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Theories of child psychology
- 1. Good Morning
- 2. Child Psychology Dr Deepashree Paul 2nd year MDS PGT
- 3. *Contents • Introduction • Classification Of Theories Of Psychology • Sigmund Freud’s Theory *Erikson’s theory. *Classic conditioning theory *Operant conditioning theory *Cognitive Development theory by Piaget *Hierarchy of needs *Social Learning Theory
- 4. * “Studying psychology is a bit like sailing a small boat on the high seas.” *Children should not be studied as embryonic adults, but in their essential child nature so as to understand their capacities and know how to deal with them ~John Amos Comenius
- 5. Definitions The main aim of studying psychology is to gain an increased understanding of why people respond as they do. Psychology : science dealing with human nature , function and phenomenon of his soul in the main “Child Psychology” “Is the science that deals with the study of child’s mind and how it functions, it also deals with the mental power or an interaction between the conscious and subconscious element in a child”
- 6. “The dentist who fails to attend to the psychological needs of a child will soon deal with an uncooperative patient” - David C Johnsen.
- 7. * The importance of Child psychology *Know the child patients better *Understand the behavior problem psychologically *Deliver dental services in a meaningful and effective way *Establish effective communication and gain confidence of the child and the parent *Produce a comfortable environment for the dental team to work on the patient *Teach the parent and the child, the importance of primary and preventive care
- 9. * *1. Psychodynamic Theories. The Psychoanalytic Theory/The Psychosexual Theory - Sigmund Freud (1905) The Psychosocial Theory/ Model of personality development - Erick Erickson (1963) The Cognitive development theory - Jean Piaget (1952)
- 10. * 2. Behaviour Learning Theories The Classical Conditioning Theory - Ivan Pavlov (1927) The Operant Condition Theory - Skinner (1938) The Social learning theory - Albert Bandura (1963) The Theory of Hierarchy of needs -Abraham Maslow (1954)
- 11. Other relevant theories oSeparation-Individuation theory by Margaret S Mahler
- 13. Psychoanalytic theory or psychosexual theory by Sigmund Freud
- 14. * Beginning of psychoanalysis - Case of Anna O *Josef Breuer, was a prominent Viennese physician who was a close friend of Freud. *A patient, Bertha Pappenheim, consulted Breuer in December 1880 (She was referred by Breuer as “Anna O..,”) *Two distinct states of consciousness one, relatively normal young woman, the other, a troublesome and naughty child
- 15. * *Introduction *Biography of SIGMUND FREUD METHODS ADOPTED BY SIGMUND FREUD FREE ASSOCIATION DREAM ANALYSIS From- Freud S. The Interpretations of Dreams; 1900
- 16. * *Introduction *Biography of SIGMUND FREUD TOPOGRAPHIC APPROACH
- 17. *Sigmund Freud’s Theory Iceberg diagram TOPOGRAPHIC MODEL
- 18. Id (Pleasure Pain Principle) – Reflex Action Primary Process Thinking Ego (Reality Principle) – Secondary Process Thinking Super Ego – Ego Ideal Conscience PERSONALITY STRUCTURAL THEORY OF MIND
- 19. * The It (Id) “inherited reservoir of unrecognized drives” Resides in unconscious Pleasure principle Primary process of thinking
- 20. * The I (Ego) The ego is the component of personality that is responsible for dealing with reality Conscious& unconscious Mental structure that interact with the real world to satisfy id demands “ Reality principle” *Delayed gratification--the ego will eventually allow the behavior, but only in the appropriate time and place.
- 21. * The over me (Super ego) The superego is the aspect of personality that holds all of our internalized moral standards and ideals that we acquire from both parents and society--our sense of right and wrong Conscience Superego provides guidelines for making judgments Superego to emerge at age five STRIVES FOR PERFECTION
- 23. Denial is an outright refusal to admit or recognize that something has occurred or is currently occurring I FEEL SO GOOD!
- 24. Denial- A child has a carious tooth, but since the child/ parent denies the problem of a carious tooth, he reassures himself that it is perfectly fine. Thus, many children report to the dental office in advanced stage of tooth decay.
- 25. • Primary defense mechanism in which unacceptable or unpleasant ID impulses are pushed back into the unconscious.
- 26. It is a reversion to immature patterns of the behaviour
- 27. DISPLACEMENT The expression of an unwanted feeling or thought, directed towards a weaker person instead of a more powerful one.
