applications of
Freud’s theory

• When the Oedipal and Electra conflict are left
unresolved, it leads to fixation.
• In dental set up , when a child comes for treatment,
Male child- would want his mother to be around him.
Girl child – would want her father to be around.
• Similarly the male child would want to get his
treatment done by a female dentist (mother-like
figure). conversely, Female child would want to get
her treatment done by a male dentist.

• This term was introduced by Freud to describe a syndrome of general irritability,
anxious expectations, anxious attacks ,breathlessness, chest pain.
During the dental treatment –
• For example- during extraction the patient might become very anxious and start
complaining of breathlessness, irritation

• Patients are overwhelmed by an intense and irrational fear of some animal,
object, social situation or disease.
e.g.
White coat fear – when only by looking at a doctor, the child starts crying.
Fear of injection- even the sight of injection can cause fear in child

• Fear may be irrational in the sense that the child may not know why he
is frightened.
• Memories of the past experience may fade entirely but the emotions
associated with the forgotten experience determines his reaction to a
similar event in the future
• For e.g.- a mother who fears going to the dentist and goes only under
great emotional stress transmits this fear unconsciously to her child who
is observing her.

• Fixation is a failure of the development in which
the individual continues to seek a particular kind of
gratification.
Fixation to ORAL STAGE can lead to :
• Thumb sucking
• Chewing habits
• Smoking
• Drinking

Criticisms of Freud’s theory
• According to Freud, sexuality is pervasive factor behind personality, which many of
them strongly disapproved.
• Oedipus complex was not as universal as Freud believed
• First five yrs of life are not as powerful in shaping adult personality as Freud thought

• Feminists have vigorously attacked Freud’s speculations about the
psychology of women especially the concept of penis envy.
• Freud’s theory is markedly deficient in providing as set of relational rules
by which one can arrive at any precise expectations of what will happen if
certain events take place.
• Freud’s theory has not been substantiated by scientifically respectable
procedures.

• An understanding of child development is essential because it allows
us to fully appreciate the cognitive, emotional, physical, social, and
educational growth that children go through from birth and into early
adulthood.
• Psychoanalytic theory of Dr. Freud is one of the earliest and most
comprehensive theories of life long psychological development.

References
• Grunbaum A. et al. A century of psychoanalysis: Critical retrospect and prospect.
Int Forum Psychoanal.2001; 10:105-112.
 Gammelgaard J. The unconscious A re-reading of the Freudian concept. Scand.
Psychoanal.Rev.2003;26:11-21
 Segrist DJ. What’s going on in your professor’s head? demonstrating the id, ego,
and superego. Teach Psychol. 2009;36:51-54.

• Flavell, John H. (1999). : Children’s knowledge about the mind. cognitive
development. Annual Review of Psychology, p. 21(16)
• Lehrer S. Modern correlates of freudian psychology. Am J
Med.1984;77:977-80.
• Textbook of Pedodontics- Shobha Tandon
• Comprehensive preventive dentistry-Nikhil Marwah
• Essentials of public health dentistry- Soben Peter

• G. Marzo et al. Psychological aspects in paediatric dentistry: parental presence.
European journal of paediatric dentistry • 4/2003
• Behavior Guidance for the Pediatric Dental Patient. AAPD Reference manual
v40 / no 6 18 / 19.
• Susan B. Campbell Behavior Problems in Preschool Children: A Review of
Recent Research J. Child Psychot. Psychiat. Vol 36 , No. l pp . 113-149, 1995

• kernberg, O. (2016). The four basic concepts of psychoanalytic
technique. World Psychiatry,15,287-288.
• McLeod, S. (2014). Psychodynamic approach. Simply Psychology.

