This document provides an overview of thermodynamics and heat transfer. It defines key concepts like heat, thermodynamics, and the three modes of heat transfer - conduction, convection, and radiation. Thermodynamics deals with the amount of heat transfer between equilibrium states, while heat transfer determines the rates of energy transfer and temperature variations. Heat is always transferred from higher to lower temperatures until equilibrium is reached. The document also discusses other forms of energy, internal energy, and the first law of thermodynamics. It provides details on each heat transfer mechanism and examples of situations that can involve multiple mechanisms simultaneously.
The document discusses heat and mass transfer. It outlines objectives related to understanding thermodynamics and heat transfer mechanisms. The key mechanisms of heat transfer are conduction, convection and radiation. Heat transfer occurs through these three modes simultaneously in many practical systems. Fourier's law, Newton's law of cooling, and the Stefan-Boltzmann law govern conductive, convective and radiative heat transfer respectively.
This document provides an overview of fundamentals of heat transfer. It discusses key objectives like understanding the relationship between thermodynamics and heat transfer. The main modes of heat transfer - conduction, convection and radiation - are introduced. Conduction involves energy transfer through direct contact of particles. Convection requires fluid motion, while radiation occurs via electromagnetic waves. Concepts like Fourier's law of conduction and Newton's law of cooling are also summarized.
Heat & Mass Transfer Chap 1 (FE-509) Food Engineering UAFAown Rizvi
This chapter introduces key concepts of heat transfer and thermodynamics. It defines heat transfer as energy transferred due to a temperature difference and discusses the three mechanisms of heat transfer: conduction, convection, and radiation. Conduction involves energy transfer through direct contact of particles. Convection combines conduction and bulk fluid motion. Radiation transfers energy via electromagnetic waves. The chapter establishes relationships like Fourier's law of conduction and Newton's law of cooling and introduces concepts such as thermal conductivity and heat transfer coefficients.
Mass and heat transfer deals with the determination of rates of energy transfer between systems and variations in temperature. There are three main modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection, and radiation. Conduction involves the transfer of energy between adjacent particles through interactions. Convection refers to the combined effects of conduction and bulk fluid motion. Radiation involves the emission and transmission of electromagnetic waves and can occur through a vacuum.
This document provides an introduction and overview of key concepts in heat and mass transfer. It defines heat transfer and distinguishes it from thermodynamics. The three main modes of heat transfer are described: conduction, convection, and radiation. Fourier's law of heat conduction, Newton's law of cooling, and the Stefan-Boltzmann law of radiation are also introduced. The document outlines the relationship between heat transfer and thermodynamics, and how heat transfer problems are approached in engineering.
This document provides an introduction and overview of key concepts in heat and mass transfer. It defines heat transfer and distinguishes it from thermodynamics. The three main modes of heat transfer are described as conduction, convection and radiation. Fourier's law of heat conduction, Newton's law of cooling and the Stefan-Boltzmann law of radiation are introduced. The document also discusses applications of heat transfer, the historical development of understanding heat, and modeling approaches in engineering heat transfer problems.
This document provides an introduction to heat transfer and thermodynamics concepts. It discusses how heat transfer, thermodynamics, and various energy concepts are related. The three main modes of heat transfer - conduction, convection and radiation - are introduced, along with the governing equations for each. Fourier's law of heat conduction, Newton's law of cooling, and the Stefan-Boltzmann law of radiation are outlined. The document also discusses combined heat transfer mechanisms, thermal properties, and applications of heat transfer concepts.
The document discusses heat and mass transfer. It outlines objectives related to understanding thermodynamics and heat transfer mechanisms. The key mechanisms of heat transfer are conduction, convection and radiation. Heat transfer occurs through these three modes simultaneously in many practical systems. Fourier's law, Newton's law of cooling, and the Stefan-Boltzmann law govern conductive, convective and radiative heat transfer respectively.
This document provides an overview of fundamentals of heat transfer. It discusses key objectives like understanding the relationship between thermodynamics and heat transfer. The main modes of heat transfer - conduction, convection and radiation - are introduced. Conduction involves energy transfer through direct contact of particles. Convection requires fluid motion, while radiation occurs via electromagnetic waves. Concepts like Fourier's law of conduction and Newton's law of cooling are also summarized.
Heat & Mass Transfer Chap 1 (FE-509) Food Engineering UAFAown Rizvi
This chapter introduces key concepts of heat transfer and thermodynamics. It defines heat transfer as energy transferred due to a temperature difference and discusses the three mechanisms of heat transfer: conduction, convection, and radiation. Conduction involves energy transfer through direct contact of particles. Convection combines conduction and bulk fluid motion. Radiation transfers energy via electromagnetic waves. The chapter establishes relationships like Fourier's law of conduction and Newton's law of cooling and introduces concepts such as thermal conductivity and heat transfer coefficients.
