This document discusses a chemistry project on the analysis of fertilizers. It begins with acknowledgments from the student conducting the project thanking various teachers and school administrators for their support and guidance. It then provides an introduction to common types of fertilizers including those containing nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. Details are given on the preparation and effects of deficiencies and excesses of each of these elements. The remainder of the document outlines an experiment conducted using a traveling microscope to determine the refractive index of water and calculations related to refraction.
The document discusses the refraction of light. When light travels from one medium to another, its speed changes and it bends at the boundary. There are two key effects - light rays bend towards the normal when traveling to a denser medium from a less dense one, and away from the normal in the opposite case. Snell's law states that the ratio of sines of the angle of incidence and refraction is a constant known as the refractive index.
this gives students good knowledge about the preparation
of fertilizers using various elements like phosphorous and
nitrogen also gives various observation table with results regarding usage of each element in fertilizer.
This document is a certificate for a student who completed a physics project on measuring the refractive indices of various liquids. The project was carried out in the school laboratory during the 2014-2015 academic year, as part of the curriculum for the ALL INDIA SENIOR SECONDARY EXAM. The student measured the refractive indices of liquids including water, vinegar, vegetable oil and glycerine using a hollow glass prism. The speeds of light in the liquids were also calculated using the refractive indices and the known speed of light in a vacuum.
The document discusses the refraction of light, including:
- Refraction occurs when light passes from one medium to another, changing direction.
- The refractive index is a ratio used to calculate the angle of refraction based on the angle of incidence.
- Total internal reflection occurs when light passes from an optically dense medium to a less dense one at an angle greater than the critical angle, causing the light to reflect within the dense medium.
This document describes an experiment to determine the refractive index of a liquid using total internal reflection. The experiment uses an air cell placed in a glass container filled with the liquid. As the angle of incidence is increased, total internal reflection will occur at the critical angle, where no light passes through to the observer. By measuring this critical angle, the refractive index of the liquid can be determined using Snell's law and the relationship between refractive index and critical angle. The document provides details on the apparatus, procedure, observations and calculations for this experiment.
Refraction is the change in direction of light when it passes from one medium to another. Light bends towards the normal when traveling from a less dense to a more dense medium, and away from the normal in the opposite case. The ratio of sines of the angle of incidence and refraction is a constant called the refractive index, which depends on the optical densities of the media. Total internal reflection occurs when light travels from a denser to a less dense medium at an angle greater than the critical angle.
1. The document discusses key concepts in ray optics including refraction, Snell's law, total internal reflection, and refraction at spherical surfaces.
2. It also covers refraction through parallel and compound slabs, lenses, and prisms. Formulas are presented for thin lenses, magnification, and dispersion.
3. Refraction, reflection, and image formation using lenses and prisms are examined.
It covers the topics-refraction ,absolute and relative refractive index,laws of refraction ,direction of bending of light,No refraction cases,refraction through glass slab
The document discusses the refraction of light. When light travels from one medium to another, its speed changes and it bends at the boundary. There are two key effects - light rays bend towards the normal when traveling to a denser medium from a less dense one, and away from the normal in the opposite case. Snell's law states that the ratio of sines of the angle of incidence and refraction is a constant known as the refractive index.
this gives students good knowledge about the preparation
of fertilizers using various elements like phosphorous and
nitrogen also gives various observation table with results regarding usage of each element in fertilizer.
This document is a certificate for a student who completed a physics project on measuring the refractive indices of various liquids. The project was carried out in the school laboratory during the 2014-2015 academic year, as part of the curriculum for the ALL INDIA SENIOR SECONDARY EXAM. The student measured the refractive indices of liquids including water, vinegar, vegetable oil and glycerine using a hollow glass prism. The speeds of light in the liquids were also calculated using the refractive indices and the known speed of light in a vacuum.
The document discusses the refraction of light, including:
- Refraction occurs when light passes from one medium to another, changing direction.
- The refractive index is a ratio used to calculate the angle of refraction based on the angle of incidence.
- Total internal reflection occurs when light passes from an optically dense medium to a less dense one at an angle greater than the critical angle, causing the light to reflect within the dense medium.
This document describes an experiment to determine the refractive index of a liquid using total internal reflection. The experiment uses an air cell placed in a glass container filled with the liquid. As the angle of incidence is increased, total internal reflection will occur at the critical angle, where no light passes through to the observer. By measuring this critical angle, the refractive index of the liquid can be determined using Snell's law and the relationship between refractive index and critical angle. The document provides details on the apparatus, procedure, observations and calculations for this experiment.
Refraction is the change in direction of light when it passes from one medium to another. Light bends towards the normal when traveling from a less dense to a more dense medium, and away from the normal in the opposite case. The ratio of sines of the angle of incidence and refraction is a constant called the refractive index, which depends on the optical densities of the media. Total internal reflection occurs when light travels from a denser to a less dense medium at an angle greater than the critical angle.
1. The document discusses key concepts in ray optics including refraction, Snell's law, total internal reflection, and refraction at spherical surfaces.
2. It also covers refraction through parallel and compound slabs, lenses, and prisms. Formulas are presented for thin lenses, magnification, and dispersion.
3. Refraction, reflection, and image formation using lenses and prisms are examined.
It covers the topics-refraction ,absolute and relative refractive index,laws of refraction ,direction of bending of light,No refraction cases,refraction through glass slab
The document discusses wave behavior and reflection and refraction of waves. It provides examples of reflection at fixed and free boundaries and how this causes inversion or no inversion of pulses. It introduces the law of reflection where the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection. Refraction is discussed where the speed and wavelength change upon entering a new medium. Snell's law is derived relating the sines of the angles of incidence and refraction to the refractive indices of the media. Total internal reflection at the critical angle is also mentioned.
