Chapter 9: The People in
Information Systems
Learning Objectives
Upon successful completion of this chapter, you will be
able to:
• describe each of the different roles that people play
in the design, development, and use of information
systems;
• understand the different career paths available to
those who work with information systems;
• explain the importance of where the information-
systems function is placed in an organization; and
• describe the different types of users of information
systems.
Introduction
The opening chapters of this text focused on the technology behind
information systems, namely hardware, software, data, and
networking. The last chapter covered business processes and the
Chapter 9: The People in Information
Systems | 189
U. S. Bureau
of Labor
Statistics –
2020
Projections
key role they can play in the success of a business. This chapter
discusses people, the last component of an information system.
People are involved in information systems in just about every
way. People imagine information systems, people develop
information systems, people support information systems, and,
perhaps most importantly, people use information systems.
The Creators of Information Systems
The first group of people to be considered play a role in designing,
developing, and building information systems. These people are
generally technical and have a background in programming,
analysis, information security, or database design. Just about
everyone who works in the creation of information systems has a
minimum of a bachelor’s degree in computer science or information
systems, though that is not necessarily a requirement. The process
of creating information systems will be covered in more detail in
Chapter 10.
The following chart shows the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
projections for computing career employment in 2020.
190 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)
Systems Analyst
The systems analyst straddles the divide between identifying
business needs and imagining a new or redesigned system to fulfill
those needs. This individual works with a team or department
seeking to identify business requirements and analyze the specific
details of an existing system or a system that needs to be built.
Generally, the analyst is required to have a good understanding
of the business itself, the purpose of the business, the business
processes involved, and the ability to document them well. The
analyst identifies the different stakeholders in the system and works
to involve the appropriate individuals in the analysis process.
Prior to analyzing the problem or the system of concern, the
analyst needs to a) clearly identify the problem, b) gain approval for
the project, c) identify the stakeholders, and d) develop a plan to
monitor the project. The analysis phase of the project can be broken
down into five steps.
1. Se.
Management Information Systems – Week 7 Lecture 2Developme.docxcroysierkathey
Management Information Systems – Week 7 Lecture 2
Development & Improvement
Chapter 13 Systems Development: Design, Implementation, Maintenance,
and Review
You have learned about information systems and seen a little about how the project is run to create a new
system. This week you will focus on the actual systems design process. This will help you whether you
become a programmer, systems analyst or are a department manager. There are countless articles on
this subject on the internet and some great YouTube videos so take a moment to do some extra research
and learn more about systems development.
When an IS manager sits down to design a system they look at several areas and have many special
tools at their disposal.
A systems engineer or senior developer will first look at the logical design. This usually means that they
look at the user request and determine what they really mean! Once they have clarification they will create
a physical design. This might be object-oriented (using code that has already been created) or mock ups
showing interface design and controls. This is sometimes called storyboarding. This image is an example
of creating a new user interface:
System design time is an investment for the business, it will help by preventing, detecting, and correcting
errors prior to the application software being written. It will generate systems design alternatives. One
alternative is to ask software developers to create the application for the business, this is done by creating
a request for proposal (RFP). Software vendors will then propose several options at various price points.
The business can then review the proposals, do a cost benefit analysis and select an appropriate plan of
action.
Once a project has started it is a good idea to freezing design specifications using a contract, and even a
design report called a Functional Design Document. This process is intended to allow the development
team to focus on creating a specific application and not have to try to hit a constantly moving target. As
the application is being developed it is also time to acquire the hardware that will be needed. If the
application requires a headset with microphone for voice input or a super-fast computer, this is the time to
make sure the application will be functional when it is implemented.
Types of IS hardware vendors include:
General computer manufacturers
Small computer manufacturers
Peripheral equipment manufacturers
Computer dealers and distributors
Chip makers
While the application is being developed and the hardware acquired, in a perfect world the personnel will
be hired and trained and any preparations will be done for the site and data requirements (additional disk
drives for databases or could computing). One of the phases of software development is the testing
phase. It really cannot be considered the final stage because it may result in some additional planning,
programming or other modifications. It can be considered to be ...
CHAPTER 8 User InterfaceDesignChapter 8 is the first of thre.docxchristinemaritza
CHAPTER 8 User Interface
Design
Chapter 8 is the first of three chapters in the systems design phase of the SDLC. This chapter explains how to design an effective user interface, and how to handle data security and control issues. The chapter stresses the importance of user feedback and involvement in all design decisions.
OBJECTIVES
When you finish this chapter, you will be able to:
· Explain the concept of user interface design and human-computer interaction, including basic principles of user-centered design
· Explain how experienced interface designers perform their tasks
· Describe rules for successful interface design
· Discuss input and output technology issues
· Design effective source documents and forms
· Explain printed output guidelines
· Describe output and input controls and security
· Explain modular design and prototyping techniques
INTRODUCTION
User interface design is the first task in the systems design phase of the SDLC. Designing the interface is extremely important because everyone wants a system that is easy to learn and use.
After discussing the user interface, human-computer interaction, and interface design rules, the chapter describes output, data security and control issues, prototyping, and the next steps in the systems design process.
PREVIEW CASE: Mountain View College Bookstore
Background: Wendy Lee, manager of college services at Mountain View College, wants a new information system that will improve efficiency and customer service at the three college bookstores.