Mass and heat transfer deals with the determination of rates of energy transfer between systems and variations in temperature. There are three main modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection, and radiation. Conduction involves the transfer of energy between adjacent particles through interactions. Convection refers to the combined effects of conduction and bulk fluid motion. Radiation involves the emission and transmission of electromagnetic waves and can occur through a vacuum.
This document provides an introduction and overview of key concepts in heat and mass transfer. It defines heat transfer and distinguishes it from thermodynamics. The three main modes of heat transfer are described: conduction, convection, and radiation. Fourier's law of heat conduction, Newton's law of cooling, and the Stefan-Boltzmann law of radiation are also introduced. The document outlines the relationship between heat transfer and thermodynamics, and how heat transfer problems are approached in engineering.
This document provides an introduction and overview of key concepts in heat and mass transfer. It defines heat transfer and distinguishes it from thermodynamics. The three main modes of heat transfer are described as conduction, convection and radiation. Fourier's law of heat conduction, Newton's law of cooling and the Stefan-Boltzmann law of radiation are introduced. The document also discusses applications of heat transfer, the historical development of understanding heat, and modeling approaches in engineering heat transfer problems.
This document provides an introduction to heat transfer and thermodynamics concepts. It discusses how heat transfer, thermodynamics, and various energy concepts are related. The three main modes of heat transfer - conduction, convection and radiation - are introduced, along with the governing equations for each. Fourier's law of heat conduction, Newton's law of cooling, and the Stefan-Boltzmann law of radiation are outlined. The document also discusses combined heat transfer mechanisms, thermal properties, and applications of heat transfer concepts.
This document provides an introduction to heat transfer and thermodynamics concepts. It discusses how heat transfer is related to thermodynamics and distinguishes between different forms of energy. The three main modes of heat transfer are conduction, convection and radiation. Heat is defined as the transfer of energy between two systems due to a temperature difference, and will flow from the higher temperature object to the lower temperature one. The document provides objectives and outlines concepts like thermal energy, mechanisms of heat transfer, Fourier's law of conduction and applications of heat transfer.
This document discusses heat transfer and provides objectives and an overview of key concepts. It begins by defining heat transfer and its relationship to thermodynamics. It then outlines the main objectives, which are to understand the basic heat transfer mechanisms of conduction, convection, and radiation. It also discusses how heat transfer problems are used in engineering applications and provides background on the historical development of theories around heat and thermal energy.
Thermodynamics deals with the amount of heat transfer between systems, while heat transfer determines the rates of energy transfer and temperature variations. Heat is transferred between objects by conduction, convection, or radiation. Conduction involves the transfer of kinetic energy between particles in direct contact. Convection combines conduction and fluid motion to transfer heat. Radiation emits electromagnetic waves and does not require a medium. Engineering applications include determining heat transfer rates and sizes of heat exchange equipment based on temperature differences and properties of materials.
1) The document discusses the key concepts and objectives of conduction heat transfer including understanding the basic mechanisms of heat transfer such as conduction, convection, and radiation.
2) It explains the differences between thermodynamics, which deals with the amount of heat transfer between equilibrium states, and heat transfer which determines the rates of energy transfers.
3) The three modes of heat transfer - conduction, convection and radiation - are defined and the governing equations for each are provided including Fourier's law of conduction, Newton's law of cooling, and Stefan-Boltzmann law of radiation.
This document provides an introduction to heat transfer and thermodynamics concepts. It discusses how thermodynamics deals with the amount of heat transfer between systems, while heat transfer determines the rates of energy transfer. Heat can be transferred via three modes: conduction, convection, and radiation. Conduction involves energy transfer between adjacent particles through collisions. Convection combines conduction and fluid motion. Radiation involves electromagnetic wave emission from hot objects. Laws like Fourier's law, Newton's law of cooling, and Stefan-Boltzmann law govern these transfer modes.
The document provides an overview of key concepts in heat transfer, including:
1) It defines heat transfer and the three main modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection, and radiation.
2) It explains the relationship between heat transfer and thermodynamics, noting that heat transfer studies the rate and distribution of temperature over time.
3) It provides definitions and examples of key terms used in heat transfer problems, such as steady state, control mass/volume, and uncertainty.
The phrase “heat transfer” refers to the distribution and changes in temperature that result from the transport of heat (thermal energy) induced by temperature differences. The study of transport phenomena focuses on the interchange of momentum, energy, and mass through conduction, convection, and radiation.
1. Heat transfer is the process of transfer of heat from a high temperature system to a low temperature system, and can occur through three modes: conduction, convection, and radiation.