- 28. Displacement- Anxiety of a child in a dental set up sometimes is exhibit in the form of throwing temper tantrums at parents/ siblings as he is unable to express his feelings to the dentist.
- 29. A defense mechanism considered healthy by Freud, in which a person diverts unwanted impulses into socially acceptable thoughts, feelings or behavior.
- 30. A defense mechanism in which people attribute their own inadequacies or faults to someone else.
- 31. *Works to reduce anxiety by thinking about events in a cold, clinical way
- 32. A defense mechanism whereby people justify a negative situation in a way that protects their self esteem.
- 33. Reduces anxiety by taking up the opposite feeling, impulse or behavior
- 34. Steven / Shelby / Adam / Abby 8th Period - AP Psychology *Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development Freud in 1921
- 35. THE ORAL STAGE (0 - 1½ Y) Birth – 18 months. Introduction: In infants the oral cavity is the site for identifying needs .it therefore serves as an erogenous zone. Characteristic: This is a dependent stage since the infant is dependent on adults for getting his oral needs fulfilled Objectives: Satisfaction of oral desires eg: suckling of milk, help in development of trust.
- 36. THE ORAL STAGE (0 - 1½ Y) Pathology: If child’s needs are not adequately met in this stage the following traits develop: - Excessive optimism,narcissm,pessimism, demanding ness, envy, jealousy
- 37. • Introduction: - maturation of neuromuscular control occurs. - control over sphincters particularly anal sphincter results in increased voluntary activity. • Characteristics: development of personal autonomy & independence. Child realizes his control over his needs & practices it with a sense of shame or self doubt
- 38. *Objective: The child realizes the increasing voluntary control ,which provides him with the sense of independence & autonomy. *Pathology: It is characterized by various abnormal behaviors like: disorderliness, abstinence, stubbornness, willfulness, fragility.
- 39. URETHRAL STAGE • It is a transition between the anal stage & phallic stage. • The child derives pleasure from exercising his control over the urinary sphincter. • Sense of independence & autonomy. • Loss of urethra control result in shame. • - competitiveness • -ambition.
- 40. THE PHALLIC STAGE (3-6Y) The most intricate of the stages; erogenous zone shifts from the anus to the genitals. Males have the potential to develop an Oedipal Complex, while females may develop an Electra Complex.
- 41. THE LATENCY STAGE (8-13Y) Transitioning period between the Phallic and Genital stages. Focuses on areas like academics and athletics, etc. Same-sex friendships develop during this time .
- 42. THE GENITAL STAGE ( 11-13Y) • Primary objectives are ultimate separation from dependence on & attachment to parents & establishment of mature relations. • Child makes contact and form relationships with members of opposite sex • SUPEREGO undergoes further development and become more flexible
- 44. *Strengths Originality, Boldness and Power of communication One of the earliest and most comprehensive theories
- 45. *WEAKNESSES Extrapolation on children is not very justifiable The bulk of his theory is derived from observations of neurotic people Over emphasis on childhood sexuality.
- 47. *
- 49. * Basic trust Vs Mistrust (Oral) – Birth – 1 year * Infants depend on parents or caretakers for food, warmth & affection * demands are met - Trust in world; people around them as helpful * care is inconsistent, inadequate or rejecting – Mistrust; “Fear of abandonment’’ & suspicion * Dental consideration tight bond between parent & child – “separation anxiety” done in parent’s presence Later stages, difficulty in entering situations that requires confidence & trust in another person - uncooperative
- 50. * Autonomy Vs Shame & Doubt (Anal) – 1 – 3 years *“terrible 2’s” – uncooperative & obnoxious behaviour *Child moves away from mother – develops sense of individuality or autonomy *Parents provide opportunities to develop independent behaviour; *Failure to support or encourage – Doubt about his ability to stand alone & about others / shame (feeling of one’s own shortcoming’s exposed) *Fear of loss of love & Fear of separation *Dental consideration * Child should think whatever the dentist wants of his/her own choice – offer reasonable choices * Parental presence is needed
- 51. * III. Initiative Vs Guilt (Phallic) – 3 – 6 years *Continues to develop greater autonomy *Shown by physical activity, extreme curiosity & questioning *Major task to channelize into manageable tasks (tasks which child can succeed) *Eager modelling of behavior of whom he respects *Succeed with task (initiative) Vs not successful (Guilt) *Fear of bodily injury *Dental consideration *first dental visit :going to dentist can be constructed as a new & challenging adventure – child can experience success * success in coping with anxiety – develops independence * First visit – exploratory, non invasive procedures & parent presence * subsequent visit – in absence of parents
