Chemical regulation of respiration
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Specific learning objectives Chemical regulation of respiration Peripheral chemical regulation Central chemical regulation Effect of O2, CO2, H ion on respiration Pulmonary & myocardial chemoreceptor
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TRANSPORT OF CARBON DIOXIDE
Dr. Nilesh Kate's document discusses the transport of carbon dioxide in the body. It describes how CO2 moves from cells to blood through diffusion down a partial pressure gradient, and is transported in the blood in three forms: dissolved, bicarbonate, and carbamino compounds. The document outlines the roles of hemoglobin, oxygen levels, and temperature in facilitating CO2 transport from tissues to the lungs, where it diffuses into the alveolar air and is exhaled. Key factors like pH regulation and the respiratory quotient are also briefly covered.
TRANPORT OF OXYGEN
Dr. Nilesh Kate's document discusses oxygen transport. It begins by outlining the objectives of oxygen uptake in the lungs, transport in blood, and release in tissues. It then covers the introduction, uptake of oxygen by pulmonary blood due to the concentration gradient between the alveoli and arteries. Oxygen is transported in arterial blood both dissolved and bound to hemoglobin. The sigmoid shaped oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve allows for efficient loading and unloading of oxygen in tissues. Shifts in this curve are also discussed. Myoglobin assists with oxygen storage in muscle tissue.
Oxygen transport
This document discusses oxygen transport from the atmosphere to tissues. It describes how oxygen is absorbed in the lungs and bound to hemoglobin to be carried by the blood. The oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve is explained, showing how hemoglobin releases oxygen in tissues. Factors affecting oxygen diffusion and binding such as partial pressure gradients, carbon dioxide levels, 2,3-DPG, and fetal hemoglobin are covered. The document also briefly discusses oxygen toxicity and ischemia-reperfusion injury.
Lung volume and capacities
The apparatus used to measure
Volume of air exchanged during breathing
Respiratory rate
The record is called a spirogram
Upward deflection inhalation
Downward deflection exhalation
Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in blood (1)
This document summarizes oxygen and carbon dioxide transport in the blood and tissues. It discusses how:
- Oxygen is carried bound to hemoglobin and dissolved in plasma, allowing blood to carry 30-100x more oxygen than if dissolved alone. Carbon dioxide also combines with substances to increase its transport 15-20x.
- Oxygen diffuses from alveoli into pulmonary blood and from arterial blood into tissues, while carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction.
- Hemoglobin increases oxygen carrying capacity of blood by reversibly binding oxygen. Factors like CO2 levels and temperature can shift the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve.
- In tissues, oxygen diffuses from capillaries into
7) regulation of respiration
lecture 7: every system in our body should be controlled by nervous system, certain chemical in the blood also alter the respiratory cycle.
Chemical regulation
The document summarizes chemical regulation of respiration. It discusses how carbon dioxide, hydrogen ions, and oxygen levels regulate breathing through central and peripheral chemoreceptors. The central chemoreceptors in the brainstem are stimulated by increased carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions in the bloodstream. The peripheral chemoreceptors in the carotid bodies and aortic arch are stimulated by decreased oxygen levels. Together, the chemoreceptors detect changes in gas levels and stimulate breathing to maintain homeostasis.
Physiology of gas exchange
The document summarizes gas exchange and oxygen transport in the human body. It discusses how (1) oxygen is extracted from the air and transported via the lungs to the blood, where it is carried by hemoglobin to tissues, and (2) carbon dioxide is transported in reverse from tissues to the lungs. Key aspects covered include alveolar gas transfer, the oxygen cascade, partial pressures of gases, diffusion principles, hemoglobin binding of oxygen and factors affecting it like pH, temperature and carbon monoxide.
Recommended
TRANSPORT OF CARBON DIOXIDE
Dr. Nilesh Kate's document discusses the transport of carbon dioxide in the body. It describes how CO2 moves from cells to blood through diffusion down a partial pressure gradient, and is transported in the blood in three forms: dissolved, bicarbonate, and carbamino compounds. The document outlines the roles of hemoglobin, oxygen levels, and temperature in facilitating CO2 transport from tissues to the lungs, where it diffuses into the alveolar air and is exhaled. Key factors like pH regulation and the respiratory quotient are also briefly covered.
