This document summarizes a study that tested a model of motivation based on self-determination theory (SDT) in an online learning environment. The study [1] proposed a model linking contextual support, need satisfaction, self-determination, and learning outcomes based on SDT; [2] surveyed 267 online students enrolled in special education programs; and [3] used structural equation modeling to analyze the relationships in the proposed model. The findings provided support for some aspects of SDT but also indicated self-determination was not a direct predictor of learning outcomes, contrary to SDT predictions. The study concluded by discussing limitations and recommendations for future research.
An overview of Bernard Wiener's Attribution Theory and the its principles. Also reviews practical application for public relations and in informing crisis management.
An overview of Bernard Wiener's Attribution Theory and the its principles. Also reviews practical application for public relations and in informing crisis management.
Leadership is "organizing a group of people to achieve a common goal." The leader may or may not have any formal authority. Students of leadership have produced theories involving traits, situational interaction, function, behavior, power, vision and values, charisma, and intelligence among others.
Individual dimensions of organizational behaviorAshutosh
This presentation will give an insight into individual dimensions of organizational behavior. it includes the concepts of perception, motivation and personality.
Basic Social Psychology in organization especially for management students ( BMS / BBA )
#THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF SRI LANKA
#Anushujan1995@gmail.com
Organizational psychologists use psychological principles and research methods to solve problems in the workplace and improve the quality of life. They study workplace productivity and management and employee working styles. They get a feel for the morale and personality of a company or organization. And they a collaborate with management to help plan policies, carry out screenings and training sessions, and develop a plan for the future.
Leadership is "organizing a group of people to achieve a common goal." The leader may or may not have any formal authority. Students of leadership have produced theories involving traits, situational interaction, function, behavior, power, vision and values, charisma, and intelligence among others.
Individual dimensions of organizational behaviorAshutosh
This presentation will give an insight into individual dimensions of organizational behavior. it includes the concepts of perception, motivation and personality.
Basic Social Psychology in organization especially for management students ( BMS / BBA )
#THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF SRI LANKA
#Anushujan1995@gmail.com
Organizational psychologists use psychological principles and research methods to solve problems in the workplace and improve the quality of life. They study workplace productivity and management and employee working styles. They get a feel for the morale and personality of a company or organization. And they a collaborate with management to help plan policies, carry out screenings and training sessions, and develop a plan for the future.
Slides from a webinar I did for small business owners and managers on how to increase employee motivation. Section in the middle has some helpful hints on using the 4-drive model of employee motivation.
Theories of Motivation - Overview of the Content Theories of Motivation Monica P
(MST) Advanced Administration and Supervision in Educational Practices
(class report(s)/discussion(s))
DISCLAIMER: I do not claim ownership of the photos, videos, templates, and etc used in this slideshow
10 Ways Your Boss Kills Employee MotivationOfficevibe
It’s so hard to have engaged employees. It’s such a delicate thing to try and get right because employees can be fragile.
As a manager, you have to do everything in your power to make sure employees are happy and engaged at all times.
Usually, the problem is the boss, and not things like the company, mission statement, or co-workers.
If you know that your boss is the biggest problem, there are ten things that they do to kill motivation. If you’re a manager and you’re reading this, make sure you avoid these mistakes to ensure that your employees are engaged during work.
The secret to good leadership is to be authentic. Be honest with your staff.
Read more on Officevibe blog:
https://www.officevibe.com/blog/10-kill-employee-motivation
like us on Facebook!:
www.facebook.com/officevibe
An Inquiry on the Self-Esteem and Self-Efficacy Level of Information Technolo...IJAEMSJORNAL
This study aimed to identify, analyze and determine the level of self-efficacy and self-esteem of B.S. Information Technology (BSIT) students of a higher learning institution in Nueva Ecija, Philippines. It was conducted during the 1st Semester of the academic year 2019-2020. This research utilized descriptive approach to describe the level of self-esteem and self-efficacy of the students and to draw valuable insights that may contribute to the improvement of the teaching and learning practices of the faculty members in the college. The researchers used random sampling to ensure that all year levels are well represented in the study. There were 285 students who voluntarily responded after the researchers explained to them the purpose of this study. Responses were tallied, summarized and interpreted. Results show that the level of self-esteem and self-efficacy of the students were moderate/medium (WM=2.03, WM=2.08). This indicates that depending on the given situation or context, students may increase or decrease the level of their self-esteem and self-efficacy. This study suggest that students may be exposed to more activities that may help them improve their self-esteem and self-efficacy to greatly contribute to their holistic development. Future studies may be conducted to a larger number of respondents and to understand the link between self-efficacy and self-esteem on their academic performance, drop-out rates, and retention rates.