Class 12 Project PRISM AND NATURE OF LIGHTGangadharBV1
The document discusses how a prism works to refract and disperse light into a spectrum. It explains that a prism separates white light into a rainbow of colors because the refractive index of the prism material varies with wavelength, causing different colors to refract at different angles. An experiment is described to use a hollow prism to measure the refractive indices of various liquids like water, vinegar and vegetable oil by finding the angle of minimum deviation and using the prism formula to calculate the index.
The document contains conceptual problems and their solutions related to properties of light.
1. A ray of light reflects from a plane mirror at an angle of 70° between the incoming and reflected rays. The angle of reflection is 35°.
2. A lifeguard hears a swimmer calling for help. Taking the least time path, the lifeguard chooses to run on land then swim through point D to reach the swimmer.
3. Blue light appears blue underwater because the color molecules in the eye respond to the frequency of light, not the wavelength, which changes with the medium's index of refraction.
This document provides a summary of key concepts in reflection and refraction of light:
- Light was originally thought to consist of particles (1000 AD) but was later explained as a wave by Huygens in the 1600s and Maxwell in 1865. Planck later showed it has particle-like properties as well.
- Reflection follows the law that the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection. Refraction follows Snell's law, which relates the indices of refraction and angles of the materials. Dispersion is the dependence of the index of refraction on wavelength.
- Huygen's principle treats each point on a wavefront as a secondary source, and the new wavefront is tangent to these secondary
1. Define Refraction Of Light
2. Discussion on Examples Of Refraction
3. Describe the action of CONVEX and CONCAVE mirror
4. Define the terms related to SPHERICAL mirrors
5. Describes the rules for making ray diagrams for SPHERICAL mirror
6. Distinguish between REAL and VIRTUAL image
7. Image formation using CONCAVE and CONVEX mirror.
8. Refraction Prisms: Dispersion Of Light
9. Uses Of CONCAVE and CONVEX mirror
The document discusses wave behavior and reflection, refraction, and Snell's law. It provides examples and diagrams to illustrate:
- Reflection of waves at fixed and free boundaries, including phase changes.
- The law of reflection - that the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection.
- Refraction when a wave passes from one medium to another with a different wave speed, including Huygen's principle and how this leads to Snell's law.
- Snell's law - that the ratio of sines of the angles of incidence and refraction is equal to the ratio of wave speeds in the two media.
- Applications of Snell's law including calculating angles and refractive indices.
When light travels between two mediums with different optical densities, it changes speed and bends. The amount of bending depends on the refractive indices of the mediums and the angle of incidence. Light bends toward the normal when entering a denser medium, and away from the normal when entering a less dense medium. Snell's law states that the ratio of the sines of the angles of incidence and refraction is a constant equal to the refractive index.
This document discusses key concepts related to the refraction of light, including:
- Refraction occurs when light passes from one medium to another, changing direction as it enters the new medium. The degree of bending depends on the optical density of the materials.
- Two laws govern refraction: Snell's law states that the ratio of sines of the angles of incidence and refraction is a constant; and the law of refraction states that the incident ray, refracted ray, and normal all lie in the same plane.
- The refractive index is a measure of how much light bends when entering a material, and depends on the material's optical density - the higher the density, the greater the refractive index
This document discusses the phenomenon of refraction of light and its applications. It begins by acknowledging those who helped with the project. Then it covers topics like how refraction occurs in nature through examples like vision and mirages. It explains the laws of refraction like Snell's law and total internal reflection. Applications of refraction discussed include lenses, fiber optics, and spectrometers.
Refraction And Total Internal Reflection Internetmrmeredith
This document discusses keyhole surgery and fiber optics. It provides two key points:
1) Keyhole surgery involves using two optical fibers - one to illuminate the inside of the patient and one for a camera to send images back to the doctor, allowing surgery to be performed through small incisions.
2) In medieval times, surgeons would open up patients to see what was wrong, whereas modern keyhole surgery uses these optical fibers to perform stomach cancer operations through small incisions.
Light can be thought of as travelling in rays that change direction through reflection and refraction. Reflection occurs when light strikes a surface, following the laws that the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection. Refraction occurs when light passes from one medium to another of different density, bending according to Snell's law that relates the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction through the refractive indices. The refractive index quantifies how much light slows down in a medium relative to a vacuum. Common refractive indices include air as 1, water as 1.33 and glass around 1.5.
Refraction is the change in direction of a wave when passing from one medium to another due to a change in wave speed. It is caused by a change in medium and results in the bending of light. The laws of refraction include Snell's law, which relates the sines of the angles of incidence and refraction to the refractive indices of the media. The refractive index is a measure of how much a medium slows light down and is used to characterize materials. It depends on factors like density, temperature, and wavelength of light. Total internal reflection occurs when light travels from an optically dense medium to a less dense one at an angle greater than the critical angle.
The document discusses refraction of light, including:
- Refraction occurs when light passes from one medium to another with a different density, causing the light to bend.
- The index of refraction is the ratio of light's speed in a vacuum to its speed in a material. Snell's law relates the indices of refraction and angles of incidence and refraction.
- Total internal reflection occurs when light hits the interface between a less and more dense medium at an angle greater than the critical angle, causing the light to be reflected back into the denser medium.
- Light rays change direction when passing from one medium to another with a different density, known as refraction.
- Snell's law states that the ratio of sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant equal to the refractive index.
- The refractive index is a ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in a medium, and determines how much light will bend. Materials with a higher refractive index have a greater bending effect.
Optics and Laser (1).pptx physics notessShahnailMemon
This document summarizes key concepts in optics and lasers. It discusses how optics studies light and its interactions with matter. It then covers the nature of light, including reflection, refraction, Snell's law, total internal reflection, and fiber optics. It defines lasers as devices that produce coherent and monochromatic beams of light via stimulated emission of radiation. Lasers have properties of being highly directional and able to focus energy in a small area. The document explains the laser process of exciting a gain medium's atoms and photons stimulating the emission of more photons with the same properties.