Psychodynamic Theories of Child Psychology
Dr. Pooja Mapara
PG student
Department of Paedodontics and Preventive Dentistry

Preview of last seminar
• Introduction to child psychology
• Importance of studying child psychology
• History and Evolution of child psychology
• Classification of theories of psychology
• Psychoanalytic Theory / psychosexual theory with its
clinical application.
• Critical analysis of the theory

Psychodynamic theories of child psychology
Psychoanalytic theory or psychosexual
theory by Sigmund Freud 1905
Psychosocial theory or Erikson’s model
of Personality development 1963

Freudians
• Anna Freud – Daughter of Sigmund Freud
helped establish child psychoanalysis.
• Jeffery Masson.
• Jean-Paul Santre.
• Welhelm Reich.
• Julie Andrews – Singer and actress.
• Bernardo Bertolucci – Italian movie director.
• Surgri Eisenstein – Russian film director.
Neo-Freudians
Thinkers who agreed with the basis
of Freud’s Psychoanalytic theory,
but changed and adapted the theory
to incorporate their own beliefs,
ideas and theories.
Freudians V/S Neo- Freudians

NEO - FREUDIANS
‘Analytical
Psychology’
Disagreed over
the nature of
libido and
psychological
development
given by Freud
He was critical
of many of
Freud's ideas
including the
Oedipus
complex
‘Individual
Psychology’
and the
concept of the
inferiority
complex
Carl Jung Erich Fromm Alfred Adler

ERIK HOMBURGER ERIKSON
(1902-1994)
Neo-Freudian

Contributions of Erikson
• Erikson is a Neo-Freudian ego-psychologist
• Erikson is much more society and culture-oriented than most Freudians
• He has breathed new life into psychoanalytic theory
Most significant contribution
• Psychosocial theory of development

Psychosocial
or
Developmental Tasks Theory
By ERIK ERIKSON

1963 : “childhood and society”
• ERIK ERIKSON, a friend and student of Freud, elaborated and modified
Freud’s theory in 1963.
Psychosocial
factors
Psychosexual
factors
Personality
development

Personality develops beyond age 5!
• Erikson believed that childhood is very important in personality
development. He accepted many of Freud's theories, including the id, ego,
and superego, and Freud's theory of infantile sexuality. But he rejected
Freud's attempt to describe personality solely on the basis of sexuality, and,
felt that personality continued to develop beyond 5 years of age.
The Epigenetic Principle

The Epigenetic Principle : Predetermined unfolding of our personalities
• According to Erikson each individual passes through 8 developmental stages.
• Each stage characterized by a different psychological crisis, which could have a
positive or negative outcome for personality development.
• Each stage must be resolved by the individual before he can move on to next stage.
• If the person copes with a particular crises in a maladaptive manner the outcome will
be more struggles with the same issue later in life.

Failure to successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to
complete further stages and therefore a more unhealthy personality and sense
of self.
Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development, simply psychology by Saul McLeod, updated 2018
For Erikson (1963), these crises are of a psychosocial nature because
they involve psychological needs of the individual (i.e. psycho)
conflicting with the needs of society (i.e. social).
According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a
healthy personality and the acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are
characteristic strengths which the ego can use to resolve subsequent crises

It means, the stages of a person’s life
from birth to death are formed by social
“mutual fit between
individual and environment
BIRTH DEATH
infancy and childhood adolescence Adult life including old age

ERIKSON’S 8 STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

1. Trust vs. Mistrust (BIRTH – 18 MONTHS)
• Crisis : Can I Trust the World?
Is the world a safe place or is it full of unpredictable events and
accidents waiting to happen?
Freud’s
oral stage
(psychosexual
development)
Erickson’s
first
psychosocial
crises.
(trust vs
mistrust)

• During this stage, the infant is uncertain about the world in which they live.
• To resolve these feelings of uncertainty, the infant looks towards their primary
caregiver for stability and consistency of care.
Positive outcome
If the care the infant receives is
consistent, predictable and reliable,
they will develop a sense of trust which
will carry with them to other
relationships, and they will be able to
feel secure even when threatened.
Negative outcome
If the care has been harsh or inconsistent,
unpredictable and unreliable, then the
infant will develop a sense of mistrust and
will not have confidence in the world
around them or in their abilities to
influence events.

Success in this stage : TRUST: HOPE
• Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of hope.
• By developing a sense of trust, the infant can have hope that as new crises arise,
there is a real possibility that other people will be there as a source of support.
• Failing to acquire the virtue of hope will lead to the development of fear. (BASIC
SENCE OF MISTRUST)
This infant will carry the basic sense
of mistrust with them in future life.
It may result in anxiety, heightened
insecurities.