2. There are different types of heat transfer based on whether convection occurs naturally via fluid currents or is forced through external means like pumps. Key applications of heat transfer include evaporation, distillation, drying, and sterilization.
3. The rate of heat transfer depends on factors like temperature difference, surface area, thickness, and the thermal conductivity or heat transfer coefficients of materials. Mechanisms like conduction follow Fourier's Law while convection involves heat transfer through fluid layers and stagnant films at surfaces.
Samir Uddin's document summarizes various modes of heat transfer. It defines heat and discusses the difference between heat transfer and thermodynamics. The three main modes of heat transfer are conduction, convection, and radiation. Conduction involves the transfer of heat between objects in direct contact. Convection refers to heat transfer between a solid and adjacent moving fluid. Radiation involves the transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves without a medium. The document also outlines Fourier's Law of heat conduction and Newton's Law of Cooling.
The document contains information about different modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection, and radiation. It provides definitions and key details about each mode. For conduction, it describes how heat is transferred through collisions between particles in solids, liquids, and gases. It also explains Fourier's Law of Heat Conduction. For convection, it defines forced and natural convection and describes how fluid motion impacts heat transfer. Radiation is defined as the transfer of energy in the form of electromagnetic waves.
This document provides an outline for an ME-412 Heat and Mass Transfer course. The course will cover topics including conduction, convection, radiation, heat exchangers, and mass transfer. Recommended textbooks are listed. Prerequisites for the course are ME 212: Thermodynamics-II and ME 213: Fluid Mechanics-II. The instructor is Dr. Adnan Qamar Tareen from the Mechanical Engineering Department.
Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that deals with heat and other forms of energy. The first law of thermodynamics states that the total energy of a system remains constant, such that any increase in one form of energy (such as heat) results in an equal decrease in another form (such as work). The second law states that heat cannot spontaneously flow from a colder body to a hotter body without an input of work. The third law states that the entropy of a perfect crystal approaches zero as the temperature approaches absolute zero.
Introduction
Mechanism of Heat Flow
Conduction
Heat Flow through a Cylinder-Conduction
Conduction through fluids
Convection
Film type condensation
Cold liquid-boiling of liquids
Modes of Feed-Heat Transfer
Thermal Radiation
Black Body
Grey body
Equipments
References
2.1 Heat
Heat is a form of energy. According to the principle of thermodynamics whenever a physical or chemical transformation occurs heat flow into or leaves the system.
A number of sources of heat are used for industrial scale operations steam and electric power is the chief sources to transfer heat. It is essential to cover steam without any loses to the apparatus in which it is used. The study of heat transfer processes helps in be signing the plant efficiently and economically
2.2 Heat Transfer:-
Work is one of the basic modes of energy transfer in machines the action of force on a moving body is identified as work. The work is done by a force as it acts upon a body moving in the direction of the force.
Work transfer is considered as occurring between the system and the surroundings work is said to be done by a system is the sole effect on things external to the system can be reduced to the raising of a weight.
If a system has a non-adiabatic boundary its temperature is not independent of the temperature of the surroundings and for the system between the states 1 and 2 the work w depends on path and the differential d-w is inexact. The work depends on the terminal state 1 and 2 as well as non-adiabatic path connecting them. For consistency with the principle of conservation of energy. Some type of energy transfer must have occurred because of the temperature difference between the system and its surroundings and it is identified as heat thus when an effect in a system occurs solely as result of temperature difference between the system and some other system the process in which the effect occur shall be called a transfer of heat from the system at the higher temperature to the system at the lower temperature.
1.1 Evaporation
1.2 Distillation
1.3 Drying
1.4 Crystallization
1.5 Sterilization
Application of Heat Transfer in Pharmaceuticals Industries
Heat is the transfer of thermal energy between objects due to a temperature difference. There are three modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection, and radiation. Conduction involves the transfer of kinetic energy between adjacent particles in direct contact. Convection involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid flow. Radiation is the transfer of energy through electromagnetic waves and does not require a medium. Fourier's law and Newton's law of cooling quantitatively describe conductive and convective heat transfer respectively.
Heat is the transfer of thermal energy between objects due to a temperature difference. It can occur through conduction, convection, or radiation. Conduction involves the transfer of kinetic energy between adjacent particles in direct contact. Convection involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid motion. Radiation is the emission and transmission of electromagnetic waves. Fourier's law and Newton's law of cooling quantitatively describe the rates of heat transfer through conduction and convection. Wien's law and Stefan-Boltzmann law govern the wavelength and power of thermal radiation from a black body.
Conduction, convection, and radiation are the three modes of heat transfer. Conduction involves the transfer of kinetic energy between adjacent particles in a medium through direct contact. Convection involves the transfer of heat by the circulation of fluids such as gases and liquids. Radiation involves the emission and transmission of electromagnetic waves, which can travel through vacuum and do not require a medium.