This document discusses the refraction of light, including that light bends when moving between media of different densities, following Snell's law. It also covers total internal reflection, where light reflects totally inside a denser medium if the angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle.
This document discusses the fundamentals of refraction of light, including definitions of key terms like medium, rarer medium, denser medium, absolute refractive index, and relative refractive index. It explains that refraction occurs when light travels from one medium to another at a different speed, causing a change in direction. Snell's law is presented as relating the sines of the angles of incidence and refraction to the refractive indices of the media. Total internal reflection and applications are also mentioned.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in ray optics, including:
1. Refraction is defined as the change in direction and speed of light when passing from one medium to another. Snell's law describes the relationship between angles of incidence and refraction.
2. Total internal reflection occurs when light passes from an optically dense to a rare medium at an angle greater than the critical angle, causing the light to reflect back into the dense medium.
3. Spherical lenses can be either convex or concave. The lens maker's formula and thin lens equation describe the imaging properties and magnification of thin lenses based on the focal length and object and image distances.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in ray optics, including:
1. Refraction is defined as the change in direction and speed of light when passing from one medium to another. Snell's law describes the relationship between angles of incidence and refraction.
2. Total internal reflection occurs when light passes from an optically dense to rare medium at an angle greater than the critical angle, causing the light to reflect back into the dense medium.
3. Spherical lenses use thin lens equations and sign conventions to determine image location based on the object position, focal length, and refractive indices of the lens and surrounding media.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in ray optics, including:
1. Refraction is the change in direction of light when passing from one medium to another. Snell's law describes the relationship between the angles of incidence and refraction.
2. Total internal reflection occurs when light travels from an optically dense to a rare medium at an angle greater than the critical angle.
3. Spherical lenses can produce real or virtual images depending on whether the object is placed before or beyond the focal point. The lens maker's formula and thin lens equation relate the focal length to the radii of curvature.
4. Linear magnification is the ratio of the size of the image to the size of the object. Mag
Unlocking the mysteries of reproduction: Exploring fecundity and gonadosomati...AbdullaAlAsif1
The pygmy halfbeak Dermogenys colletei, is known for its viviparous nature, this presents an intriguing case of relatively low fecundity, raising questions about potential compensatory reproductive strategies employed by this species. Our study delves into the examination of fecundity and the Gonadosomatic Index (GSI) in the Pygmy Halfbeak, D. colletei (Meisner, 2001), an intriguing viviparous fish indigenous to Sarawak, Borneo. We hypothesize that the Pygmy halfbeak, D. colletei, may exhibit unique reproductive adaptations to offset its low fecundity, thus enhancing its survival and fitness. To address this, we conducted a comprehensive study utilizing 28 mature female specimens of D. colletei, carefully measuring fecundity and GSI to shed light on the reproductive adaptations of this species. Our findings reveal that D. colletei indeed exhibits low fecundity, with a mean of 16.76 ± 2.01, and a mean GSI of 12.83 ± 1.27, providing crucial insights into the reproductive mechanisms at play in this species. These results underscore the existence of unique reproductive strategies in D. colletei, enabling its adaptation and persistence in Borneo's diverse aquatic ecosystems, and call for further ecological research to elucidate these mechanisms. This study lends to a better understanding of viviparous fish in Borneo and contributes to the broader field of aquatic ecology, enhancing our knowledge of species adaptations to unique ecological challenges.
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The document discusses wave behavior and reflection and refraction of waves. It provides examples of reflection at fixed and free boundaries and how this causes inversion or no inversion of pulses. It introduces the law of reflection where the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection. Refraction is discussed where the speed and wavelength change upon entering a new medium. Snell's law is derived relating the sines of the angles of incidence and refraction to the refractive indices of the media. Total internal reflection at the critical angle is also mentioned.
Class 12 Project PRISM AND NATURE OF LIGHTGangadharBV1
The document discusses how a prism works to refract and disperse light into a spectrum. It explains that a prism separates white light into a rainbow of colors because the refractive index of the prism material varies with wavelength, causing different colors to refract at different angles. An experiment is described to use a hollow prism to measure the refractive indices of various liquids like water, vinegar and vegetable oil by finding the angle of minimum deviation and using the prism formula to calculate the index.
The document contains conceptual problems and their solutions related to properties of light.
1. A ray of light reflects from a plane mirror at an angle of 70° between the incoming and reflected rays. The angle of reflection is 35°.
2. A lifeguard hears a swimmer calling for help. Taking the least time path, the lifeguard chooses to run on land then swim through point D to reach the swimmer.
3. Blue light appears blue underwater because the color molecules in the eye respond to the frequency of light, not the wavelength, which changes with the medium's index of refraction.
This document provides a summary of key concepts in reflection and refraction of light:
- Light was originally thought to consist of particles (1000 AD) but was later explained as a wave by Huygens in the 1600s and Maxwell in 1865. Planck later showed it has particle-like properties as well.
- Reflection follows the law that the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection. Refraction follows Snell's law, which relates the indices of refraction and angles of the materials. Dispersion is the dependence of the index of refraction on wavelength.
- Huygen's principle treats each point on a wavefront as a secondary source, and the new wavefront is tangent to these secondary
1. Define Refraction Of Light
2. Discussion on Examples Of Refraction
3. Describe the action of CONVEX and CONCAVE mirror
4. Define the terms related to SPHERICAL mirrors
5. Describes the rules for making ray diagrams for SPHERICAL mirror
6. Distinguish between REAL and VIRTUAL image
7. Image formation using CONCAVE and CONVEX mirror.
8. Refraction Prisms: Dispersion Of Light
9. Uses Of CONCAVE and CONVEX mirror
The document discusses wave behavior and reflection, refraction, and Snell's law. It provides examples and diagrams to illustrate:
- Reflection of waves at fixed and free boundaries, including phase changes.