Erikson's views on the importance of trust:
Bowlby's Attachment Theory
1. A child has an innate, need to attach to one main attachment figure (i.e., monotropy)
2. A child should receive the continuous care of this single most important attachment
figure for approximately the first two years of life.
3. If the attachment figure is broken or disrupted during the critical two year period, the
child will suffer irreversible long-term consequences
Bowlby's Attachment Theory Saul McLeod, published 2007 https://www.simplypsychology.org/bowlby.html

Bowlby’s Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis
• Is that continual disruption of the attachment between infant and primary caregiver
(i.e., mother) could result in long-term cognitive, social, and emotional difficulties
for that infant.
• The implications of this are vast – if this is true, should the primary caregiver leave
their child in day care, while they continue to work?

The child’s attachment (TRUST) relationship with their primary
caregiver leads to the development of an internal working model
(Bowlby, 1969).
• A person’s interaction with others is guided by memories and
expectations from their internal model which influence and help
evaluate their contact with others (Bretherton, & Munholland, 1999).

Development of an internal working model (Bowlby, 1969).

Robertson and Bowlby (1952) believe that short-term separation from
an attachment figure leads to distress (i.e., the PDD model).
They found three progressive stages of distress:
• Protest: The child cries, screams and protests angrily when the parent
leaves. They will try to cling on to the parent to stop them leaving.
• Despair: The child’s protesting begins to stop, and they appear to be calmer
although still upset. The child refuses others’ attempts for comfort and often
seems withdrawn and uninterested in anything.
• Detachment: If separation continues the child will start to engage with other
people again. They will reject the caregiver on their return and show strong
signs of anger.

The long-term consequences of maternal deprivation might
include the following:
• reduced intelligence,
• increased aggression,
• depression,
• affectionless psychopathy
Affectionless psychopathy is an inability to show affection or concern for
others. For example, showing no guilt for antisocial behaviour.

Bowlby found that 86% of the ‘affectionless
psychopaths’ in group 1 (‘thieves) had
experienced a long period of maternal
separation before the age of 5 years
separation/deprivation in the child’s early life
caused permanent emotional damage. He
diagnosed this as a condition and called it
Affectionless Psychopathy. This condition
involves a lack of emotional development,
characterized by a lack of concern for others,
lack of guilt and inability to form meaningful
and lasting relationships.

Around the age of three, these seem to become part of a
child’s personality and thus affects their understanding of the
world and future interactions with others (Schore, 2000).
The primary caregiver acts as a prototype for all future social
relationships so disrupting it can have severe consequences.
Bowlby's Attachment Theory Saul McLeod, published 2007 https://www.simplypsychology.org/bowlby.html

CLINICAL APPLICATIONS: DENTISTRY
In early age: dental treatment is usually preferable to do so with parent
present.
In later stages: a child with limited sense of basic trust will have
difficulty entering into situations that require trust and confidence in
other person.
Extremely frightened and uncooperative patient

• This stage identifies with development of separation anxiety
in the child. So if necessary to provide dental Rx at this early
stage, it is preferably to do with the parent present and
preferably with parent holding the child.
• Once the child looses basic trust with the world, it is very
difficult to gain confidence of the child and will require special
efforts to establish support with dentist and staff.

2. Autonomy Vs shame and Doubt ( 18 months- 3rd yr)
Crisis : "Can I do things myself or am I reliant on the help of others?"
• The child is developing physically and becoming more mobile, and discovering
that he or she has many skills and abilities, such as putting on clothes and shoes,
playing with toys, etc.
• Such skills illustrate the child's growing sense of independence and autonomy.
• Their self-control and self-confidence begins to develop at this stage.

During this stage children begin to assert
their independence, by walking away from
their mother, picking which toy to play
with, and making choices about what they
like to wear, to eat.
Erikson states it is critical that parents allow
their children to explore the limits of their
abilities within an encouraging environment
which is tolerant of failure.
FIRM BUT TOLERANT

• A delicate balance is required from the parent.
• They must try not to do everything for the child, but if the child fails at a
particular task they must not criticize the child for failures and accidents.
• The aim has to be “self control without a loss of self-esteem” (Gross, 1992).
• Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of will.
Parent’s role

McLeod, S. A. (2018, May 03). Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development.
Retrieved from https://www.simplypsychology.org/Erik-Erikson.html
If children in this stage are
encouraged and supported in their
increased independence, they become
more confident and secure in their
own ability to survive in the world.
If children are criticized, overly
controlled, or not given the
opportunity to assert themselves, they
begin to feel inadequate in their ability
to survive, and may then become
overly dependent upon others, lack
self-esteem, and feel a sense of shame
or doubt in their abilities.
STAGE 2 AUTONOMY VS DOUBT : VIRTUE OF WILL
POSITIVE NEGATIVE