- 52. * IV. Industry Vs Inferiority (Latency) – 6 – 11 years * Child works to acquire academic & social skill (industriousness) * Competition with others within reward system - reality * Some tasks accomplished by cooperating with others – peer influence increases * Responsibility of adults to structure environment to provide challenges (manageable) * Not successful (Inferiority) * Fear of Superego anxiety * Dental consideration * Influenced by peer groups * Behaviour guidance – modelling, positive reinforcement * No use of abstracts – “If you wear this appliance, your bite will be better” * Rather “Your teeth will look good if you wear this appliance”
- 53. * V. Identity Vs Identity confusion (Genital) – 12 – 18 years *Sense of belonging to larger group & realization of surviving outside family. Complex stage – relationships with others, academic responsibilities, physical changes & career possibilities *Increased influence by peer groups *Separation from peer group – establish one’s own uniqueness & values (Identity) *Inability to separate – failure of identity development (Identity confusion – low self-esteem) *Dental consideration (Parental authority is rejected) * Any treatment instituted only if patient wants & not if parents want (treatment as something done for & not to them *Abstract concepts can be grasped; motivation to wearappliances
- 54. *MERITS *Age wise classification *Simple and comprehensive *DEMERITS *Based on extreme ends of personality
- 55. By PAVLOV 1927 *
- 56. * *Ivan Pavlov was one of the first to study conditioned reflexes experimentally. *The crucial element of conditioning is the relation between the conditioned stimulus & the unconditioned stimulus. *Principles involved in the process are: *Generalisation:the process of conditioning is evoked by a band of stimuli centered around a specific conditioned stimulus.eg: a child who has had a painful experience with a doctor in a white coat always associates any Dr in white coat with pain.
- 57. * Extinction: It results if the association between conditioned & the unconditioned response is not reinforced,eg:in the above mentioned eg. Subsequent visits to the doctor without any unpleasant experiences results in extinction of fear. *Discrimination: is the opposite of generalisation.If the child is exposed to clinic settings which are different to those associated with the painful experiences the child learn to discriminate b/w the two clinics & even the generalized response to any office will be extinguished.
- 58. *MERITS Simple and applicable on child in dental clinic
- 61. * Four basic types of operant conditioning- distinguished by the nature of the consequence : *positive reinforcement. *negative reinforcement *Omission *punishment
- 62. * Procedure used to increase the probability of response by following the response with positive reinforcement. Rat pressing bar for in operant chamber for food Eg-rewards or gifts for behaving well during first dental visit Procedure used to increase the probability of a response by removing an aversive stimulus after the response occurs Eg – fastening seat belts to overcome buzzer sound, mother picking up the child while crying
- 63. MERITS *Applicable on children who are difficult to manage *Useful in instilling life-long positive behaviour in children oDEMERITS *Overemphasis on punishment and negative reinforcers
- 68. *Sensorimotor Period (roughly 0 to 2yrs) *Life started with a set of reflexes * - physical make –up – unique to each human specimen * - inherited ways of interacting with environment *Infant ‘s construction of a model of the world – via means of sensory (perceptual) & motor (physical ) systems *He progresses – through 6 stages - in the construction of thought
- 69. * *Bundle of reflexes – responses – triggered – particular stimuli *Repeated reflexes – such as – sucking, grasping & looking – become – Behaviours *Sometimes – babies suck – even when there is nothing to suck – tendency to exercise skills
- 70. * *Behaviour- repeated over & over again – if infant discovers an interesting result *Called ‘Primary’ – involves response consequences – centred around the infant’s body rather than objects *Eg. Thumb-sucking - gratification
- 71. * *Oriented to the external world *Does something that leads to an interesting change in the external environment – repeats it *Cognitive structure – becoming increasingly integrated and organized *Eg. Shaking rattle – noise; hitting ball - roll
- 72. * *Planning & Intentionality emerge – *Behaviour * a) Instrumental b) Goal- oriented *Infant knows what he wants and uses his skills to achieve his goal *Can now differentiate between things.