- The law of reflection - that the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection.
- Refraction when a wave passes from one medium to another with a different wave speed, including Huygen's principle and how this leads to Snell's law.
- Snell's law - that the ratio of sines of the angles of incidence and refraction is equal to the ratio of wave speeds in the two media.
- Applications of Snell's law including calculating angles and refractive indices.
When light travels between two mediums with different optical densities, it changes speed and bends. The amount of bending depends on the refractive indices of the mediums and the angle of incidence. Light bends toward the normal when entering a denser medium, and away from the normal when entering a less dense medium. Snell's law states that the ratio of the sines of the angles of incidence and refraction is a constant equal to the refractive index.
This document discusses key concepts related to the refraction of light, including:
- Refraction occurs when light passes from one medium to another, changing direction as it enters the new medium. The degree of bending depends on the optical density of the materials.
- Two laws govern refraction: Snell's law states that the ratio of sines of the angles of incidence and refraction is a constant; and the law of refraction states that the incident ray, refracted ray, and normal all lie in the same plane.
- The refractive index is a measure of how much light bends when entering a material, and depends on the material's optical density - the higher the density, the greater the refractive index
This document discusses the phenomenon of refraction of light and its applications. It begins by acknowledging those who helped with the project. Then it covers topics like how refraction occurs in nature through examples like vision and mirages. It explains the laws of refraction like Snell's law and total internal reflection. Applications of refraction discussed include lenses, fiber optics, and spectrometers.
Refraction And Total Internal Reflection Internetmrmeredith
This document discusses keyhole surgery and fiber optics. It provides two key points:
1) Keyhole surgery involves using two optical fibers - one to illuminate the inside of the patient and one for a camera to send images back to the doctor, allowing surgery to be performed through small incisions.
2) In medieval times, surgeons would open up patients to see what was wrong, whereas modern keyhole surgery uses these optical fibers to perform stomach cancer operations through small incisions.
Light can be thought of as travelling in rays that change direction through reflection and refraction. Reflection occurs when light strikes a surface, following the laws that the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection. Refraction occurs when light passes from one medium to another of different density, bending according to Snell's law that relates the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction through the refractive indices. The refractive index quantifies how much light slows down in a medium relative to a vacuum. Common refractive indices include air as 1, water as 1.33 and glass around 1.5.
Refraction is the change in direction of a wave when passing from one medium to another due to a change in wave speed. It is caused by a change in medium and results in the bending of light. The laws of refraction include Snell's law, which relates the sines of the angles of incidence and refraction to the refractive indices of the media. The refractive index is a measure of how much a medium slows light down and is used to characterize materials. It depends on factors like density, temperature, and wavelength of light. Total internal reflection occurs when light travels from an optically dense medium to a less dense one at an angle greater than the critical angle.
The document discusses refraction of light, including:
- Refraction occurs when light passes from one medium to another with a different density, causing the light to bend.
- The index of refraction is the ratio of light's speed in a vacuum to its speed in a material. Snell's law relates the indices of refraction and angles of incidence and refraction.
- Total internal reflection occurs when light hits the interface between a less and more dense medium at an angle greater than the critical angle, causing the light to be reflected back into the denser medium.
- Light rays change direction when passing from one medium to another with a different density, known as refraction.
- Snell's law states that the ratio of sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant equal to the refractive index.
- The refractive index is a ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in a medium, and determines how much light will bend. Materials with a higher refractive index have a greater bending effect.
Optics and Laser (1).pptx physics notessShahnailMemon
This document summarizes key concepts in optics and lasers. It discusses how optics studies light and its interactions with matter. It then covers the nature of light, including reflection, refraction, Snell's law, total internal reflection, and fiber optics. It defines lasers as devices that produce coherent and monochromatic beams of light via stimulated emission of radiation. Lasers have properties of being highly directional and able to focus energy in a small area. The document explains the laser process of exciting a gain medium's atoms and photons stimulating the emission of more photons with the same properties.
This document discusses the refraction of light, including that light bends when moving between media of different densities, following Snell's law. It also covers total internal reflection, where light reflects totally inside a denser medium if the angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle.
This document discusses the fundamentals of refraction of light, including definitions of key terms like medium, rarer medium, denser medium, absolute refractive index, and relative refractive index. It explains that refraction occurs when light travels from one medium to another at a different speed, causing a change in direction. Snell's law is presented as relating the sines of the angles of incidence and refraction to the refractive indices of the media. Total internal reflection and applications are also mentioned.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in ray optics, including:
1. Refraction is defined as the change in direction and speed of light when passing from one medium to another. Snell's law describes the relationship between angles of incidence and refraction.
2. Total internal reflection occurs when light passes from an optically dense to a rare medium at an angle greater than the critical angle, causing the light to reflect back into the dense medium.
3. Spherical lenses can be either convex or concave. The lens maker's formula and thin lens equation describe the imaging properties and magnification of thin lenses based on the focal length and object and image distances.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in ray optics, including:
1. Refraction is defined as the change in direction and speed of light when passing from one medium to another. Snell's law describes the relationship between angles of incidence and refraction.
2. Total internal reflection occurs when light passes from an optically dense to rare medium at an angle greater than the critical angle, causing the light to reflect back into the dense medium.
3. Spherical lenses use thin lens equations and sign conventions to determine image location based on the object position, focal length, and refractive indices of the lens and surrounding media.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in ray optics, including:
1. Refraction is the change in direction of light when passing from one medium to another. Snell's law describes the relationship between the angles of incidence and refraction.