Kendra Cherry et al. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt in Psychosocial Stage 2
Medically reviewed by a board-certified physician Updated December 13, 2018
Kendra Cherry et al. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt in Psychosocial Stage 2
Medically reviewed by a board-certified physician Updated December 13, 2018
• Gaining a sense of personal control over the world is important at this
stage of development.
• Children at this age are becoming increasingly independent and want to
gain more control over what they do and how they do it.
• There are a number of different tasks that are often important during the
autonomy versus shame and doubt stage of development. (Food choices,
toy preferences, and clothing selection.)

TOILET TRAINING
Gwen D. et al. The science of toilet training: 2007-2010
American Academy of Pediatrics. 2006. Toilet training readiness American Academy of Pediatrics webste.
Toilet training plays a major role; learning to control one’s body functions leads to a
feeling of control and a sense of independence.
Freud’s
Anal stage
(psychosexual
development)
Erickson’s
2nd
psychosocial
crises.
(autonomy vs
doubt)

TOILET TRAINING
Early
Late
Early training got a bad reputation because
it was once associated with bad training
methods.
Modern scientific studies Early training
doesn't cause problems.
Ideal time: 18 months – 27 months of age
Blum et al 2003 Blum NJ, Taubman B, and Nemeth
N. 2003.Relationship between age at initiation of toilet
training and duration of training: A prospective study.
Pediatrics, 111: 810-814.
Delayed training might put kids at higher
risk for developing bladder problems.
They found that school-age kids with
bladder problems--like daytime
accidents, bedwetting, and recurrent
urinary tract infections--were more
likely to have started toilet training at
a later age.

According to Eriksson
“From a sense of self-control without a loss of self-esteem
comes a lasting sense of good will and pride; from a sense
of loss of self-control and foreign over control came a
lasting propensity for shame and doubt.”

Dental application
• Child is moving away from mother, still will retreat to her in
threatening situations. So parent’s presence is essential in dental
clinic.
• At this stage as the child takes pleasure in doing tasks by himself,
dentist must obtain co-operation from him by making him believe
that the Rx is his choice not of dentist/parent.

3.Initiative Vs Guilt ( 3-6 yrs :pre-school)
• These are particularly lively, rapid-developing years in a child’s life.
• According to Bee (1992), it is a “time of vigour of action and of
behaviours” that the parents may see as aggressive.
During this period the primary feature involves the
child regularly interacting with other children.
Central to this stage is play, as it provides children
with the opportunity to explore their interpersonal
skills through initiating activities.

Children begin to plan activities, make
up games, and initiate activities with
others. If given this opportunity,
children develop a sense of initiative
and feel secure in their ability to lead
others and make decisions.
Conversely, if this tendency is squelched,
either through criticism or control, children
develop a sense of guilt. They may feel like
a nuisance to others and will, therefore,
remain followers, lacking in self-initiative.

The child takes initiatives which the parents will often try to stop in order to protect
the child. The child will often overstep the mark in his forcefulness, and the danger
is that the parents will tend to punish the child and restrict his initiatives too much.
It is at this stage that the child will begin to ask many questions as his thirst for
knowledge grows.
If the parents treat the child’s questions as trivial, a nuisance or embarrassing or
other aspects of their behaviour as threatening then the child may have feelings of
guilt for “being a nuisance”.

• Sometimes children take on projects they can readily accomplish, but at other
times they undertake projects that are beyond their capabilities or that interfere
with other people's plans and activities.
• If parents and preschool teachers encourage and support children's efforts,
while also helping them make realistic and appropriate choices, children
develop initiative- independence in planning and undertaking activities.
• But if, instead, adults discourage the pursuit of independent activities or
dismiss them as silly and bothersome, children develop guilt about their needs
and desires

• Too much guilt can make the child slow to interact with others and
may inhibit their creativity. Some guilt is, of course, necessary;
otherwise the child would not know how to exercise self-control or
have a conscience.
• A healthy balance between initiative and guilt is important.
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of purpose.