· Assignment 3 Creating a Compelling VisionLeaders today must be .docxgerardkortney
· Assignment 3: Creating a Compelling Vision
Leaders today must be able to create a compelling vision for the organization. They also must be able to create an aligned strategy and then execute it. Visions have two parts, the envisioned future and the core values that support that vision of the future. The ability to create a compelling vision is the primary distinction between leadership and management. Leaders need to create a vision that will frame the decisions and behavior of the organization and keep it focused on the future while also delivering on the short-term goals.
To learn more about organizational vision statements, do an Internet search and review various vision statements.
In this assignment, you will consider yourself as a leader of an organization and write a vision statement and supporting values statement.
Select an organization of choice. This could be an organization that you are familiar with, or a fictitious organization. Then, respond to the following:
· Provide the name and description of the organization. In the description, be sure to include the purpose of the organization, the products or services it provides, and the description of its customer base.
· Describe the core values of the organization. Why are these specific values important to the organization?
· Describe the benefits and purpose for an organizational vision statement.
· Develop a vision statement for this organization. When developing a vision statement, be mindful of the module readings and lecture materials.
· In the vision statement, be sure to communicate the future goals and aspirations of the organization.
· Once you have developed the vision statement, describe how you would communicate the statement to the organizational stakeholders, that is, the owners, employees, vendors, and customers.
· How would you incorporate the communication of the vision into the new employee on-boarding and ongoing training?
Write your response in approximately 3–5 pages in Microsoft Word. Apply APA standards to citation of sources.
Use the following file naming convention: LastnameFirstInitial_M1_A3.doc. For example, if your name is John Smith, your document will be named SmithJ_M1_A3.doc.
By the due date assigned, deliver your assignment to the Submissions Area.
Assignment 3 Grading Criteria
Maximum Points
Chose and described the organization. The description included the purpose of the organization, the products or services the organization provides, and the description of its customer base.
16
Developed a vision statement for the organization. Ensured to accurately communicate the goals and aspirations of the organization in the vision statement.
24
Ensured that the incorporation and communication strategy for the vision statement is clear, detailed, well thought out and realistic.
28
Evaluated and explained which values are most important to the organization.
24
Wrote in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrated ethical scholarship in accurate r.
Self-motivation and Academic Performance In Computer Programming Language Usi...CSCJournals
The advancement in artificial intelligence (AI) and Machine learning (ML) have made it easier to foreknown feature happens from current and past trends. Once Self-efficacy and self-confidence are believed to be, an individual trait associated with academic brilliance. Using a hybridised Random Forest and Support Vector Machine (RFSVM) ML model we predicted students' academic performance in computer programming courses, based on their self-confidence, self-efficacy, positive thinking, focus, big goals, a motivating environment and demographic data. Benchmarking our RFSVM model against Decision Tree (DT) and K-Nearest Neighbour (K-NN) model, the RFSVM recorded and accuracy of 98% as against 95.45% for DT and 36.36% for K-NN. The error between actual values and predicted values of the RFSVM model was better (RMSE = 0.326401, MAE = 0.050909) and compared with the K-NN (RMSE = 2.671397, MAE = 1.954545) and DT models (RMSE = 0.426401, MAE = 0.090909). The results further revealed that students with a high level of self-confidence, self-efficacy and positive thinking performed well in computer programming courses.