2. Total internal reflection occurs when light travels from an optically dense to a rare medium at an angle greater than the critical angle.
3. Spherical lenses can produce real or virtual images depending on whether the object is placed before or beyond the focal point. The lens maker's formula and thin lens equation relate the focal length to the radii of curvature.
4. Linear magnification is the ratio of the size of the image to the size of the object. Mag
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Unlocking the mysteries of reproduction: Exploring fecundity and gonadosomati...AbdullaAlAsif1
The pygmy halfbeak Dermogenys colletei, is known for its viviparous nature, this presents an intriguing case of relatively low fecundity, raising questions about potential compensatory reproductive strategies employed by this species. Our study delves into the examination of fecundity and the Gonadosomatic Index (GSI) in the Pygmy Halfbeak, D. colletei (Meisner, 2001), an intriguing viviparous fish indigenous to Sarawak, Borneo. We hypothesize that the Pygmy halfbeak, D. colletei, may exhibit unique reproductive adaptations to offset its low fecundity, thus enhancing its survival and fitness. To address this, we conducted a comprehensive study utilizing 28 mature female specimens of D. colletei, carefully measuring fecundity and GSI to shed light on the reproductive adaptations of this species. Our findings reveal that D. colletei indeed exhibits low fecundity, with a mean of 16.76 ± 2.01, and a mean GSI of 12.83 ± 1.27, providing crucial insights into the reproductive mechanisms at play in this species. These results underscore the existence of unique reproductive strategies in D. colletei, enabling its adaptation and persistence in Borneo's diverse aquatic ecosystems, and call for further ecological research to elucidate these mechanisms. This study lends to a better understanding of viviparous fish in Borneo and contributes to the broader field of aquatic ecology, enhancing our knowledge of species adaptations to unique ecological challenges.
The ability to recreate computational results with minimal effort and actionable metrics provides a solid foundation for scientific research and software development. When people can replicate an analysis at the touch of a button using open-source software, open data, and methods to assess and compare proposals, it significantly eases verification of results, engagement with a diverse range of contributors, and progress. However, we have yet to fully achieve this; there are still many sociotechnical frictions.
Inspired by David Donoho's vision, this talk aims to revisit the three crucial pillars of frictionless reproducibility (data sharing, code sharing, and competitive challenges) with the perspective of deep software variability.
Our observation is that multiple layers — hardware, operating systems, third-party libraries, software versions, input data, compile-time options, and parameters — are subject to variability that exacerbates frictions but is also essential for achieving robust, generalizable results and fostering innovation. I will first review the literature, providing evidence of how the complex variability interactions across these layers affect qualitative and quantitative software properties, thereby complicating the reproduction and replication of scientific studies in various fields.
I will then present some software engineering and AI techniques that can support the strategic exploration of variability spaces. These include the use of abstractions and models (e.g., feature models), sampling strategies (e.g., uniform, random), cost-effective measurements (e.g., incremental build of software configurations), and dimensionality reduction methods (e.g., transfer learning, feature selection, software debloating).
I will finally argue that deep variability is both the problem and solution of frictionless reproducibility, calling the software science community to develop new methods and tools to manage variability and foster reproducibility in software systems.
Exposé invité Journées Nationales du GDR GPL 2024
Current Ms word generated power point presentation covers major details about the micronuclei test. It's significance and assays to conduct it. It is used to detect the micronuclei formation inside the cells of nearly every multicellular organism. It's formation takes place during chromosomal sepration at metaphase.
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With increasing population, people need to rely on packaged food stuffs. Packaging of food materials requires the preservation of food. There are various methods for the treatment of food to preserve them and irradiation treatment of food is one of them. It is the most common and the most harmless method for the food preservation as it does not alter the necessary micronutrients of food materials. Although irradiated food doesn’t cause any harm to the human health but still the quality assessment of food is required to provide consumers with necessary information about the food. ESR spectroscopy is the most sophisticated way to investigate the quality of the food and the free radicals induced during the processing of the food. ESR spin trapping technique is useful for the detection of highly unstable radicals in the food. The antioxidant capability of liquid food and beverages in mainly performed by spin trapping technique.
This presentation explores a brief idea about the structural and functional attributes of nucleotides, the structure and function of genetic materials along with the impact of UV rays and pH upon them.
Or: Beyond linear.
Abstract: Equivariant neural networks are neural networks that incorporate symmetries. The nonlinear activation functions in these networks result in interesting nonlinear equivariant maps between simple representations, and motivate the key player of this talk: piecewise linear representation theory.
Disclaimer: No one is perfect, so please mind that there might be mistakes and typos.
dtubbenhauer@gmail.com
Corrected slides: dtubbenhauer.com/talks.html
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...Ana Luísa Pinho
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) provides means to characterize brain activations in response to behavior. However, cognitive neuroscience has been limited to group-level effects referring to the performance of specific tasks. To obtain the functional profile of elementary cognitive mechanisms, the combination of brain responses to many tasks is required. Yet, to date, both structural atlases and parcellation-based activations do not fully account for cognitive function and still present several limitations. Further, they do not adapt overall to individual characteristics. In this talk, I will give an account of deep-behavioral phenotyping strategies, namely data-driven methods in large task-fMRI datasets, to optimize functional brain-data collection and improve inference of effects-of-interest related to mental processes. Key to this approach is the employment of fast multi-functional paradigms rich on features that can be well parametrized and, consequently, facilitate the creation of psycho-physiological constructs to be modelled with imaging data. Particular emphasis will be given to music stimuli when studying high-order cognitive mechanisms, due to their ecological nature and quality to enable complex behavior compounded by discrete entities. I will also discuss how deep-behavioral phenotyping and individualized models applied to neuroimaging data can better account for the subject-specific organization of domain-general cognitive systems in the human brain. Finally, the accumulation of functional brain signatures brings the possibility to clarify relationships among tasks and create a univocal link between brain systems and mental functions through: (1) the development of ontologies proposing an organization of cognitive processes; and (2) brain-network taxonomies describing functional specialization. To this end, tools to improve commensurability in cognitive science are necessary, such as public repositories, ontology-based platforms and automated meta-analysis tools. I will thus discuss some brain-atlasing resources currently under development, and their applicability in cognitive as well as clinical neuroscience.