TRANPORT OF OXYGEN
Dr. Nilesh Kate's document discusses oxygen transport. It begins by outlining the objectives of oxygen uptake in the lungs, transport in blood, and release in tissues. It then covers the introduction, uptake of oxygen by pulmonary blood due to the concentration gradient between the alveoli and arteries. Oxygen is transported in arterial blood both dissolved and bound to hemoglobin. The sigmoid shaped oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve allows for efficient loading and unloading of oxygen in tissues. Shifts in this curve are also discussed. Myoglobin assists with oxygen storage in muscle tissue.
Oxygen transport
This document discusses oxygen transport from the atmosphere to tissues. It describes how oxygen is absorbed in the lungs and bound to hemoglobin to be carried by the blood. The oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve is explained, showing how hemoglobin releases oxygen in tissues. Factors affecting oxygen diffusion and binding such as partial pressure gradients, carbon dioxide levels, 2,3-DPG, and fetal hemoglobin are covered. The document also briefly discusses oxygen toxicity and ischemia-reperfusion injury.
Lung volume and capacities
The apparatus used to measure
Volume of air exchanged during breathing
Respiratory rate
The record is called a spirogram
Upward deflection inhalation
Downward deflection exhalation
Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in blood (1)
This document summarizes oxygen and carbon dioxide transport in the blood and tissues. It discusses how:
- Oxygen is carried bound to hemoglobin and dissolved in plasma, allowing blood to carry 30-100x more oxygen than if dissolved alone. Carbon dioxide also combines with substances to increase its transport 15-20x.
- Oxygen diffuses from alveoli into pulmonary blood and from arterial blood into tissues, while carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction.
- Hemoglobin increases oxygen carrying capacity of blood by reversibly binding oxygen. Factors like CO2 levels and temperature can shift the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve.
- In tissues, oxygen diffuses from capillaries into
7) regulation of respiration
lecture 7: every system in our body should be controlled by nervous system, certain chemical in the blood also alter the respiratory cycle.
Chemical regulation
The document summarizes chemical regulation of respiration. It discusses how carbon dioxide, hydrogen ions, and oxygen levels regulate breathing through central and peripheral chemoreceptors. The central chemoreceptors in the brainstem are stimulated by increased carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions in the bloodstream. The peripheral chemoreceptors in the carotid bodies and aortic arch are stimulated by decreased oxygen levels. Together, the chemoreceptors detect changes in gas levels and stimulate breathing to maintain homeostasis.
Physiology of gas exchange
The document summarizes gas exchange and oxygen transport in the human body. It discusses how (1) oxygen is extracted from the air and transported via the lungs to the blood, where it is carried by hemoglobin to tissues, and (2) carbon dioxide is transported in reverse from tissues to the lungs. Key aspects covered include alveolar gas transfer, the oxygen cascade, partial pressures of gases, diffusion principles, hemoglobin binding of oxygen and factors affecting it like pH, temperature and carbon monoxide.
Neural regulation of Respiration
This document discusses the neural regulation of respiration. It begins by outlining the respiratory centers located in the brainstem, including the dorsal respiratory group, ventral respiratory group, pneumotaxic center, and apneustic center. These centers generate the rhythmic pattern of breathing and control the rate and depth of respiration. The document then describes various inputs that affect the respiratory centers, including peripheral chemoreceptors, lung stretch receptors, and irritant receptors. It concludes by explaining how disrupting different parts of the respiratory control system, such as through brainstem transections or anesthesia overdose, can impact breathing patterns and potentially cause respiratory arrest.
Lung volume and capacities
This document discusses lung volumes and lung capacities, which refer to the volume of air associated with different phases of the respiratory cycle. It outlines the four main lung volumes - tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve volume, and residual volume. It then discusses various lung capacities, which are combinations of two or more lung volumes, including inspiratory capacity, expiratory capacity, functional residual capacity, vital capacity, and total lung capacity. The document provides normal values for males and females for these volumes and capacities.