- 73. * *Child performs miniature experiments – deliberately varies an action – see how the variation affects the outcome *Exploits each objects potential *Stage of ‘discovery of new means through active experimentation’
- 74. * *Closes the curtain on sensorimotor stage – opens the chapter of – pre-operational period *Thought begins to go underground *External exploration – gives way to internal mental exploration *Uses mental symbols to represent objects and events
- 75. *Pre-operational stage (2- 7 yrs) *Child begins to represent the world with images, words and drawings *But still lacks – ability to perform operations *Main characteristics of this stage are: *Egocentrism *Rigidity of thought *Semi- logical reasoning *Limited social cognition *Animism
- 76. *Egocentrism – *Incomplete differentiation of self & world *Tendency to perceive, understand & interpret world in terms of self *Difficult to take the role of/ understand the point of view of others *Rigidity of thought – *Inability to deal with several aspects of an object at one time
- 77. *Animism – *Invests inanimate objects with life *Essentially everything seen is alive
- 78. *Concrete operational stage (7-11yrs) *Children can perform operations and logical thinking - replaces intuitive thoughts *Operation- ‘ internalized action- which is part of an organized structure’ *As long as logical reasoning can be applied to specific and concrete concepts *Utilizes certain mental operations – reversibility, compensation & addition- subtraction, & class inclusion.
- 79. *Formal operational stage (11- 15yrs – Adulthood) *Individuals go beyond concrete experiences and think in abstract and logical terms *Develop images of ideal circumstances *Entertain the possibility of a future *Systematically develop a hypothesis – then test the hypothesis in a systematic manner
- 80. *They develop cognitively to the point where - they can think about –Thinking!! * ‘Imaginary Audience’ (Elkind) – constantly ‘on- stage’ or being observed
- 81. * *Contributions *Present a positive view – development – emphasis on conscious thinking *Emphasize – individuals – active construction – of understanding
- 82. *Limitations *Overestimates age differences *Underestimates children’s abilities *Not enough credit to unconscious thought and role of social environment
- 83. By MASLOW 1954 *
- 84. * Abraham Maslow – humanistic psychologist Hierarchy of needs Characteristics of self actualized people
- 85. *Difficult and impractical to appy on children in a dental setup
- 87. * *Bandura added the concept of observational learning to environmental/learning theory *Observational Learning: Children learn by observing models and, as a result, experience punishment or reinforcement *Children imitate their models *Human development involves an interaction between a person’s characteristics and behaviour with the environment (reciprocal determinism)
- 88. The four principle elements are: * 1. Ante-cedant determinates * 2. Consequent determinates * 3. Modelling * 4. Self-regulation
- 89. *
- 90. MERITS *Provides more explanatory concepts *Encompasses broader range oDEMERITS *Overemphasis on role of environment
- 91. *
Editor's Notes
- Start: Through application of psychology we have achieved improvement in human learning and memory, reducing internal tension, relieving the misery of any psychological disorders and treating the young children and old with greater sensitivity and humanity. 2. The main aim of studying psychology is to gain an increased understanding of why people respond as they do. 3.Early scientific studies of children, concentrated on specific areas of child behaviour, such as speech, emotions or play interests and activities. The name given to this new branch of psychological research was “Child Psychology”- a label which suggested that interest was centered on the psychological phenomena of the preschooler and school-age child
- Guidance of child’s behavior in the dental office is the prerequisite to complete dental care. The concept of treating the patient with a dental problem, not just the tooth should be operative with all the patients, but is essential with the child patient. Mistakes made by the dentists are often hidden by the stoic nature of the adult patient or by subsequent failure of the patient to return. The effects of errors made with the child have to be faced immediately, and often have to be dealt with in subsequent visits when the child returns unwillingly or forcibly with the parent. For treating a child successfully or to manage a child in a dental setting, we as paediatric dentists should have thorough knowledge on personality development of the child..... Last line:- This will help us in handling the fears of children and knowing their needs so that we can gain their trust and provide them better treatment.
- The body of theory, knowledge, and technique that is now referred to as psychoanalysis had its origin in one typical case treated by Josef Breuer, a prominent Viennese physician who was a close friend of Freud. The patient, Bertha Pappenheim, consulted Breuer in December 1880 (She was referred by Breuer as “Anna O..,”) She presented a plethora of hysterical symptoms in association with her father’s fatal illness She manifested two distinct states of consciousness one, relatively normal young woman, the other, a troublesome and naughty child. Breuer observed that the shift between the two discrete personalities seemed to be induced by some form of autohypnosis, and he was able to bring about the transition from one personality to the other by placing Anna O. in a hypnotic state. Being fascinated by Breuer’s treatment of Anna O, in 1887 Freud began to use hypnosis as a routine part of his clinical practice. He was determined to investigate what lay behind the symptoms of hysterical patients. This led him to introduce a procedure known as Psychoanalysis
- free association – inviting his patients to say whatever came into their minds and without censoring their thoughts. Freud observed that when these conditions prevail, the patient eventually begins to talk about memories of early childhood experiences. These memories provided Freud with his first real insight into the formation of the personality structure and its subsequent development. Interpretation of dreams Freud noted that his patients frequently reported their dreams in the process of free association; he noticed an intimate connection between dream content and unconscious memories or fantasies that were long repressed, so he concluded that dream is a disguised fulfilment of an unconscious childhood wish that is not readily accessible to conscious awareness in waking life. This lead to “Interpretation of dreams” in 1900, which was one of the Freud’s greatest works.