1. Chemistry Project on Analysis of Fertilizers
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India Vermicompost Cocopeat
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Submitted by Editor
ANALYSIS ON FERTILIZERS
Acknowledgment
I am grateful to Almighty for giving me the strength to successfully conduct my experiment
and for sustaining my efforts which many a times did oscillate.
I am deeply indebted to Mr. O.J. Abraham sir, our physics faculty without whose constructive
guidance this project/venture would not have been a success. His valuable advice and
suggestions for the corrections, modifications and improvement did enhance the perfection in
performing my job well.
I am obliged to Sr. Kiran our principal for providing the best of facilities and environment to
bring out our innovation and spirit of inquiry through this venture.
I take special pleasure in acknowledging Mam Nirmala for her willingness in providing us with
necessary lab equipments and constant support without which this effort would have been
worthless.
I am grateful to My Parents and My Brother whose blessings and wishes have gone a long
way in the completion of this arduous task.
Last but not the least I thank all My Friends and Batch Mates, without their prompt support
my efforts would have been in vain.
SAUMYA GUPTA CERTIFICATE
THIS IS TO CERTIFY THAT MISS SAUMYA GUPTA OF CLASS XII-SC HAS SCCESSFULLY
CARRIED OUT THE PROJCT ENTITLED “ANALYSIS ON FERTILIZERS” UNDER MY
SUPERVISION.
ALL THE WORKS RELATED TO THE THESIS WAS DONE BY THE CANDIDATE HERSELF.
THE APPROACH TOWARDS THE SUBJECT HAS BEEN SINCERE AND SCIENTIFIC.
Doha Organic Fertilizer Corp. - India…
Organic Fertilizer, Vermicompost Cocopeat…
Learn more
dohavermicompost.com
2. MRS.BEENA DASHORA
CHEMISTRY FACULTY
ST.MARY’S CONVENT SENIOR
SECONDARY SCHOOL
INDEX
1. INTRODUCTION
(a) Definition
(b) Laws of refraction
(c) Refractive index
(d) Snell’s law
(e) Mathematical relations
(f) Phenomenon
(g) Total internal reflection
2. EXPERIMENT:
(a) Aim
(b) Apparatus
(c) Procedure
(d) Results
(e) Precautions
3. BIBLIOGRAPHY
INTRODUCTION
(a) Definition: When light travels from one medium to another it changes the direction of its
path at the interface of the two media.
It is bending of a wave when it enters a medium where its speed is different.
(b) Laws of refraction:
(i) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface at the point of
incidence, all lie in the same plane.
(ii) The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence of the sine of angle of refraction is
constant.
Bending Light:
When a stick is submerged into water, the stick appears bent at the point it enters into water.
This optical effect is due to refraction. As light passes from one transparent medium to
another, it changes speed and it bends. How much this happens depends on the refractive index
and the angle between the light ray and the line perpendicular i.e. normal to the surface
separating the two mediums.
INDEX OF REFRACTION OR REFRACTIVE INDEX:
It is defined as the speed of light in vacuum divided by the speed of light in the medium.
It is represented by “µ” or “n”
µ = C/V
C – Speed of light in vacuum
3. V – Speed of light in medium
It is also the degree or extent of deviation from its original path.
A ray of light travels along straight line in a homogenous medium meaning density same
throughout. When it travels from one medium to another medium of different densities the light
deviates from its original path. The amount of deviation of light from its original path depends
on the indices of refraction of the two media and is described quantitatively by Snell’s law.
Diagram showing Refraction. DEFINITIONS:
1. Angle of incidence – The angle that the incident ray makes with the normal is known as angle
of incidence (“i").
Ð i = Ð AOB
AO – Incident ray
OB – Normal
2. Angle of refraction – The angle that the refracted ray makes with the normal is known as
angle of refraction.
Ð r = Ð COQ
OQ – Refracted ray,
OC – Normal
3. Angle of emergence – The angle that the emergent ray makes with the normal is known as
reemergence.
Ð e = Ð SQR
SQ – Emergent ray
RS – Normal
Common Refractive Index:
The values given are appropriate and do not account for the small variation of index with light
wavelength which is called dispersion.
Table for refractive indices
Medium Refractive index Medium Refractive index
1. Vacuum 1.000 7. Ethyl alcohol 1.362
2. Air 1.000277 8. Glycerin 1.473
3. Water 1.33 9. Ice 1.310
4. Carbon disulphide 1.63 10. Polystrene 1.59
5. Methylene iodide 1.74 11. Crown glass 1.50-1.62
6. Diamond 2.417 12. Flint glass 1.57-1.75
Snell’s Law:
In 1621, a Dutch physicist named Willeboard Snell (1591-1626), derived the relationship
between the different angles of light as it passes from one transparent medium to another.
Snell’s law states that when light passes from one transparent medium to another speed of
light changes and thus it deviates from its original path and extent of deviation is given by the
relation-
n sin q = n sin q
n = Refractive index of medium 1
n = Refractive index of medium 2
q = angle of incidence in medium 1
q = angle of refraction in medium
1 1 2 2
1
2
1
2
4. CASE I
Since n < n
Therefore medium 1 is rarer than medium 2
Therefore the relation
n / n = sin q / sin q
n /n is less than 1
sin q / sin q < 1
sin q > sin q
Since 0 < q < p / 2 (when sin q > sin q )
q > q
Therefore refracted ray bends towards the normal when it travels from rarer to dense medium.