Self-Efficacy in M-Learning
Jason Hutcheson
Running head: 3Capella UniversityTable of Contents
Literature Review5
Self-Efficacy Theory5
Theoretical Foundations.5
Intentional Development of Self-Efficacy.7
Self-Efficacy in Learning9
Role of Self-Efficacy in Andragogy.9
Relationship between Self-Efficacy and Academic Achievement.10
Integration of Self-Efficacy in Learning Design.12
Self-Efficacy in Technology Acceptance14
Technology Acceptance Modeling.14
Mobile Technology Acceptance.16
Methodology and Approach16
Methodology and Rationale17
Research Methodology Analysis.17
Methodology Selection Rationale.18
Population and Sample19
Sample Recruitment Strategy19
Instrument19
Conclusion20
Abstract
Technology has become engrained into daily life. The most prominent technology today is mobile technology. Through mobile “smart” phones, tablets, and laptops, the modern population is connected through mobile technology; everywhere, all of the time. However, many of the benefits of mobile technology have not translated into the educational environment. This represents a problem for both the education and the information technology industries. In order to effectively address this problem, researchers need to understand the challenges of integrating mobile technology in the course room and determine the drivers influencing the acceptance of mobile technology. Existing literature has indicated a relationship between self-efficacy and the acceptance of mobile technology in the course room. However, the degree of correlation between learner self-efficacy and the acceptance of mobile technology has not yet been determined. This paper analyzes the existing literature concerning the role of self-efficacy in mobile learning (m-learning) and presents the foundation for research concerning the relationship between self-efficacy and mobile technology acceptance.
Self-Efficacy in M-Learning
Existing literature has identified value in the integration of mobile technology in the course room with respect to the promotion of collaboration (Fuegen, 2012; Liljestrom, Enkenberg, & Pollanen, 2013; Pegrum, Oakley, & Faulkner, 2013; Shree Ram & Selvaraj, 2012). Still, mobile technology for education remains underutilized. Existing literature extensively discusses the challenges associated with transitioning to an m-learning enabled environment (Cheon, Lee, Crooks, & Song, 2012; Eteokleous & Ktoridou, 2009; Ktoridou, Gregoriou, & Eteokleous, 2007; Male & Pattinson, 2011; Rossing, 2012). Chief among the challenges for transitioning to m-learning is the acceptance of mobile technology in learning, which lends to the importance of identifying and classifying key determinates for mobile technology acceptance.
This paper analyzes the existing literature concerning self-efficacy in order to assess the role of self-efficacy in m-learning. The paper begins by analyzing the theoretical foundations of self-efficacy and how self-efficacy can be developed. This is follo.
Emotional Intelligence and Achievement Motivation among College Studentsijtsrd
AIM Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions so as to assist thought, to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to reflectively regulate emotions so as to promote emotional and intellectual growth Mayer andamp Salovey, 1997 .Achievement Motivation typically refers to the level of ones motivation to engage in achievement behavior based on such parameters as need for achievement, expectancy for success, and the incentive value of success Jackson, Ahmed and amp Heapy, 1976 . The present study is aimed to investigate emotional Intelligence and achievement motivation among college students. METHOD The study was done on 100 College students out of 50 males and 50 females were selected through purposive sampling technique. Emotional Intelligence quotient scale Dr Dalip singh Dr NK Chadha, 2003 and Ray’s Achievement Motivation scale John Ray, 1990 were used to collect data. Data were analyzed by using mean, S. D, independent sample t test, pearson product moment correlation RESULT Results of study showed that there is no significant difference in the level of Emotional Intelligence among college students across their gender. There is no significant difference in the Achievement motivation among college students based on their gender. There is no significant relationship between Emotional intelligence and Achievement motivation among college students. Shibila Sabir | Sannet Thomas "Emotional Intelligence and Achievement Motivation among College Students" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-4 | Issue-6 , October 2020, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd33657.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/psychology/33657/emotional-intelligence-and-achievement-motivation-among-college-students/shibila-sabir
Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
This course deals with the study of the patterns of human development especially focusing on the cognitive, biological, social, moral and emotional development of the child and adolescent learners.
The aim of this review was to identify the motivational constructs which were mostly associated with self-regulated learning and how these motivational constructs were related to self-regulated learning. There were 20 studies (N=8,759) met inclusion criteria for this review. In overall, the evidence of the included studies showed that motivational constructs such as self-efficacy, intrinsic goal orientation, task value, and control of learning beliefs were positively and significantly related to and in predicting self-regulated learning; test anxiety was negatively and insignificantly related to and in predicting self-regulated learning; inconsistent results were observed for extrinsic goal orientation as it could be positively or negatively related to and in predicting self-regulated learning.