- Freud’s conception of the mind is often compared to an iceberg that has most of its mass hidden beneath the water’s surface. He believed hat the unconscious (the mass below the surface) is much larger than the conscious or preconscious. The conscious mind includes everything that we are aware of. This is the aspect of our mental processing that we can think and talk about rationally. It’s a highly fugitive state as thoughts can easily slip back and forth between the preconscious and unconscious state. Freud called this ordinary memory the preconscious. The unconscious mind is a reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories that outside of our conscious awareness. Most of the contents of the unconscious are unacceptable or unpleasant, such as feelings of pain, anxiety, or conflict. According to Freud, the unconscious continues to influence our behavior and experience, even though we are unaware of these underlying influences. The entire id resides in unconscious, if mind ia an iceberg, most of it remain hidden. With increasing age, preconscious and conscious occupy more and more mental territory, but unconscious has the largest area.
- According to this the psychic apparatus is divided into three groups of function-
- ID: The id is the only component of personality that is present from birth. ID can be defined as “inherited reservoir of unrecognised drives. According to Freud, the id is the source of all psychic energy, making it the primary component of personality. The id is driven by the pleasure principle, which strives for immediate gratification of all desires, wants, and needs. If these needs are not satisfied immediately, the result is a state anxiety or tension. For example, an increase in hunger or thirst should produce an immediate attempt to eat or drink. The id is very important early in life, because it ensures that an infant's needs are met. If the infant is hungry or uncomfortable, he or she will cry until the demands of the id are met.
- Start:- The ego is the component of personality that is responsible for dealing with reality. According to Freud, the ego develops from the id and ensures that the impulses of the id can be expressed in a manner acceptable in the real world. The ego functions in both the conscious,preconscious, and unconscious mind. The ego operates based on the reality principle, which strives to satisfy the id's desires in realistic and socially appropriate ways. In many cases, the id's impulses can be satisfied through a process of delayed gratification--the ego will eventually allow the behavior, but only in the appropriate time and place.
- The Superego The last component of personality to develop is the superego. The superego is the aspect of personality that holds all of our internalized moral standards and ideals that we acquire from both parents and society--our sense of right and wrong. The superego provides guidelines for making judgments. According to Freud, the superego begins to emerge at around age five. this element of personality structure is developed under the training and influence of the environment
- Denial is probably one of the best known defense mechanisms, used often to describe situations in which people seem unable to face reality or admit an obvious truth (i.e. "He's in denial."). Denial is an outright refusal to admit or recognize that something has occurred or is currently occurring. Drug addicts or alcoholics often deny that they have a problem, while victims of traumatic events may deny that the event ever occurred. Denial functions to protect the ego from things that the individual cannot cope with. While this may save us from anxiety or pain, denial also requires a substantial investment of energy. Because of this, other defenses are also used to keep these unacceptable feelings from consciousness.
- According to Freud, the most basic, powerful and widely used defense mechanism is repression. It pushes unacceptable id impulses out of awareness and back into the unconscious mind. People tend to repress desires that make them feel guilty, conflicts that make them anxious, and memories that are painful. Repression has been called “motivated forgetting.” If you forget a dental appointment or the name of someone you don’t like, repression may be at work. For example, a person who has repressed memories of abuse suffered as a child may later have difficulty forming relationships.
- it is a reversion to immature patterns of the behavior. When anxious about their self-worth, some adults respond with childish boasting and bragging. For example, a child, who is frightened by the first day at school, may indulge in infantile behaviour, such as weeping, sucking the thumb, hanging onto teacher etc, an adult has a temper tantrum when he doesn’t get his way.