Case II :
Since n > n
Therefore by the relation
n / n = sin q / sin q
Therefore n > n
n / n > 1
à sin q / sin q > 1
à sin q > sin q
{When 0 < q < p / 2 }
q > q
Therefore refracted ray bends away from the normal when it travels from denser to rarer
medium.(For both cases refer to diagrams)
OTHER MATHEMATICAL RELATIONS FOR µ :
1. Frequency is the characteristics of the source and remains unaffected when the medium
changes.
Let there be two mediums 1 and 2
V = be the velocity of light in medium 1
V = be the velocity of light in medium 2
l = wavelength in medium 1
l = wavelength in medium 2
V = nl
V = nl
V / V = l / l
2. Refractive index of medium 1 with respect to 2 = n
n = V / V it is the ratio of velocity of light in medium 2 with respect to medium 1.
3. Refractive index of medium 1 with respect to medium 2
Medium 1 = water
1 2
1 2 2 1
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2 2 1
1 2
1 2
2 1
2 1
2 1
1
2
1
2
1 1
2 2
1 2 1 2
12
12 2 1
5. Medium 2 = air
Air w.r.t. water µ = Apparent depth / Actual depth
Water w.r.t to air µ = Actual depth / Apparent depth
Refer to diagram
PHENOMENON DUE TO ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION:
1. The sun is visible a little before the actual sunrise and a little after the actual sunset. By
actual sunrise we mean the actual crossing of the horizon by the sun.
2. The apparent flattening of sun at sunset and sunrise is also due to atmospheric
refraction.
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION:
When light passes from an optically denser medium to a rarer medium at the interface, it is
partly reflected back into the same medium and partly refracted into the second medium. This
reflection is called internal reflection.
When a ray of light travels from denser to rarer medium the ray deviate away from the normal.
At a particular angle called critical angle the refracted ray just grazes or touches the surface
i.e. Le of refraction = 90°. The angle of refraction in denser medium for which the Le of
refraction in rarer medium = 90° is called critical angle.
If angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle the ray gets totally internally reflected.
RELATION BETWEEN REFRACTIVE INDEX AND CRITICAL ANGLE:
Consider that ray of light is traveling from denser to rarer medium. Let ‘C’ be the critical angle.
The angle of incidence (i)
Ð i = LC
Since angle of refraction = 90°
Refractive index of air w.r.t medium is = sin i / sin r
µ = Sin C / sin 90°
µ = Sin C
Sin C = 1 / µ
SOME PHENOMENON DUE TO TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION:
1. Mirage: It is phenomenon occurring in deserts. The ground air layer gets heated up and
expands. Mirage is an optical illusion. The upper layer is denser as compared to lower layer.
The ground gets heated up very quickly the lower layer of air expands and density
decreases. The ray of light traveling from the upper layers gets deviated away from
normal and suffers total internal reflection and the distant object appears to be inverted
and to the observer pool of water appears at a distant place and this phenomenon is
called mirage.
2. Extra brilliance of diamonds : Refractive index of diamond is approx. 2.45 or 2.9 when a ray
of light enters into diamond multiple reflection takes place inside due to TIR as µ = 1 /
sin C, C approx. 23° (very small).
EXPERIMENT
Aim: To determine refractive index of water using a traveling microscope.
Apparatus: A coin, a beaker, paper piece, traveling microscope.
Theory and Formula used:
Refraction is a phenomenon of propagation of light from one transparent medium into the other
medium such that light deviate from its original path. The ratio of velocity of light in the first
medium to that in the second medium is called refractive index of second medium w.r.t. the
w
a
a
w
m
a
m
a
a
m
DIAGRAM
6. first medium.
The bottom surface of a vessel containing a refracting liquid appears to be raised, such that
apparent depth is less than the real depth. Refractive index of refracting liquid is defined as the
ratio of real depth to the apparent depth.
µ = Real depth / Apparent depth
If reading of real depth of the coin = r
With water = r
Paper piece = r
Real depth = r – r
Apparent depth = r – r
µ = r – r / r – r
Refer to the diagram
PROCEDURE:
1. For accurate measurements of length, depths compound microscope used is provided
with a vernier scale which slides along with a main scale.
2. Note the number of divisions of vernier which coincides with number of full scale division.
3. Find the value of each main division and hence least count of microscope
4. Move the microscope very gently. Using the screw focus the eye piece on the coin
placed at the bottom of empty container and bring the coin in focus. Note the reading of
the microscope as r .
5. Pour water into the beaker and coin appears to be raised.
6. Move the microscope gradually and again bring the coin in focus. Record reading as r .
7. Put a piece of paper in water and move the microscope upward till the paper comes into
focus. Record the reading as r .
8. Difference of r and r gives real depth and r and r gives app depth.
9. Record your observations and calculate value of µ.
OBSERVATIONS
Least count of traveling microscope:
10 vernier scale division = 9 main scale division
50 V.S.D. = 49 M.S.D.
1 V.S.D. = 49/50 M.S.D.
L.C. = 1 M.S.D. – 1 V.S.D.
= 1/50 M.S.D.
M.S.D. = 1/20 cm = 0.05 cm
L.C. = 1/50 x 0.05 = 0.001 cm
CALCULATIONS
RESULTS
The refractive index of water by using traveling microscope is determined to be 1.33.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Least count of the scale of traveling microscope should be calculated.
2. Microscope once focused on the coin, the focusing should not be disturbed throughout
the experiment. Only rack and pinion screw should be turned to move the microscope
upward.