Original Question- Topic 2 DQ 1Imagine you are serving on the .docxpauline234567
Original Question-
Topic 2 DQ 1
Imagine you are serving on the board of a for-profit educational services company. Staff communicate to the board their concerns about the transition from foster care to independence for young adults who have reached the age of 18. These individuals are no longer eligible to be in the foster care system. Of particular concern is their self-esteem through this transition. There is extensive quantitative research in the scholarly literature regarding the function of self-esteem in such a transition, but a dearth of qualitative research on the topic. You want to assist staff in providing adequate support for this client population by commissioning an internal qualitative study to better understand the phenomenon and improve their transitions. Develop a problem statement for this query using a qualitative descriptive design. What would be the purpose of the study? What research questions would you ask? Justify each response in reference to the nature of qualitative descriptive design
Student 1- Joseph
Fellow Scholars,
In the phenomenological scenario, where concern about young adult transition from the foster care system to independence becomes a severe moral distress issue (Deschenes et al., 2021) coupled with a lack of research resources on the subject, using qualitative descriptive design to explore the phenomenon is critical if a meaningful outcome is to be achieved. Using research supported by sound evidence is critical (Risko & Reid, 2019). It is also crucial to lay a solid empirical research foundation to deal with the situation since there is a dearth of qualitative research resources from the onset.
The problem space.
A phenomenon to manage using the qualitative descriptive design is self-esteem's influence on young adults transitioning from the foster care system to the independent system in a for-profit educational services company.
The problem statements
It is unknown how young adults describe self-esteem's influence on transitioning from the foster care system to the independent system in a for-profit educational services company.
The purpose statement.
This qualitative descriptive study explores how self-esteem influences young adults transitioning from the foster care system to an independent system in a for-profit educational services company (Sirilla et al.,2017). The problem space regarding this study emanates from a live scenario of a foster cared young adult in a for-profit educational services company about to transition to an independent system, and its development is based upon the discovery of a critical problem space that needs the urgent attention of the company's Board of directors. The phenomenon calls explicitly for further studies of that problem space by recommending the best practice on the easy-to-implement transition support system for young adults from the foster care system to the independent system and for future research interests since there is a shortage of qualitativ.
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Honest Reviews of Tim Han LMA Course Program.pptxtimhan337
Personal development courses are widely available today, with each one promising life-changing outcomes. Tim Han’s Life Mastery Achievers (LMA) Course has drawn a lot of interest. In addition to offering my frank assessment of Success Insider’s LMA Course, this piece examines the course’s effects via a variety of Tim Han LMA course reviews and Success Insider comments.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
1. Motivation in Online Learning: Testing a Model of
Self-Determination Theory
Kuan-Chung Chen
05/01/2012
2. Background
Motivation has long been regarded as a critical factor
affecting students’ learning (Lim, 2004). Studies have
shown that motivation associates with a variety of
important learning consequences such as persistence
(Vallerand and Bissonnette, 1992), retention (Lepper &
Cordova, 1992), achievement (Rocco, 2005), and course
satisfaction (Rodriguez, Ooms, Montanez, & Yan, 2005).
Despite its importance, motivation in online learning
research remains relatively deficient (Jones & Issroff,
2005). Miltiadou and Savenye (2003), after reviewing
motivation constructs commonly applied in traditional
face-to-face classrooms, called for empirical studies to
test motivation theories and constructs in the online
learning environment.
3. Background
A motivation theory that deserves testing in online
learning contexts is Deci and Ryan’s (1985, 2002)
self-determination theory (SDT). Self-determination
theory has been successfully applied to a variety of
settings, but its tenability has not been sufficiently
established in online learning.
This study intends to bridge this gap by testing SDT in
the online learning environment. The following slides
debriefs the tenets of SDT, followed by an empirical study
that tests a SDT model of online learner motivation.
4. Self-determination theory
E. L. Deci R. M. Ryan
Social Context
Autonomy
(free
will)
AM EM IM
Competency Relatedness
(ability) (relationship)
5. Tenets of self-determination theory
• Humans have three universal and basic needs:
autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Satisfaction of
these needs promotes intrinsic motivation and
internalization, which in turn enhances well-being.
• Amotivation, extrinsic motivation, and intrinsic motivation
lie on a continuum of self-determination (see the next
slide). Extrinsic motivation is presented in four stages:
extrinsic, introjected, identified, and integrated
regulations. When individuals internalize extrinsic goals
and values, they become more self-determined. They
then move forward to a higher stage of extrinsic
motivation, or even intrinsic motivation.