This chapter introduces the concepts of thermodynamics and heat transfer. Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states while heat transfer involves systems lacking thermal equilibrium. The three modes of heat transfer are conduction, convection, and radiation. Conduction involves the transfer of energy between adjacent particles in direct contact. Convection involves the combined mechanisms of conduction and fluid motion. Radiation transfers energy via electromagnetic waves without a medium. Fourier's law, Newton's law of cooling, and the Stefan-Boltzmann law govern conduction, convection, and radiation respectively. Example problems demonstrate applying conservation of energy to analyze various heat transfer processes.
Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) is produced by cooling natural gas into a liquid form at liquefaction plants. It is then stored or transported as a liquid and regasified at regasification plants before being used. Understanding the thermodynamics of LNG plants is important for analyzing and evaluating the processes involved. The document discusses key thermodynamic concepts like the first and second laws of thermodynamics, entropy, enthalpy, latent and sensible heat, and different refrigeration cycles used in LNG plants. It provides explanations of these concepts and their relevance to analyzing energy transfers and processes in LNG plants.
Low power architecture of logic gates using adiabatic techniquesnooriasukmaningtyas
The growing significance of portable systems to limit power consumption in ultra-large-scale-integration chips of very high density, has recently led to rapid and inventive progresses in low-power design. The most effective technique is adiabatic logic circuit design in energy-efficient hardware. This paper presents two adiabatic approaches for the design of low power circuits, modified positive feedback adiabatic logic (modified PFAL) and the other is direct current diode based positive feedback adiabatic logic (DC-DB PFAL). Logic gates are the preliminary components in any digital circuit design. By improving the performance of basic gates, one can improvise the whole system performance. In this paper proposed circuit design of the low power architecture of OR/NOR, AND/NAND, and XOR/XNOR gates are presented using the said approaches and their results are analyzed for powerdissipation, delay, power-delay-product and rise time and compared with the other adiabatic techniques along with the conventional complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) designs reported in the literature. It has been found that the designs with DC-DB PFAL technique outperform with the percentage improvement of 65% for NOR gate and 7% for NAND gate and 34% for XNOR gate over the modified PFAL techniques at 10 MHz respectively.
This document provides an introduction to heat transfer and thermodynamics concepts. It discusses how heat transfer is related to thermodynamics and distinguishes between different forms of energy. The three main modes of heat transfer are conduction, convection and radiation. Heat is defined as the transfer of energy between two systems due to a temperature difference, and will flow from the higher temperature object to the lower temperature one. The document provides objectives and outlines concepts like thermal energy, mechanisms of heat transfer, Fourier's law of conduction and applications of heat transfer.
This document discusses heat transfer and provides objectives and an overview of key concepts. It begins by defining heat transfer and its relationship to thermodynamics. It then outlines the main objectives, which are to understand the basic heat transfer mechanisms of conduction, convection, and radiation. It also discusses how heat transfer problems are used in engineering applications and provides background on the historical development of theories around heat and thermal energy.
Thermodynamics deals with the amount of heat transfer between systems, while heat transfer determines the rates of energy transfer and temperature variations. Heat is transferred between objects by conduction, convection, or radiation. Conduction involves the transfer of kinetic energy between particles in direct contact. Convection combines conduction and fluid motion to transfer heat. Radiation emits electromagnetic waves and does not require a medium. Engineering applications include determining heat transfer rates and sizes of heat exchange equipment based on temperature differences and properties of materials.
1) The document discusses the key concepts and objectives of conduction heat transfer including understanding the basic mechanisms of heat transfer such as conduction, convection, and radiation.
2) It explains the differences between thermodynamics, which deals with the amount of heat transfer between equilibrium states, and heat transfer which determines the rates of energy transfers.
3) The three modes of heat transfer - conduction, convection and radiation - are defined and the governing equations for each are provided including Fourier's law of conduction, Newton's law of cooling, and Stefan-Boltzmann law of radiation.
This document provides an introduction to heat transfer and thermodynamics concepts. It discusses how thermodynamics deals with the amount of heat transfer between systems, while heat transfer determines the rates of energy transfer. Heat can be transferred via three modes: conduction, convection, and radiation. Conduction involves energy transfer between adjacent particles through collisions. Convection combines conduction and fluid motion. Radiation involves electromagnetic wave emission from hot objects. Laws like Fourier's law, Newton's law of cooling, and Stefan-Boltzmann law govern these transfer modes.
The document provides an overview of key concepts in heat transfer, including:
1) It defines heat transfer and the three main modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection, and radiation.
2) It explains the relationship between heat transfer and thermodynamics, noting that heat transfer studies the rate and distribution of temperature over time.