Chemical control of respiration
The document summarizes the chemical control of respiration through respiratory chemoreceptors. There are three types of chemoreceptors: peripheral chemoreceptors located in the carotid bodies and aortic bodies that detect changes in arterial pCO2, pO2, and pH; central or medullary chemoreceptors located in the brainstem that are stimulated by increased hydrogen ion concentration in cerebrospinal fluid; and both peripheral and central chemoreceptors work together to maintain homeostasis and stimulate respiration in response to changes in oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen ion levels in order to regulate respiration.
Respiratory #2, Gas Transport - Physiology
1) Gas exchange occurs at the lungs between blood and air, and at tissues between blood and tissues, via simple diffusion down partial pressure gradients.
2) The alveolar-capillary membrane is where oxygen diffuses from alveoli into blood and carbon dioxide diffuses from blood into alveoli. Factors like membrane thickness, surface area, and gas solubility and molecular weight determine diffusion rates.
3) Oxygen is transported in blood bound to hemoglobin (98.5%) and dissolved (1.5%). The oxygen content is the total oxygen carried in blood, while the oxygen carrying capacity is the maximum amount of oxygen hemoglobin can carry when saturated. Percent hemoglobin saturation indicates how
Mechanism of breathing
This document discusses the mechanics of breathing including the muscles involved in inspiration and expiration, pressures in the thoracic cavity, lung volumes and capacities, and properties of the lungs and chest wall. It explains that inspiration is an active process due to contraction of inspiratory muscles like the diaphragm and external intercostals, while expiration is usually passive due to elastic recoil of the lungs. Contraction of these muscles decreases intrapleural pressure and expands the lungs, decreasing intrapulmonary pressure and allowing air to flow in. It also discusses pressures like intrapleural, transmural and alveolar pressures that influence breathing, as well as lung compliance, airway resistance, and the role of surfactant
Hypoxia
There are four main types of hypoxia: hypoxic, anemic, stagnant, and histotoxic hypoxia. Each type is characterized by specific changes in arterial oxygen levels, hemoglobin levels, blood flow, and tissue oxygen use. Hypoxic hypoxia involves reduced oxygen at the lung or tissue level, anemic hypoxia occurs when hemoglobin levels decrease, stagnant hypoxia is due to decreased blood flow, and histotoxic hypoxia impacts the tissues' ability to use oxygen. The body responds to hypoxic conditions through acclimatization mechanisms like hyperventilation and increased red blood cell production, though these only partially restore normal oxygen levels. Long-term hypoxemia treatment for lung diseases has been
Control of respiration
Like heartbeat, breathing must occur in a continuous, cyclic pattern to sustain life processes.
Inspiratory muscles must rhythmically contract and relax to alternately fill the lungs with air and empty them.
The rhythmic pattern of breathing is established by cyclic neural activity to the respiratory muscles
Hypoxia
This document defines and classifies different types of hypoxia: hypoxic (reduced oxygen in inspired air), anemic (reduced hemoglobin), stagnant (reduced blood flow), and histotoxic (tissues cannot use oxygen). It describes the pathophysiology, features, compensatory responses, and oxygen therapy approaches for each type. Hypercapnia and cyanosis, which can occur with hypoxia, are also explained. Oxygen therapy is most effective for hypoxic hypoxia but provides less benefit for types involving deficiencies in oxygen transport or utilization.
REGULATION OF RESPIRATION
This document discusses the regulation of respiration. It covers the neural, automatic, and chemical control mechanisms that regulate breathing. The key points are:
1) Respiration is regulated by medullary and pontine respiratory centers in the brainstem that generate the breathing rhythm and control rate and depth.
2) Breathing is also automatically controlled and can occur without conscious effort. It is further modulated by inputs from chemoreceptors sensitive to oxygen, carbon dioxide, and pH levels in the blood.