• Social context enhances individuals' intrinsic motivation
and facilitates internalization by supporting autonomy,
competence, and relatedness. On the other hand, social
context undermines individuals' motivation when it fails to
support these three basic needs.
9. The Research Model
Drawing on SDT, we proposed a model for online learner
motivation. In our proposed model, contextual support represents an
exogenous latent variable measured by autonomy support and
competency support. It is worth noting that relatedness support was
not included in our model because autonomy and competency
supports are more directly addressed by SDT (Ryan & Deci,
2002). In the literature, most SDT-based studies measured perceived
relatedness rather than relatedness support.
Online students’ overall satisfaction of basic needs was presented by
an endogenous latent variable: need satisfaction, with perceived
autonomy, perceived competency and perceived relatedness as
indicators. SDT posits that individuals’ motivation/self-
determination is mediated by their satisfactions of basic needs. The
mediating effect has been supported by empirical studies, for
example, Standage et al. (2005) found that students who perceived a
need-supporting environment experienced greater levels of need
satisfaction. Need satisfaction in turn predicted intrinsic motivation,
a type of self-determined motivation. Therefore, we hypothesized
that contextual support positively predicts need satisfaction; need
satisfaction, in turn, positively predicts self-determination.
10. SDT proffers that autonomous/self-determined types of motivation lead
to positive outcomes while nonself-determined types of motivation result
in negative outcomes. Studies have shown that higher self-determination/
RAI positively predicted students’ engagement, affect, conceptual
learning, and effective coping strategies. Additionally, Millette and
Gagne´ (2008) found a positive correlation between self-determination
and work satisfaction, and Vallerand and Bissonnette (1992) found
persistent students more self-determined than drop-out students. As such,
we hypothesized that online learners’ self-determination positively
predicts learning outcomes.
Two predictions were explored in the model to better understand the
dynamics and interrelationship among motivational antecedents and
learning outcomes: paths from contextual support to learning outcome
and from need satisfaction to learning outcome were drawn in the model
to assess the direct impact of contextual support and need satisfaction on
learning outcomes. Black and Deci (2000) found that instructors’
autonomy support directly and positively predicted student performance
for those with initially low self-determination. Deci et al. (2001) found
that need satisfaction directly and positively predicted engagement,
general self-esteem, and reduced anxiety. Hence, we hypothesized that
contextual support and need satisfaction both positively predict learning
outcomes.
In this study, we assessed six learning outcomes. Therefore, there are six
parallel models in this study.
11. Context and Participants
267 online students participated in this study. The
students were enrolled in two special education online
certificate programs (using the WebCT course manage
system) at a large research university in the southeastern
United States. The majority of participants were female
(78.1%). Participants’ age ranged from 19 to 65, with the
average of 37.80 (SD = 10.23) years old.
13. Instrumentation: Objective Measures
Final Grade: collect from program offices.
Number of Hits: Used the WebCT “track student”
function to gather data regarding the number of
times that students accessed WebCT content
pages .
14. Calculation of Self-Determination -
A Composite Score
Upon obtaining each participant’s motivation
profile, the Relative Autonomy Index (RAI) was
calculated to represent online students’ degree of
self-determination. The RAI formula (Grolnick &
Ryan, 1987) is presented by:
External * (-2) + Introjected * (-1) + Identified * (1)
+ Intrinsic * (2)
15. Data Screening & Analysis
Before conducting formal analyses, datasets were
screened and modified for missing values, outliers, and
normality. The screening process indicated that no
systematic missing pattern was detected, and the
maximum missing rate across variables was 2.6%. The
expectation maximization (EM) algorithm was used in this
study to impute missing values, for it provides unbiased
estimates when the data are missing at random (Schafer &
Graham, 2002).
Outliers were screened by examining standardized scores
of each variable. Five cases were identified as outliers. A
preliminary data analysis indicated that the results did not
change significantly after deleting outliers; therefore, the
outliers were removed from the dataset to avoid possible
interference with the results.
16. Data Screening & Analysis
Normality was screened by examining the skewness and
the kurtosis of each variable. Results from a descriptive
analysis showed that amotivation had both the highest
skewness (2.86) and kurtosis (8.33), even after outliers were
removed. Following Kline’s (2005) suggestion to keep values
less than |3.0| for skewness and |8.0| for kurtosis, the
amotivation data have been transformed using the log10
algorithm.