3) It provides definitions and examples of key terms used in heat transfer problems, such as steady state, control mass/volume, and uncertainty.
The phrase “heat transfer” refers to the distribution and changes in temperature that result from the transport of heat (thermal energy) induced by temperature differences. The study of transport phenomena focuses on the interchange of momentum, energy, and mass through conduction, convection, and radiation.
1. Heat transfer is the process of transfer of heat from a high temperature system to a low temperature system, and can occur through three modes: conduction, convection, and radiation.
2. There are different types of heat transfer based on whether convection occurs naturally via fluid currents or is forced through external means like pumps. Key applications of heat transfer include evaporation, distillation, drying, and sterilization.
3. The rate of heat transfer depends on factors like temperature difference, surface area, thickness, and the thermal conductivity or heat transfer coefficients of materials. Mechanisms like conduction follow Fourier's Law while convection involves heat transfer through fluid layers and stagnant films at surfaces.
Samir Uddin's document summarizes various modes of heat transfer. It defines heat and discusses the difference between heat transfer and thermodynamics. The three main modes of heat transfer are conduction, convection, and radiation. Conduction involves the transfer of heat between objects in direct contact. Convection refers to heat transfer between a solid and adjacent moving fluid. Radiation involves the transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves without a medium. The document also outlines Fourier's Law of heat conduction and Newton's Law of Cooling.
The document contains information about different modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection, and radiation. It provides definitions and key details about each mode. For conduction, it describes how heat is transferred through collisions between particles in solids, liquids, and gases. It also explains Fourier's Law of Heat Conduction. For convection, it defines forced and natural convection and describes how fluid motion impacts heat transfer. Radiation is defined as the transfer of energy in the form of electromagnetic waves.
This document provides an outline for an ME-412 Heat and Mass Transfer course. The course will cover topics including conduction, convection, radiation, heat exchangers, and mass transfer. Recommended textbooks are listed. Prerequisites for the course are ME 212: Thermodynamics-II and ME 213: Fluid Mechanics-II. The instructor is Dr. Adnan Qamar Tareen from the Mechanical Engineering Department.
Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that deals with heat and other forms of energy. The first law of thermodynamics states that the total energy of a system remains constant, such that any increase in one form of energy (such as heat) results in an equal decrease in another form (such as work). The second law states that heat cannot spontaneously flow from a colder body to a hotter body without an input of work. The third law states that the entropy of a perfect crystal approaches zero as the temperature approaches absolute zero.
Introduction
Mechanism of Heat Flow
Conduction
Heat Flow through a Cylinder-Conduction
Conduction through fluids
Convection
Film type condensation
Cold liquid-boiling of liquids
Modes of Feed-Heat Transfer
Thermal Radiation
Black Body
Grey body
Equipments
References
2.1 Heat
Heat is a form of energy. According to the principle of thermodynamics whenever a physical or chemical transformation occurs heat flow into or leaves the system.
A number of sources of heat are used for industrial scale operations steam and electric power is the chief sources to transfer heat. It is essential to cover steam without any loses to the apparatus in which it is used. The study of heat transfer processes helps in be signing the plant efficiently and economically
2.2 Heat Transfer:-
Work is one of the basic modes of energy transfer in machines the action of force on a moving body is identified as work. The work is done by a force as it acts upon a body moving in the direction of the force.
Work transfer is considered as occurring between the system and the surroundings work is said to be done by a system is the sole effect on things external to the system can be reduced to the raising of a weight.
If a system has a non-adiabatic boundary its temperature is not independent of the temperature of the surroundings and for the system between the states 1 and 2 the work w depends on path and the differential d-w is inexact. The work depends on the terminal state 1 and 2 as well as non-adiabatic path connecting them. For consistency with the principle of conservation of energy. Some type of energy transfer must have occurred because of the temperature difference between the system and its surroundings and it is identified as heat thus when an effect in a system occurs solely as result of temperature difference between the system and some other system the process in which the effect occur shall be called a transfer of heat from the system at the higher temperature to the system at the lower temperature.
1.1 Evaporation
1.2 Distillation
1.3 Drying
1.4 Crystallization
1.5 Sterilization
Application of Heat Transfer in Pharmaceuticals Industries
Heat is the transfer of thermal energy between objects due to a temperature difference. There are three modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection, and radiation. Conduction involves the transfer of kinetic energy between adjacent particles in direct contact. Convection involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid flow. Radiation is the transfer of energy through electromagnetic waves and does not require a medium. Fourier's law and Newton's law of cooling quantitatively describe conductive and convective heat transfer respectively.