Dental application:
• For most children, the first visit to the dentist comes during this stage of
initiative. Going to the dentist can be constructed as a new and challenging
adventure in which the child can experience success.
• Success in coping with the anxiety of visiting the dentist can help develop
greater independence and produce a sense of accomplishment.
• Poorly managed, of course, a dental visit can also contribute toward the
guilt that accompanies failure.

• A child at this stage will be intensely curious about the dentist’s office
and eager to learn about the things found there.
• An exploratory visit with the mother present and with little treatment
accomplished usually is important in getting the dental experience for
a good start.
• After the initial experience, a child at this stage can usually tolerate
being separated from the mother for treatment and is likely to behave
better in this arrangement.

4. Industry Vs inferiority ( 6-12 yrs)
• School is the important event at this stage.
• Children are at the stage where they will be learning to read and write, to do
sums, to do things on their own.
• Teachers begin to take an important role in the child’s life as they teach the child
specific skills.
• It is at this stage that the child’s peer group will gain greater significance and will
become a major source of the child’s self-esteem.

• The child now feels the need to win approval by demonstrating specific
competencies that are valued by society and begin to develop a sense of pride in
their accomplishments.
• The elementary school years are critical for the development of self-confidence
Scared of school?

• If children are encouraged and reinforced for their initiative, they
begin to feel industrious (competent) and feel confident in their
ability to achieve goals.
• If this initiative is not encouraged, if it is restricted by parents or
teacher, then the child begins to feel inferior, doubting his own
abilities and therefore may not reach his or her potential.
• Some failure may be necessary so that the child can develop some
modesty.
• Again, a balance between competence and modesty is necessary.
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of competence.

• Children at this age are trying to learn the skills and rules that
define succession any situation, and that includes the dental office.
• A Key to behavioral guidance is setting attainable intermediate
goals, clearly outlining for the child how to achieve those goals,
and positively reinforcing success sin achieving these goals.
• Because of the child’s drive for a sense of industry and
accomplishment, cooperation with treatment can be obtained.
• Children at this stage can be motivated by improved acceptance or
status from the peer group.

• Emphasizing how the teeth will look better as the child
cooperates is more likely to be a motivation factor than
emphasizing a better dental occlusion.
• Orthodontic treatment often begins during this stage of
development
• Orthodontic treatment in this age group is likely to involve the
faithful wearing of removable appliances.

5.Identity Vs Role confusion (12-17 yrs)
• Crisis: Who am I??
• Who Am I and What Can IBe?
Emerging sexuality complicates relationships with others. At the same time, physical
ability changes, academic responsibilities increase, and career possibilities begin to
be defined.
• The adolescent is newly concerned with How they appear to others

The adolescent mind is essentially, a psychosocial stage between
childhood and adulthood, and between the morality learned by the
child, and the ethics to be developed by the adult (Erikson, 1963)
During this stage, adolescents search for a sense
of self and personal identity, through an intense
exploration of personal values, beliefs, and
goals.
IDENTITY
CRISIS

The child has to learn the roles he will occupy
as an adult.
It is during this stage that the adolescent will
re-examine his identity and try to find out
exactly who he or she is.
Erikson suggests that two identities are
involved: the sexual and the occupational.
Establishing one’s own identity requires a partial withdrawal from the family
Members.
Peer group become important role models, and the values and tastes of parents and
other authority figures are likely to be rejected.

Based upon the outcome of self explorations:
• They explore possibilities available to them and begin to form their own identity.
• Initially, mixed ideas and feelings about the specific ways in which they will fit
into society and may experiment with a variety of behaviours and activities.
• Eventually, most adolescents achieve a sense of identity regarding who they are
and where their lives are headed.

• Erikson claims: Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of fidelity.
Fidelity involves being able to commit one's
self to others on the basis of accepting others,
even when there may be ideological differences.
• Failure to establish a sense of identity within society ("I don’t know what I
want to be when I grow up") can lead to role confusion.
• Role confusion involves the individual not being sure about themselves or
their place in society.