3) Peripheral chemoreceptors located in the carotid bodies and aortic bodies detect changes in blood gases and signal the respiratory centers to adjust breathing accordingly. Central chemoreceptors in the brainstem are
Cardiovascular physiology
The cardiovascular system includes the heart and blood vessels. The heart weighs 200-400 grams and pumps around 7,751 litres of blood daily. It is located behind the sternum and is surrounded by membranes. Blood enters and exits the heart through major vessels while valves regulate flow between chambers. The heart muscle generates electrical impulses and contractions to circulate blood throughout the body. Cardiac output is regulated intrinsically through preload and afterload as well as extrinsically through the nervous and endocrine systems.
JUXTA GLOMERULAR apparatus
The document summarizes the juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA) and tubuloglomerular feedback mechanism. The JGA is located near the glomerulus and is formed by macula densa cells, extraglomerular mesangial cells, and juxtaglomerular cells. The primary function of the JGA is secretion of hormones like renin and prostaglandins. The tubuloglomerular feedback mechanism regulates glomerular filtration rate through detection of NaCl concentration by the macula densa cells, which signals the release of adenosine to constrict or dilate the afferent arteriole accordingly.
DETERMINANTS AND FACTORS AFFECTING CARDIAC OUTPUT
This document discusses the determinants and factors affecting cardiac output. It defines cardiac output as the volume of blood pumped by the heart each minute, which is determined by stroke volume and heart rate. Ejection fraction is explained as the fraction of blood ejected from the ventricles with each heartbeat. Cardiac output can vary due to physiological factors like age, sex, exercise, and pathological factors like fever or shock. Cardiac output is maintained by four main factors - venous return, force of contraction, heart rate, and peripheral resistance. Venous return depends on respiratory pumping, muscle pumping, gravity, and venous pressure.
Stethograph- Recording Respiratory Movements
Stethography is a process that records respiratory movements in humans using a stethograph instrument. The stethograph is a corrugated rubber tube connected to a tambour, which is connected to a pen that writes on a moving drum. When the stethograph is applied to a person's chest, it can record their chest movements during respiration. The stethogram produced provides information about respiratory physiology by recording things like normal breathing, the effects of swallowing, hyperventilation, exercise, breath holding, and other respiratory actions.
Neural regulation of resp by Dr. Mrs Sunita M. Tiwale Professor Dept of Phys...
Describe Nervous mechanism of regulation of respiration & significance of dual control.
Describe the different respiratory centres in brain stem with their interconnections & functions.
Describe the genesis of basic rhythm of respiration
Describe the clinical relevance of the nervous control of respiration
Non respiratory functions of lungs
The lungs have several metabolic functions beyond gas exchange, including host defence, water balance maintenance, temperature and acid-base regulation, and metabolizing substances. The lungs are protected by physical, mucociliary, and cellular defences like macrophages. The lungs also play roles in water loss, heat loss, acid-base balance maintenance through CO2 exchange, fibrinolysis, renin-angiotensin system effects, and synthesizing/releasing/metabolizing various substances that enter the bloodstream.
6) transport of oxygen and carbon dioxdide
lecture 6: transportaion of both gases need a hemoglobin and part of them are transported by plasma. if Hb is low the saturation of oxygen also low and leads a hypoxia, fatigue, dyspnea, etc. in other hand acidosis can occur.
Non respiratory functions of lung ( The Guyton and Hall physiology)
Besides primary function of gaseous exchange, the respiratory tract is involved in several non respiratory functions of the body
1. OLFACTION
Olfactory receptors present in the mucous membrane of nostril are responsible for olfactory sensation.
2. VOCALIZATION
Larynx alone plays major role in the process of vocalization. Therefore, it is called sound box.
3. PREVENTION OF DUST PARTICLES
Particles, which escape the protective mechanisms
in nose and alveoli are thrown out by cough reflex and sneezing reflex.
4. DEFENSE MECHANISM
Lungs play important role in the immunological defense system of the body.
Defense functions of the lungs are performed by their own defenses and
by the presence of various types of cells in mucous
membrane lining the alveoli of lungs.