3. Eye piece should be adjusted that cross wires are distinctly seen.
4. Paper piece should be prevented from getting wet.
1
2
3
3 1
3 2
3 1 3 2
1
2
3
3 1 3 2
7. ELEMENTS
NITROGEN:
Major fertilizers containing N:
(a) Ammonium nitrate (NH NO )
(b) Potassium nitrate (KNO )
(c) Urea (NH CONH )
(d) Ammonium sulphate [(NH ) SO ]
Preparation:
Most of nitrogen fertilizers are obtained form synthetic NH . This chemical compound is used
as gas or in water solution or it is converted to salts.
Nitrogen Deficiencies
(a) Pale, green, yellow leaves
(b) Stunted growth
Nitrogen in Excess –
(a) Lower disease resistance
(b) Weaken stem
(c) Decay maturity
(d) Lower fruit quality
PHOSPHORUS:
Major fertilizers containing P:
(a)DAP – Diammonium phosphate [(NH ) PO ]
(b)Ca (PO ) – Calcium phosphate
(c)Triple phosphate and super phosphate
Preparation:
Most phosphoric fertilizers are obtained by the treatment of calcium phosphate with
H SO and phosphoric fertilizers. Calcium phosphate is mainly derived from phosphate rock and
bones. Phosphate rock is found in deposits of sedimentary origin laid down on beds of ocean
floor.
Phosphorus deficiencies –
(a) Pale purple colour on the underside of leaves
(b) Reduced flower, fruits and seed production
Advantages of P:
1. Encourage cell division
2. Hastens maturity, offsetting quick growth caused by N
3. Encourage root growth
4. Increase disease resistance
Phosphorous in excess
1. Causes dehydration of roots
2. Increase soluble salt content of medium
POTASSIUM:
Major fertilizers containining K:
4 3
3
2 2
4 2 4
3
4 2 4
3 4 2
2 4
8. 1. Potassium chloride (Potash)
2. Potassium nitrate (KNO )
Preparation:
It is the seventh most abundant element found in earth’s crust. Potassium chloride which is
principal commercial form of potash and some KNO is also used for production of potash
fertilizer.
Potassium deficiencies:
1. Leaves appear dry and scorched
2. Irregular yellow areas on the surface
Advantages of K:
1. Increase disease resistance
2. Encourage healthy root and stems
3. Essential for starch formation
4. Efficient use of CO
Potassium in excess
1. Affects soil acidity
2. Reduced flower, fruit and seed production
Fertilisers- V
Experiment Observation Inference
1. Take a pinch of fertilizer + few drops of dil.
H SO
No reaction Dil. group absent
2. Take a pinch of fertilizer + few drops of
conc. H SO
No reaction Conc. group absent
3. Take 1 ml of soda extract and acidify it with
dil HCl. Add few drops of BaCl soln. to it.
No reaction Volatile group absent
4. A pinch of fertilizer + few drops of NaOH
soln. Heat it.
No reaction Zero group absent
5. Take 1 ml of O.S (original solution)* in a
solution and to it add few drops of dil. HCl
No reaction 1 group absent
6. Take 1 ml of O.S (original solution) in a
solution, to it add few drops of dil. HCl.
Warm the solution, and pass H S gas.
No reaction 2 group absent
7. Take 1 ml of O.S (original solution) in a
solution and to it add few drops of dil. HCl
.add few drops of conc. HNO .heat it. Cool
it. Add a pinch of solid NH Cl followed by
excess of NH OH.
No reaction 3 group absent
8. Take 1 ml of O.S (original solution) in a
solution and to it add few drops of dil. HCl.
Add a pinch of solid NH Cl followed by
excess of NH OH. Warm the solution and
pass H S gas.
No reaction IV group absent
9. Take 1 ml of OS + few drops of dil. HCl + a
pinch of solid NH Cl + 1 or 2 ml of
(NH ) CO
White ppt V group present, may be
Ba , Kr or Ca
10. Filter the white precipitate, take a part of it,
and dissolve it in minimum amount of
CH COOH. Now add (NH ) C O
White ppt Ca confirmed.
11. Flame test Brick red flame Ca confirmed.
RESULT- Fertilizer has Ca as cation. (The fertilizer detected is Vermi Compost).
*****
Fertilizer–III
Experiment Observation Inference
3
3
2
2 4
2 4
2
st
2
nd
3
4
4
rd
4
4
2
4
4 2 3
2+ 2+ 2+
3 4 2 2 4
2+
2+
2+
9. 1. Take 1 ml of Lassaigne Solution (L.S.)* in a
test tube and to it add few drops of freshly
prepared ferrous sulphate solution. Heat it.
Cool it. Add few drops of conc. H SO
Prussian blue
colour
Nitrogen present in
elemental form.
RESULT- The given fertilizer has N in elemental form. (The fertilizer detected is urea).
*****
(Urea)
O.C.N + Na NaCN
FERTILIZER 5(vermi compost)
Ca2+ (aq) + CO32-(aq) CaCO3 (s) + 2CH3COOH
2CH3COOH + CaCO3 Ca [CH3COO]2 + H2O +CO2
Ca2+ (aq) +C2O42- CaC2O4(s)
Reading of microscope focused on
Coin without water Coin with water Paper in water
M.S.R.
(M) cm
V. div
coinciding
(n)
Reading
+ n X L.C
= r
M.S.R.
(M) cm
V. div
coinciding
(n)
Reading
+ n X LC =
r
M.S.R.
(M) cm
V. div
coinciding n
Reading
+ nXLC =
r
1. 5.2 5 5.205 5.9 40 5.940 8.15 12 8.162
2. 5.1 40 5.140 5.80 39 5.839 7.95 10 7.400
3. 5.05 20 5.070 5.75 36 5.789 8.00 20 8.020
2 4
1 2 3
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