Heat is the transfer of thermal energy between objects due to a temperature difference. It can occur through conduction, convection, or radiation. Conduction involves the transfer of kinetic energy between adjacent particles in direct contact. Convection involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid motion. Radiation is the emission and transmission of electromagnetic waves. Fourier's law and Newton's law of cooling quantitatively describe the rates of heat transfer through conduction and convection. Wien's law and Stefan-Boltzmann law govern the wavelength and power of thermal radiation from a black body.
Conduction, convection, and radiation are the three modes of heat transfer. Conduction involves the transfer of kinetic energy between adjacent particles in a medium through direct contact. Convection involves the transfer of heat by the circulation of fluids such as gases and liquids. Radiation involves the emission and transmission of electromagnetic waves, which can travel through vacuum and do not require a medium.
This chapter introduces the concepts of thermodynamics and heat transfer. Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states while heat transfer involves systems lacking thermal equilibrium. The three modes of heat transfer are conduction, convection, and radiation. Conduction involves the transfer of energy between adjacent particles in direct contact. Convection involves the combined mechanisms of conduction and fluid motion. Radiation transfers energy via electromagnetic waves without a medium. Fourier's law, Newton's law of cooling, and the Stefan-Boltzmann law govern conduction, convection, and radiation respectively. Example problems demonstrate applying conservation of energy to analyze various heat transfer processes.
Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) is produced by cooling natural gas into a liquid form at liquefaction plants. It is then stored or transported as a liquid and regasified at regasification plants before being used. Understanding the thermodynamics of LNG plants is important for analyzing and evaluating the processes involved. The document discusses key thermodynamic concepts like the first and second laws of thermodynamics, entropy, enthalpy, latent and sensible heat, and different refrigeration cycles used in LNG plants. It provides explanations of these concepts and their relevance to analyzing energy transfers and processes in LNG plants.
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The growing significance of portable systems to limit power consumption in ultra-large-scale-integration chips of very high density, has recently led to rapid and inventive progresses in low-power design. The most effective technique is adiabatic logic circuit design in energy-efficient hardware. This paper presents two adiabatic approaches for the design of low power circuits, modified positive feedback adiabatic logic (modified PFAL) and the other is direct current diode based positive feedback adiabatic logic (DC-DB PFAL). Logic gates are the preliminary components in any digital circuit design. By improving the performance of basic gates, one can improvise the whole system performance. In this paper proposed circuit design of the low power architecture of OR/NOR, AND/NAND, and XOR/XNOR gates are presented using the said approaches and their results are analyzed for powerdissipation, delay, power-delay-product and rise time and compared with the other adiabatic techniques along with the conventional complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) designs reported in the literature. It has been found that the designs with DC-DB PFAL technique outperform with the percentage improvement of 65% for NOR gate and 7% for NAND gate and 34% for XNOR gate over the modified PFAL techniques at 10 MHz respectively.
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Chapter_1._Basics_of_Heat_Transfer.pdf
1. Department of Mechanical Engineering
Institute of Engineering
Central Campus, Pulchowk
Prepared by
Umesh Sharma
2. THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT TRANSFER
• Heat: The form of energy that can be transferred from one system to another as a
result of temperature difference.
• Thermodynamics is concerned with the amount of heat transfer as a system
undergoes a process from one equilibrium state to another.
• Heat Transfer deals with the determination of the rates of such energy transfers as
well as variation of temperature.
2
• The transfer of energy as heat is always from the higher-temperature medium to the
lower-temperature one.
• Heat transfer stops when the two mediums reach the same temperature.
• Heat can be transferred in three different modes:
conduction, convection, radiation
3. Energy can exist in numerous forms such as:
thermal,
mechanical,
kinetic,
potential,
electrical,
HEAT AND OTHER FORMS OF ENERGY
3
electrical,
magnetic,
chemical,
nuclear.
Their sum constitutes the total energy E (or e on a unit mass basis) of
a system.
The sum of all microscopic forms of energy is called the internal
energy of a system.
4. Internal energy: May be viewed as the sum of the kinetic and potential energies
of the molecules.
Sensible heat: The kinetic energy of the molecules.
Latent heat: The internal energy associated with the phase of a system.
Chemical (bond) energy: The internal energy associated with the atomic bonds
in a molecule.
Nuclear energy: The internal energy associated with the bonds within the
nucleus of the atom itself.
4
nucleus of the atom itself.
What is thermal energy?
What is the difference between thermal energy
and heat?
5. Internal Energy and Enthalpy
In the analysis of systems that
involve fluid flow, we frequently
encounter the combination of
properties u and Pv.
The combination is defined as
enthalpy (h = u + Pv).
5
enthalpy (h = u + Pv).
The term Pv represents the flow
energy of the fluid (also called the
flow work).
6. Specific Heats of Gases, Liquids, and Solids
Specific heat: The energy required to raise the
temperature of a unit mass of a substance by one
degree.