These cells are
leukocytes,
macrophages,
mast cells,
natural killer
cells
dendritic cells.
5. MAINTENANCE OF WATER BALANCE
Respiratory tract plays a role in water loss mechanism.
During expiration, water evaporates through the
expired air and some amount of body water is lost by this process.
6. REGULATION OF BODY TEMPERATURE
During expiration, along with water, heat is also lost
from the body. Thus, respiratory tract plays a role in
heat loss mechanism.
5. MAINTENANCE OF WATER BALANCE
Respiratory tract plays a role in water loss mechanism.
During expiration, water evaporates through the
expired air and some amount of body water is lost by this process.
6. REGULATION OF BODY TEMPERATURE
During expiration, along with water, heat is also lost
from the body. Thus, respiratory tract plays a role in
heat loss mechanism.
Functional Anatomy of Respiratory system
The document provides information on the functional anatomy and physiology of the respiratory system. It discusses the importance of understanding respiratory anatomy and physiology in fields like pulmonology, anesthesiology and critical care. It then describes the processes of external and internal respiration, the structural and functional unit of alveoli, and the roles and functions of various respiratory structures like the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs and pleura. It also discusses topics like mucociliary clearance, Kartagener's syndrome, airway innervation, Weibel's model of the tracheobronchial tree and blood supply to the lungs.
Bohr and haldane effect
Bohr’s effect- The Bohr effect is a physiological phenomenon first described by Danish physiological Christian Bohr, stating that the “oxygen binding affinity of hemoglobin is inversely related to the concentration of carbon dioxide and hydrogen ion.
#An increase in blood CO2 concentration which leads to decrease in blood pH will results in hemoglobin proteins releasing their oxygen load.
#One of the factor that Bohr discovered was pH. He found that if the pH is lower than the normal, then hemoglobin does not bind oxygen.
#And this effect of CO2 on oxygen dissociation curve is known as Bohr effect.
Haldane effect- The Haldane effect is first discovered by John Scott Haldane.
#The Haldane effect describe the phenomenon by which binding of oxygen to hemoglobin promotes the release of carbon dioxide.
#Haldane effect is the mirror image of Bohr effect.
#The decrease in carbon dioxide leads to increase in the pH, which result in hemoglobin picking up more oxygen.
#This is a helpful biochemical feature which facilitates exchange of carbon dioxide for oxygen in the pulmonary and peripheral circulations.
Anatomy of Diaphragm
The diaphragm is a thin, dome-shaped muscle that separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity. It originates from the xiphoid process, lower ribs, and lumbar vertebrae. The diaphragm has openings for the esophagus, inferior vena cava, and aorta. During inhalation, contraction of the diaphragm increases the vertical space in the chest cavity, aiding breathing. In addition to respiration, the diaphragm assists with abdominal straining, lifting weights, and pumping blood and lymph through the thorax.
Lecture 10/2023 Respiratory Physiology : transport of oxygen II.pdf
O2 dissociation curve
Factors influencing O2 dissociation curve - Right sided shift of curve, Left sided shift of curve
P50
lecture 9/ 2023 -Respiratory Physiology - transport of oxygen I.pdf
Transport of O2 in blood –
Uptake process,
Transport of O2 into arterial blood,
Release of O2
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Neural regulation of Respiration
This document discusses the neural regulation of respiration. It begins by outlining the respiratory centers located in the brainstem, including the dorsal respiratory group, ventral respiratory group, pneumotaxic center, and apneustic center. These centers generate the rhythmic pattern of breathing and control the rate and depth of respiration. The document then describes various inputs that affect the respiratory centers, including peripheral chemoreceptors, lung stretch receptors, and irritant receptors. It concludes by explaining how disrupting different parts of the respiratory control system, such as through brainstem transections or anesthesia overdose, can impact breathing patterns and potentially cause respiratory arrest.
Lung volume and capacities
This document discusses lung volumes and lung capacities, which refer to the volume of air associated with different phases of the respiratory cycle. It outlines the four main lung volumes - tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve volume, and residual volume. It then discusses various lung capacities, which are combinations of two or more lung volumes, including inspiratory capacity, expiratory capacity, functional residual capacity, vital capacity, and total lung capacity. The document provides normal values for males and females for these volumes and capacities.