- Have ever had a really bad day at work and then gone home and taken out your frustration on family and friends? Then you have experienced the ego defense mechanism ofdisplacement. Displacement involves taking out our frustrations, feelings and impulses on people or objects that are less threatening. Displaced aggression is a common example of this defense mechanism. Rather than express our anger in ways that could lead to negative consequences (like arguing with our boss), we instead express our anger towards a person or object that poses no threat (such as our spouse, children or pets).
- Sublimation is a defense mechanism that allows us to act out unacceptable impulses by converting these behaviors into a more acceptable form. For example, a person experiencing extreme anger might take up kick-boxing as a means of venting frustration. Freud believed that sublimation was a sign of maturity that allows people to function normally in socially acceptable ways. Freud felt that sublimation was extremely important for civilized existence and social achievement
- Projection is a defense mechanism that involves taking our own unacceptable qualities or feelings and ascribing them to other people. For example, if you have a strong dislike for someone, you might instead believe that he or she does not like you. Projection works by allowing the expression of the desire or impulse, but in a way that the ego cannot recognize, therefore reducing anxiety.
- Intellectualization works to reduce anxiety by thinking about events in a cold, clinical way. For example, a person who has just been diagnosed with a terminal illness might focus on learning everything about the disease in order to avoid distress and remain distant from the reality of the situation.
- Example:- student might blame a poor exam score on the instructor rather than his or her lack of preparation. Rationalization not only prevents anxiety, it may also protect self-esteem and self-concept. When confronted by success or failure, people tend to attribute achievement to their own qualities and skills while failures are blamed on other people or outside forces.
- Reaction formation reduces anxiety by taking up the opposite feeling, impulse or behavior. An example of reaction formation would be treating someone you strongly dislike in an excessively friendly manner in order to hide your true feelings. Why do people behave this way? According to Freud, they are using reaction formation as a defense mechanism to hide their true feelings by behaving in the exact opposite manner.
- Freud believed that our most basic drives is the sex drive. He outlined five stages in child and adolescent development, which he called psychosexual stages, each involving special adjustment problems and each contributing to child behavior.
- Start: Definition: The earliest stage of development, in which the infant’s needs, perceptions, and modes of expression are primarily centered in the mouth, lips, tongue, and other organs related to the oral zone, hence known as oral stage. The oral zone maintains its dominant role in the organization of the psyche through approximately the first 18 months of life. 2. Oral sensations encountered during this period are thirst, hunger, pleasurable tactile stimulations evoked by the nipple or its substitute and also sensations relating to swallowing. The oral triad consists of the wish to eat, to sleep, and to reach the relaxation that occurs at the end of sucking just before the onset of sleep. 3. It is the period during which mouth experiences most tension and requires the most tension-reducing stimulation. Id component of personality which operates during this period tries to gratify/reduce tension in and around the mouth by sucking, even on a thumb or pacifier.
- Objectives: To establish a trusting dependence on nursing and sustaining objects, to establish comfortable expression and gratification of oral needs without excessive conflict or ambivalence from oral sadistic wishes.
- Definition: the child enters the Anal stage, during this stage the locus of gratification changes from oral region to anal region. 3. In this stage the bowel movements become a source of pleasure to the child As the sphincter muscles mature in the second year of life, infants acquire the ability to withhold or expel faecal material at will The child may defecate often to achieve this pleasure. This would bring him into conflicts wth his parents. The conflicts lead to develop an EGO The child comes to realize that he cannot always do what he wants. He learns that there are certain times when it is appropriate to expel the waste and other times when it is inappropriate
- Shame, competitiveness & ambition.
- Definition: The phallic stage of sexual development begins sometime during the third year of life and continues approximately till the end of the fifth year/ sixth year. During this period genitals become most sensitive area and the child derives pleasure from manipulating them, due to which they end up in a conflict with parents who try to curb their behaviours such as masturbation or at least confine them to private settings.
- It is the longest of the five stages. It lasts seven years from ages 11 to 18.this period is similar to Anal stage, and there is renewed interest and pleasure derived from excretory activity 3. In the beginning of the genital stage, the person seeks association with members of his own sex, however as the age advances child makes contact and forms relationship with members of opposite sex.
- His work was characterized by originality, boldness and power of communication. Uncovering of the unconsciousness as a powerful shaper of development. Lasting contributions to developmental research. Relevance for contemporary research on cognitive development. He was first major developmentalist to argue for an interactional model which sees both inborn processes & environmental factors as making strong contributions to the child development.
- Freud did not address gender issues. He often ignored obvious diagnosis. He used to ignore patient’s objections to his interpretations