Two kinds of specific heats:
specific heat at constant volume cv
specific heat at constant pressure c
6
specific heat at constant pressure cp
The specific heats of a substance, in general,
depend on two independent properties such as
temperature and pressure.
At low pressures all real gases approach ideal
gas behavior, and therefore their specific heats
depend on temperature only.
7. Incompressible substance: A substance
whose specific volume (or density) does
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whose specific volume (or density) does
not change with temperature or pressure.
The constant-volume and constant-pressure
specific heats are identical for
incompressible substances.
The specific heats of incompressible
substances depend on temperature only.
8. Energy Transfer
Energy can be transferred to or from a given mass
by two mechanisms:
heat transfer and work.
Heat transfer rate: The amount of heat
transferred per unit time.
Heat flux: The rate of heat transfer per unit area
normal to the direction of heat transfer.
when is constant:
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normal to the direction of heat transfer.
Power: The work
done per unit time.
9. THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
The first law of thermodynamics (conservation of energy
principle) states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed during a
process; it can only change forms. The net change (increase or decrease)
in the total energy of the system during
a process is equal to the difference
between the total energy entering and
the total energy leaving the system
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The energy balance for any system
undergoing any process in the rate
form
the total energy leaving the system
during that process.
10. In heat transfer problems it is convenient to
write a heat balance and to treat the conversion
of nuclear, chemical, mechanical, and electrical
energies into thermal energy as heat generation.
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11. Energy Balance for Closed Systems (Fixed Mass)
A closed system consists of a fixed mass.
The total energy E for most systems
encountered in practice consists of the internal
energy U.
This is especially the case for stationary systems
since they don’t involve any changes in their
velocity or elevation during a process.
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velocity or elevation during a process.
12. Energy Balance for Steady-Flow
Systems
A large number of engineering devices such as water
heaters and car radiators involve mass flow in and out of
a system, and are modeled as control volumes.
Most control volumes are analyzed under steady
operating conditions.
The term steady means no change with time at a
specified location.
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specified location.
Mass flow rate: The amount of mass flowing through a
cross section of a flow device per unit time.
Volume flow rate: The volume of a fluid flowing
through a pipe or duct per unit time.
13. HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISMS
Heat as the form of energy that can be transferred from one system to another as a
result of temperature difference.
A thermodynamic analysis is concerned with the amount of heat transfer as a
system undergoes a process from one equilibrium state to another.
The science that deals with the determination of the rates of such energy transfers
is the heat transfer.
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The transfer of energy as heat is always from the higher-temperature medium to the
lower-temperature one, and heat transfer stops when the two mediums reach the
same temperature.
Heat can be transferred in three basic modes:
conduction
convection
radiation
All modes of heat transfer require the existence of a temperature difference.
14. CONDUCTION
Conduction: The transfer of energy from the more
energetic particles of a substance to the adjacent less
energetic ones as a result of interactions between the
particles.
In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collisions and
diffusion of the molecules during their random motion.
In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of the
molecules in a lattice and the energy transport by free
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Heat conduction through a large
plane wall of thickness x and
area A.
molecules in a lattice and the energy transport by free
electrons.
The rate of heat conduction through a plane layer is
proportional to the temperature difference across the layer
and the heat transfer area, but is inversely proportional to
the thickness of the layer.
15. When x → 0 Fourier’s law of heat conduction
Thermal conductivity, k: A measure of the ability of a
material to conduct heat.
Temperature gradient dT/dx: The slope of the
temperature curve on a T-x diagram.
Heat is conducted in the direction of decreasing
temperature, and the temperature gradient becomes
negative when temperature decreases with increasing x.
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negative when temperature decreases with increasing x.
The negative sign in the equation ensures that heat
transfer in the positive x direction is a positive quantity.
The rate of heat conduction
through a solid is directly
proportional to its thermal
conductivity.
In heat conduction
analysis, A represents the
area normal to the
direction of heat transfer.
16. Thermal Conductivity
Thermal conductivity: The
rate of heat transfer through
a unit thickness of the
material per unit area per
unit temperature difference.
A high value for thermal
conductivity indicates that
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conductivity indicates that
the material is a good heat
conductor, and a low value
indicates that the material is
a poor heat conductor or
insulator.
A simple experimental setup to
determine the thermal
conductivity of a material.
18. Thermal Diffusivity
cp Specific heat, J/kg · °C: Heat capacity per unit
mass
cp Heat capacity, J/m3·°C: Heat capacity per
unit volume
Thermal diffusivity, m2/s: Represents how fast
heat diffuses through a material
A material that has a high thermal conductivity or a low heat capacity will obviously have
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A material that has a high thermal conductivity or a low heat capacity will obviously have
a large thermal diffusivity.
The larger the thermal diffusivity, the faster the propagation of heat into the medium.