Chemical control of respiration
The document summarizes the chemical control of respiration through respiratory chemoreceptors. There are three types of chemoreceptors: peripheral chemoreceptors located in the carotid bodies and aortic bodies that detect changes in arterial pCO2, pO2, and pH; central or medullary chemoreceptors located in the brainstem that are stimulated by increased hydrogen ion concentration in cerebrospinal fluid; and both peripheral and central chemoreceptors work together to maintain homeostasis and stimulate respiration in response to changes in oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen ion levels in order to regulate respiration.
Respiratory #2, Gas Transport - Physiology
1) Gas exchange occurs at the lungs between blood and air, and at tissues between blood and tissues, via simple diffusion down partial pressure gradients.
2) The alveolar-capillary membrane is where oxygen diffuses from alveoli into blood and carbon dioxide diffuses from blood into alveoli. Factors like membrane thickness, surface area, and gas solubility and molecular weight determine diffusion rates.
3) Oxygen is transported in blood bound to hemoglobin (98.5%) and dissolved (1.5%). The oxygen content is the total oxygen carried in blood, while the oxygen carrying capacity is the maximum amount of oxygen hemoglobin can carry when saturated. Percent hemoglobin saturation indicates how
Mechanism of breathing
This document discusses the mechanics of breathing including the muscles involved in inspiration and expiration, pressures in the thoracic cavity, lung volumes and capacities, and properties of the lungs and chest wall. It explains that inspiration is an active process due to contraction of inspiratory muscles like the diaphragm and external intercostals, while expiration is usually passive due to elastic recoil of the lungs. Contraction of these muscles decreases intrapleural pressure and expands the lungs, decreasing intrapulmonary pressure and allowing air to flow in. It also discusses pressures like intrapleural, transmural and alveolar pressures that influence breathing, as well as lung compliance, airway resistance, and the role of surfactant
Hypoxia
There are four main types of hypoxia: hypoxic, anemic, stagnant, and histotoxic hypoxia. Each type is characterized by specific changes in arterial oxygen levels, hemoglobin levels, blood flow, and tissue oxygen use. Hypoxic hypoxia involves reduced oxygen at the lung or tissue level, anemic hypoxia occurs when hemoglobin levels decrease, stagnant hypoxia is due to decreased blood flow, and histotoxic hypoxia impacts the tissues' ability to use oxygen. The body responds to hypoxic conditions through acclimatization mechanisms like hyperventilation and increased red blood cell production, though these only partially restore normal oxygen levels. Long-term hypoxemia treatment for lung diseases has been
Control of respiration
Like heartbeat, breathing must occur in a continuous, cyclic pattern to sustain life processes.
Inspiratory muscles must rhythmically contract and relax to alternately fill the lungs with air and empty them.
The rhythmic pattern of breathing is established by cyclic neural activity to the respiratory muscles
Hypoxia
This document defines and classifies different types of hypoxia: hypoxic (reduced oxygen in inspired air), anemic (reduced hemoglobin), stagnant (reduced blood flow), and histotoxic (tissues cannot use oxygen). It describes the pathophysiology, features, compensatory responses, and oxygen therapy approaches for each type. Hypercapnia and cyanosis, which can occur with hypoxia, are also explained. Oxygen therapy is most effective for hypoxic hypoxia but provides less benefit for types involving deficiencies in oxygen transport or utilization.
REGULATION OF RESPIRATION
This document discusses the regulation of respiration. It covers the neural, automatic, and chemical control mechanisms that regulate breathing. The key points are:
1) Respiration is regulated by medullary and pontine respiratory centers in the brainstem that generate the breathing rhythm and control rate and depth.
2) Breathing is also automatically controlled and can occur without conscious effort. It is further modulated by inputs from chemoreceptors sensitive to oxygen, carbon dioxide, and pH levels in the blood.