Dental application
• Most orthodontic treatment is carried out during the adolescent years, and
behavioral management of adolescents can be extremely challenging.
• Since parental authority is being rejected, a poor psychologic situation is created by
orthodontic treatment if it is being carried out primarily because the parents want
it, not the child.
Motivation for seeking treatment
↙ ↘
External Internal

• Approval of the peer group is extremely important. At
one time, there was a certain stigma attached to being
the only one in the group so unfortunate as to have to
wear braces.
• In some areas of the United States now, orthodontic
treatment has become so common that there may be a
loss of status attached to being one of the few in the
group who is not receiving treatment, so that treatment
may even be requested in order to remain “one of the
crowd”.

6. Intimacy vs Isolation (Young Adulthood-19 to 40yrs)
• Most important events are love and relationships.
• During this period, the major conflict centers on forming intimate, loving
relationships with other people.
• Explore relationships leading toward longer-term commitments with someone
other than a family member.

Successful development of intimacy depends on a willingness to compromise and
even to sacrifice to maintain a relationship. Success leads to the establishment of
affiliations and partnerships, both with a mate and with others of the same sex in
working toward the attainment of career goals.

• Successful completion of this stage can result in happy relationships
and a sense of commitment, safety, and care within a relationship.
• Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of love.
Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships can lead to
isolation, loneliness, and sometimes depression.
Inability to develop identity---fear a committed relationship

Dental application
• At this stage external appearances are very important as it helps in
attainment of intimate relation.
• Young adults seek orthodontic Rx to correct their dental appearances and
this characterized as internal motivation.
• But alteration of appearances can also interfere with previously established
relations, so the Rx options must be fully explained to and discussed with
young adults. (Focus is orthodontic and esthetic treatments).

7. creativity vs stagnation (40 to 65 yrs: middle Adulthood)
• Crises: Can I Make My Life Count?
• Generativity/creativity refers to "making your mark" on the world through creating
or nurturing things that will outlast an individual. (ability to look outside oneself and
care for others through parenting).
• People experience a need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often
creating positive changes that will benefit other people.
• concern of guiding the next generation
Erikson, Erik (1956). "The problem of ego identity" Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association4: 56–121

• When a person makes a contribution during this period,
perhaps by raising a family or working toward the betterment
of society, a sense of generativity- a sense of productivity
and accomplishment results.
• In contrast, a person who is self-centered and unable or
unwilling to help society move forward develops a feeling of
stagnation- a dissatisfaction with the relative lack of
productivity.
• Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of care.

8. Integrity vs Despair (Late Adulthood: age 65yrs to death)
• Crisis: Is it OK to Have Been Me?
• The final stage in psychosocial development is the attainment of integrity (the
sense of satisfaction that a person feels in reflecting on a life productively
lived).

• Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of wisdom.
• Wisdom enables a person to look back on their life with a sense of closure
and completeness, and also accept death without fear.
Erikson, Erik (1956). "The problem of ego identity" Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association4: 56–121
Erik Erikson believed if we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilt about
our past, or feel that we did not accomplish our life goals, we become
dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to depression and
hopelessness.

Erikson (1968) summarizes with the following statement
“I shall present human growth from the point of view of
the conflicts, inner and outer, re‐emerging from each
crisis with an increased sense of inner unity, with an
increase of good judgment, and an increase in the
capacity ‘to do well’ according to his own standards and
to the standards of those who are significant to him”

McAdams, D. P. (2001). The psychology of life stories. Review of General Psychology,
5(2), 100.
• By extending the notion of personality development across the lifespan, Erikson
outlines a more realistic perspective of personality development.
• Middle and late adulthood are no longer viewed as irrelevant, because of Erikson,
they are now considered active and significant times of personal growth.
• Erikson’s theory has good face validity. Many people find that they can relate to his
theories about various stages of the life cycle through their own experiences.

Weaknesses of Erikson's theory.
1) Lack of systematicity
The terms he selects often misleading than elucidate. For example. Generativity
and integrity do not have their usual meaning. It is not surprising then many of
Erikson's concepts are often misunderstood.
2) Lack of specific mechanism of development
Erikson doesn’t explain in any detail how a child move stage to stage or even
how he resolves the crisis within a physical states. The theory does not have a
universal mechanism for crisis resolution.
McCrae, R. R., & Costa Jr, P. T. (1997). Personality trait structure as a human universal. American
Psychologist, 52(5), 509.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Development
Age
(Years)
Stage Psychosocial
Crisis
Psychosocial
Strength
Environmental
Influence
1 Infancy Trust vs. Mistrust Hope Maternal
2-3 Early childhood Autonomy vs.
Shame and Doubt
Willpower Both parents or
adult substitutes
4-5 Preschool Initiative vs. Guilt Purpose Parents, family and
friends
6-11 Middle Childhood Industry vs.
Inferiority
Competence School
12-18 Adolescence Identity vs. Role
confusion
Fidelity Peers
18-35 Young adulthood Intimacy vs.
Isolation
Love Spouse, lover,
friends
35-65 Middle age Generativity vs.
Stagnation
Care Family, society
Over 65 Old age Integrity vs.
Despair
Wisdom All humans