Structural equation modeling (SEM) was performed using
AMOS 7.0 to evaluate the six parallel models. A partial
correlation matrix was firstly generated to partial out possible
confounding of demographic variables. Maximum likelihood
(ML) estimation was adopted, as it produces estimates that
are unbiased, consistent and efficient, plus it is scale-free and
scale-invariant (Kaplan, 2000).
18. Patterns Across the Four Fitted Models
1. The path “contextual support need satisfaction
self-determination” was significant, supporting SDT.
19. Implication
Effective support strategies are those that address online
learners’ needs of autonomy, relatedness, and competency.
In terms of SDT-based support strategies.
Reeve (2002) summarized three points to promote students’
self-determination:
1. Providing students with a meaningful rationale as to why the
task or lesson is important;
2. Establishing an interpersonal relationship that emphasizes
choice and flexibility;
3. Acknowledging and accepting the negative feelings
associated with arduous activities.
We suggest that online instructors create an open, interactive,
and learner-centered atmosphere for students to freely
express their feelings, thoughts, and concerns.
20. Patterns Across the Four Fitted Models
2. The direct effect of contextual support on learning outcome
was generally negative, whereas the indirect effect (through
the mediation of need satisfaction) was generally positive.
21. Implication
Haphazard and aimless supports without addressing
students’ needs are likely to lead to adverse – even worse
than “no effects” – outcomes. It is through the enhancement
of students’ perceptions of autonomy, relatedness, and
competency that makes contextual support effective and
meaningful to online students.
This study echoes several studies on social support (Kaul &
Lakey, 2003; Lakey & Lutz, 1996; Reinhardt, Boerner, &
Horowitz, 2006) that revealed “perceived support” to be
positively associated with well-being variables whereas
“received support” had no or negative effects.
It is of critical importance that instructors and other online
learning practitioners understand their students, and provide
support pertinent to students’ needs.
22. Patterns Across the Four Fitted Models
3. Self-determination failed to directly predict any of the learning
outcomes in this study, which contradicted SDT.
23. Implication
While it is possible that the insignificant path was caused by
the survey and objective data that were not as valid as we
have hoped (e.g., α = .69 for the Perceived Autonomy Scale;
CV = 5.57% for student grades), an examination of the overall
SEM structural paths provided an alternative explanation.
Learning outcomes were in fact directly explained by
contextual support and need satisfaction categories, as
opposed to self-determination/RAI.
It appears that in the studied online learning context,
contextual support and need satisfaction have more salient
influence on students’ learning consequences.
24. Conclusion & Recommendations
This study supports much of SDT’s theorizing, and
provides implications for online learner support. Future
studies may replicate this study in other online learning
contexts, perhaps across culture. It would also be
beneficial to explore reasons why online students’ self-
determination accounts for learning outcomes less than
need support and need satisfaction categories in a
macro, full-model view. It is hoped that this study
inspires more studies to address learner needs,
motivation, and contextual support, on the basis of which
vibrant, motivating online learning environments may
flourish.
25. Limitations and Recommendations
Despite efforts to increase rigor, this study has its limitations. First, this study
was conducted in two special education online programs at a large research
university in the southeastern USA, which may to some extent limit its level of
generalizability. Future studies may extend this research by surveying across
programs, regions, subject matters, or even culture.
This study employed a correlational research design due to practical
concerns. Although four SDT models that contained directional paths had been
validated through structural equation modeling, the evidence was still
insufficient to draw causal conclusions. Future studies may employ
experimental design to individually test the tenets of self-determination theory
in the online learning environment.
In this study, final grade was not predicted by any of the predictive variables,
including contextual support, need satisfaction, and self-determination. Perhaps
it is due to the general high and homogeneous (M = 92.58, CV = 5.57%) student
grades. Therefore, online instructors’ policies of grading may have confounded
the results of this study. Interpretations and generalizations of the results
pertaining to students’ final grade should proceed with caution.
Lastly, two out of six SDT models, namely the Expected Grade and the
Perceived Learning models did not yield proper fit. While testing alternative
model structures is beyond the scope of this study, future efforts could be
devoted to exploring alternative ways that contextual support, need satisfaction,
self-determination, and the two learning outcomes interact in online learning
contexts.