3) Peripheral chemoreceptors located in the carotid bodies and aortic bodies detect changes in blood gases and signal the respiratory centers to adjust breathing accordingly. Central chemoreceptors in the brainstem are
Cardiovascular physiology
The cardiovascular system includes the heart and blood vessels. The heart weighs 200-400 grams and pumps around 7,751 litres of blood daily. It is located behind the sternum and is surrounded by membranes. Blood enters and exits the heart through major vessels while valves regulate flow between chambers. The heart muscle generates electrical impulses and contractions to circulate blood throughout the body. Cardiac output is regulated intrinsically through preload and afterload as well as extrinsically through the nervous and endocrine systems.
JUXTA GLOMERULAR apparatus
The document summarizes the juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA) and tubuloglomerular feedback mechanism. The JGA is located near the glomerulus and is formed by macula densa cells, extraglomerular mesangial cells, and juxtaglomerular cells. The primary function of the JGA is secretion of hormones like renin and prostaglandins. The tubuloglomerular feedback mechanism regulates glomerular filtration rate through detection of NaCl concentration by the macula densa cells, which signals the release of adenosine to constrict or dilate the afferent arteriole accordingly.
DETERMINANTS AND FACTORS AFFECTING CARDIAC OUTPUT
This document discusses the determinants and factors affecting cardiac output. It defines cardiac output as the volume of blood pumped by the heart each minute, which is determined by stroke volume and heart rate. Ejection fraction is explained as the fraction of blood ejected from the ventricles with each heartbeat. Cardiac output can vary due to physiological factors like age, sex, exercise, and pathological factors like fever or shock. Cardiac output is maintained by four main factors - venous return, force of contraction, heart rate, and peripheral resistance. Venous return depends on respiratory pumping, muscle pumping, gravity, and venous pressure.
Stethograph- Recording Respiratory Movements
Stethography is a process that records respiratory movements in humans using a stethograph instrument. The stethograph is a corrugated rubber tube connected to a tambour, which is connected to a pen that writes on a moving drum. When the stethograph is applied to a person's chest, it can record their chest movements during respiration. The stethogram produced provides information about respiratory physiology by recording things like normal breathing, the effects of swallowing, hyperventilation, exercise, breath holding, and other respiratory actions.
Neural regulation of resp by Dr. Mrs Sunita M. Tiwale Professor Dept of Phys...
Describe Nervous mechanism of regulation of respiration & significance of dual control.
Describe the different respiratory centres in brain stem with their interconnections & functions.
Describe the genesis of basic rhythm of respiration
Describe the clinical relevance of the nervous control of respiration
Non respiratory functions of lungs
The lungs have several metabolic functions beyond gas exchange, including host defence, water balance maintenance, temperature and acid-base regulation, and metabolizing substances. The lungs are protected by physical, mucociliary, and cellular defences like macrophages. The lungs also play roles in water loss, heat loss, acid-base balance maintenance through CO2 exchange, fibrinolysis, renin-angiotensin system effects, and synthesizing/releasing/metabolizing various substances that enter the bloodstream.
6) transport of oxygen and carbon dioxdide
lecture 6: transportaion of both gases need a hemoglobin and part of them are transported by plasma. if Hb is low the saturation of oxygen also low and leads a hypoxia, fatigue, dyspnea, etc. in other hand acidosis can occur.
Non respiratory functions of lung ( The Guyton and Hall physiology)
Besides primary function of gaseous exchange, the respiratory tract is involved in several non respiratory functions of the body
1. OLFACTION
Olfactory receptors present in the mucous membrane of nostril are responsible for olfactory sensation.
2. VOCALIZATION
Larynx alone plays major role in the process of vocalization. Therefore, it is called sound box.
3. PREVENTION OF DUST PARTICLES
Particles, which escape the protective mechanisms
in nose and alveoli are thrown out by cough reflex and sneezing reflex.
4. DEFENSE MECHANISM
Lungs play important role in the immunological defense system of the body.
Defense functions of the lungs are performed by their own defenses and
by the presence of various types of cells in mucous
membrane lining the alveoli of lungs.