FREUD v/s ERIKSON
May 6, 1856-
23 Sep, 1939
15 Jun, 1902-
12 May, 1994

Approximate Ages Freud's Stages of
Psychosexual
Development
Erikson's Stages of
Psychosocial
Development
Birth to 1 year Oral Stage
A child's primary source
of pleasure is through the
mouth, via sucking,
eating and tasting.
Trust vs Mistrust
Children learn to either
trust or mistrust their
caregivers.

1-3 years Anal Stage
Children gain a sense of
mastery and competence
by controlling bladder
and bowel movements.
Autonomy vs. Doubt
Children develop self-
sufficiency by controlling
activities such as eating,
toilet training and talking

3-6 years Phallic Stage
The libido's energy
is focused on the
genitals. Children
begin to identify
with their same-sex
parent.
Initiative vs. Guilt
Children begin to take
more control over
their environment.

7-11 years Latent Period
The libido's energy
is suppressed
and children are
focused
on other activities
such as school, friends
and hobbies.
Industry vs Inferiority
Children develop a
sense of competence by
mastering new skills.

Adolescence Genital Stage
Children begin to
explore romantic
relationships.
Identity vs Role
Confusion
Children develop a
personal identify and
sense of self.

Adulthood According to Freud,
the genital stage
lasts throughout
adulthood. He
believed the
goal is to
develop a
balance between
all areas of life.
Intimacy vs Isolation
Young adults seek out
romantic love and
companionship.
Generativity vs
Stagnation
Middle-aged adults
nurture others and
contribute to society.
Integrity vs Despair
Older adults reflect on
their lives, looking
back with a sense of
fulfillment or
bitterness.

FREUD v/s ERIKSON
• Erikson's theory describes the impact of social experience which Freud did
not consider.
• Erikson draws our attention to the continual process of personality
development that take place throughout the life span. Freud’s theory is
limited to childhood.
• Erikson’s view is more optimistic than Freud’s.
• Freud had the tendency to focus more on the id, Erikson had a tendency to
focus more on the ego.

Conclusion
• Erikson's model of psychosocial development is a very
significant, highly regarded and meaningful concept.
• Erikson was keen to improve the way children and young
people are taught and nurtured, and it would be appropriate
for his ideas to be more widely known and used in day-to-
day life, beyond the clinical and counselling professions.

References
• G. Marzo et al. Psychological aspects in paediatric dentistry: parental
presence. European journal of paediatric dentistry • 4/2003
• Behavior Guidance for the Pediatric Dental Patient. AAPD Reference manual
v40 / no 6 18 / 19.
• Susan B. Campbell Behavior Problems in Preschool Children: A Review of
Recent Research J. Child Psychot. Psychiat. Vol 36 , No. l pp . 113-149, 1995

• Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development, simply psychology by
Saul McLeod, updated 2018
• Bowlby's Attachment Theory Saul McLeod, published 2007
https://www.simplypsychology.org/bowlby.html
• McLeod, S. A. (2018, May 03). Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial
development. Retrieved from https://www.simplypsychology.org/Erik-
Erikson.html
• Kendra Cherry et al. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt in Psychosocial Stage
2 Medically reviewed by a board-certified physician Updated December 13,
2018

• American Academy of Pediatrics. 2006. Toilet training readiness
American Academy of Pediatrics webste.
• Erikson, Erik (1956). "The problem of ego identity" Journal of the
American Psychoanalytic Association4: 56–121
• McCrae, R. R., & Costa Jr, P. T. (1997). Personality trait structure as a
human universal. American Psychologist, 52(5), 509.

• Textbook of Pedodontics- Shobha Tandon
• Comprehensive preventive dentistry-Nikhil Marwah
• Essentials of public health dentistry- Soben Peter

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