A small value of thermal diffusivity means that heat is mostly absorbed by the material
and a small amount of heat is conducted further.
19. CONVECTION
Convection: The mode of energy
transfer between a solid surface
and the adjacent liquid or gas that
is in motion, and it involves the
combined effects of conduction
and fluid motion.
The faster the fluid motion, the
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The faster the fluid motion, the
greater the convection heat
transfer.
In the absence of any bulk fluid
motion, heat transfer between a
solid surface and the adjacent fluid
is by pure conduction.
Heat transfer from a hot surface to air by
convection.
20. Forced convection: If the fluid
is forced to flow over the
surface by external means such
as a fan, pump, or the wind.
Natural (or free) convection:
If the fluid motion is caused by
buoyancy forces that are
induced by density differences
due to the variation of
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due to the variation of
temperature in the fluid.
The cooling of a boiled egg by forced
and natural convection.
Heat transfer processes that involve change of phase of a fluid are also considered to be
convection because of the fluid motion induced during the process, such as the rise of
the vapor bubbles during boiling or the fall of the liquid droplets during condensation.
21. Newton’s law of cooling
h convection heat transfer coefficient, W/m2 · °C
As the surface area through which convection heat transfer takes place
Ts the surface temperature
T the temperature of the fluid sufficiently far from the surface.
The convection heat transfer
coefficient h is not a property of the
fluid.
It is an experimentally determined
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It is an experimentally determined
parameter whose value depends on
all the variables influencing
convection such as
- the surface geometry
- the nature of fluid motion
- the properties of the fluid
- the bulk fluid velocity
22. RADIATION
• Radiation: The energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic waves (or
photons) as a result of the changes in the electronic configurations of the atoms or
molecules.
• Unlike conduction and convection, the transfer of heat by radiation does not require the
presence of an intervening medium.
• In fact, heat transfer by radiation is fastest (at the speed of light) and it suffers no
attenuation in a vacuum. This is how the energy of the sun reaches the earth.
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attenuation in a vacuum. This is how the energy of the sun reaches the earth.
• In heat transfer studies we are interested in thermal radiation, which is the form of
radiation emitted by bodies because of their temperature.
• All bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation.
• Radiation is a volumetric phenomenon, and all solids, liquids, and gases emit, absorb, or
transmit radiation to varying degrees.
• However, radiation is usually considered to be a surface phenomenon for solids.
23. Stefan–Boltzmann law
= 5.670 108 W/m2 · K4 Stefan–Boltzmann constant
Blackbody: The idealized surface that emits radiation at the maximum rate.
Emissivity : A measure of how closely a
surface approximates a blackbody for which
= 1 of the surface. 0 1.
Radiation emitted by
real surfaces
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Blackbody radiation represents the maximum amount of
radiation that can be emitted from a surface at a
specified temperature.
= 1 of the surface. .
24. Absorptivity : The fraction of the radiation energy incident on a surface that is
absorbed by the surface. 0 1
A blackbody absorbs the entire radiation incident on it ( = 1).
Kirchhoff’s law: The emissivity and the absorptivity of a surface at a given
temperature and wavelength are equal.
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The absorption of radiation incident on an
opaque surface of absorptivity .
25. Net radiation heat transfer: The
difference between the rates of
radiation emitted by the surface and
the radiation absorbed.
The determination of the net rate of
heat transfer by radiation between
two surfaces is a complicated
matter since it depends on
• the properties of the surfaces
When a surface is completely enclosed by a much
larger (or black) surface at temperature Tsurr
separated by a gas (such as air) that does not
intervene with radiation, the net rate of radiation
heat transfer between these
two surfaces is given by
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• the properties of the surfaces
• their orientation relative to each
other
• the interaction of the medium
between the surfaces with radiation
Radiation is usually significant relative to
conduction or natural convection, but
negligible relative to forced convection.
26. Combined heat transfer coefficient hcombined
Includes the effects of both convection and radiation
When radiation and convection occur simultaneously
between a surface and a gas:
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27. SIMULTANEOUS HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISMS
Heat transfer is only by conduction in opaque solids, but by
conduction and radiation in semitransparent solids.
A solid may involve conduction and radiation but not
convection. A solid may involve convection and/or radiation
on its surfaces exposed to a fluid or other surfaces.
Heat transfer is by conduction and possibly by radiation in a
still fluid (no bulk fluid motion) and by convection and
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Although there are three mechanisms
of heat transfer, a medium may
involve only two of them
simultaneously.
still fluid (no bulk fluid motion) and by convection and
radiation in a flowing fluid.
In the absence of radiation, heat transfer through a fluid is
either by conduction or convection, depending on the presence
of any bulk fluid motion.
Convection = Conduction + Fluid motion
Heat transfer through a vacuum is by radiation.