These cells are
leukocytes,
macrophages,
mast cells,
natural killer
cells
dendritic cells.
5. MAINTENANCE OF WATER BALANCE
Respiratory tract plays a role in water loss mechanism.
During expiration, water evaporates through the
expired air and some amount of body water is lost by this process.
6. REGULATION OF BODY TEMPERATURE
During expiration, along with water, heat is also lost
from the body. Thus, respiratory tract plays a role in
heat loss mechanism.
5. MAINTENANCE OF WATER BALANCE
Respiratory tract plays a role in water loss mechanism.
During expiration, water evaporates through the
expired air and some amount of body water is lost by this process.
6. REGULATION OF BODY TEMPERATURE
During expiration, along with water, heat is also lost
from the body. Thus, respiratory tract plays a role in
heat loss mechanism.
Functional Anatomy of Respiratory system
The document provides information on the functional anatomy and physiology of the respiratory system. It discusses the importance of understanding respiratory anatomy and physiology in fields like pulmonology, anesthesiology and critical care. It then describes the processes of external and internal respiration, the structural and functional unit of alveoli, and the roles and functions of various respiratory structures like the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs and pleura. It also discusses topics like mucociliary clearance, Kartagener's syndrome, airway innervation, Weibel's model of the tracheobronchial tree and blood supply to the lungs.
Bohr and haldane effect
Bohr’s effect- The Bohr effect is a physiological phenomenon first described by Danish physiological Christian Bohr, stating that the “oxygen binding affinity of hemoglobin is inversely related to the concentration of carbon dioxide and hydrogen ion.
#An increase in blood CO2 concentration which leads to decrease in blood pH will results in hemoglobin proteins releasing their oxygen load.
#One of the factor that Bohr discovered was pH. He found that if the pH is lower than the normal, then hemoglobin does not bind oxygen.
#And this effect of CO2 on oxygen dissociation curve is known as Bohr effect.
Haldane effect- The Haldane effect is first discovered by John Scott Haldane.
#The Haldane effect describe the phenomenon by which binding of oxygen to hemoglobin promotes the release of carbon dioxide.
#Haldane effect is the mirror image of Bohr effect.
#The decrease in carbon dioxide leads to increase in the pH, which result in hemoglobin picking up more oxygen.
#This is a helpful biochemical feature which facilitates exchange of carbon dioxide for oxygen in the pulmonary and peripheral circulations.
Anatomy of Diaphragm
The diaphragm is a thin, dome-shaped muscle that separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity. It originates from the xiphoid process, lower ribs, and lumbar vertebrae. The diaphragm has openings for the esophagus, inferior vena cava, and aorta. During inhalation, contraction of the diaphragm increases the vertical space in the chest cavity, aiding breathing. In addition to respiration, the diaphragm assists with abdominal straining, lifting weights, and pumping blood and lymph through the thorax.
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The document discusses the results of a study on the impact of COVID-19 lockdowns on air pollution. Researchers found that lockdowns led to significant short-term reductions in nitrogen dioxide and fine particulate matter pollution globally as transportation and industrial activities declined substantially. However, the document notes that the improvements in air quality were temporary and pollution levels rose back to pre-pandemic levels as restrictions eased and activity increased again.
Lecture 3 / 2022 General Physiology II- Inter cellular junctions
Types of intercellular junctions
1. Tight junction / zona occludens /occluding zone
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Brief information about all systems
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B. Nucleoplasm,
C. Nucleolus
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Form sense
Contrast sense
Colour sense.
Light sense
Light and dark adaptation
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Visual pathway
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Visual cortex
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Processing & transmission of visual impulse in the retina
Horizontal cell
Bipolar cell
Amacrine cell
Ganglion cell
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Specific Learning Objectives
Physiology of vision
Phototransduction-
Definition
Steps in detail (light & dark)
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Special senses
Vision 2
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Retina,
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Visual pigments,
Light-induced changesMore from Charushila Rukadikar (20)
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lecture 4/2023 - Respiratory Physiology - compliance II.pdf
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