In this part of the case, Tina Allen (systems analyst) and David Conroe (student intern) are talking about user interface design issues.
Participants:
Tina and David
Location:
Mountain View College Cafeteria, Monday afternoon, November 25, 2013
Project status:
Tina and David have examined development strategies for the new bookstore system. After performing cost-benefit analysis, they recommended in-house development of the new bookstore system. Now they are ready to begin the systems design phase by working on user interface design for the new system.
Discussion topics:
User interface design concepts and principles
Tina:
Hi, David. Ready to start work on user interface design?
David:
Sure. Will we start with output because it’s important to users?
Tina:
Output is very important, but the most important issue for users is the interface itself. For example, is it easy to learn? Is it easy to work with? We’ll try to design everything — output, input, and all the other elements — from a user’s point of view.
David:
How do we do that?
Tina:
Well, many sources of information about effective design concepts and principles are available. We’ll study those, and then ask our own users for their input and suggestions.
David:
What about input and data entry?
Tina:
Good question, You’ve heard the old saying, “garbage in, garbage out.” User interface principles apply to user input generally, but repetitive data entry deserves special attention. We need to creat ...
CHAPTER 3Understanding Regulations, Accreditation Criteria, and .docxtiffanyd4
CHAPTER 3
Understanding Regulations, Accreditation Criteria, and Other Standards ofPractice
NAEYC Administrator Competencies Addressed in This Chapter:
Management Knowledge and Skills
2. Legal and Fiscal Management
· Knowledge and application of the advantages and disadvantages of different legal structures
· Knowledge of different codes and regulations as they relate to the delivery of early childhood program services
· Knowledge of child custody, child abuse, special education, confidentiality, anti-discrimination, insurance liability, contract, and laborlaws pertaining to program management
5. Program Operations and Facilities Management
· Knowledge and application of policies and procedures that meet state/local regulations and professional standards pertaining to thehealth and safety of young children
7. Marketing and public relations
· Skill in developing a business plan and effective promotional literature, handbooks, newsletters, and press releases
Early Childhood Knowledge and Skills
5. Children with Special Needs
· Knowledge of licensing standards, state and federal laws (e.g., ADA, IDEA) as they relate to services and accommodations for childrenwith special needs
10. Professionalism
· Knowledge of laws, regulations, and policies that impact professional conduct with children and families
· Knowledge of center accreditation criteria
Learning Outcomes
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
1. Describe the purpose of regulations that apply to programs of early care and education and list several topics they address.
2. Identify several ways accreditation standards are different from child care regulations.
3. State the purpose of Quality Rating and Improvement Systems (QRIS).
4. List some ways qualifications for administrators and teachers are different for licensure, for accreditation, and in QRIS systems.
5. Identify laws that apply to the childcare workplace, such as those that govern the program’s financial management and employees’well-being.
Marie’s Experience
Marie has been successful over the years in keeping her center in compliance with all licensing regulations. She is proud of her teachers andconfident that the center consistently goes above and beyond licensing provisions designed simply to keep children healthy and safe. She knowsthat the center provides high-quality care to the children it serves, but has never pursued accreditation or participated in her state’s optionalQuality Rating and Improvement System (QRIS) because of the time and effort it would require. Her families have confidence in her program anddo not seem to need this additional assurance that it provides high-quality services day in and day out.
Large numbers of families rely on out-of-home care for their infants, toddlers, preschoolers, and school-age children during the workday. In2011, there were 312,254 licensed child care facilities with a capacity to serve almost 10.2 million children. About 34% of these facilitieswere child care center.
Chapter 3 Human RightsINTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS–BASED ORGANIZ.docxtiffanyd4
Chapter 3 Human Rights
INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS–BASED ORGANIZATIONS LIKE THE UN COMMISSION ON HUMAN RIGHTS HAVE MADE MONITORING HUMAN RIGHTS A GLOBAL ISSUE. The United Nations is headquartered in New York City.
Learning Objectives
1. 3.1Review the expansion of and the commitment to the human rights agenda
2. 3.2Evaluate the milestones that led to the current concerns around human rights
3. 3.3Evaluate some of the philosophical controversies over human rights
4. 3.4Recognize global, regional, national, and local institutions and rules designed to protect human rights across the globe
5. 3.5Report the efforts made globally in bringing violators of human rights to justice
6. 3.6Relate the need for stricter laws to protect women’s human rights across the globe.
7. 3.7Recognize the need to protect the human rights of the disabled
8. 3.8Distinguish between the Western and the Islamic beliefs on individual and community rights
9. 3.9Review the balancing act that needs to be played while fighting terrorism and protecting human rights
10. 3.10Report the controversy around issuing death penalty as punishment
When Muammar Qaddafi used military force to suppress people demonstrating in Libya for a transition to democracy, there was a general consensus that there was a global responsibility to protect civilians. However, when Bashar Assad used fighter jets, tanks, barrel bombs, chemical weapons, and a wide range of brutal methods, including torture, to crush the popular uprising against his rule in Syria, the world did not respond forcefully to protect civilians. The basic reason given for allowing Syria to descend into brutality and chaos was that it was difficult to separate Syrians favoring human rights from those who embraced terrorism. Although cultural values differ significantly from one society to another, our common humanity has equipped us with many shared ideas about how human beings should treat each other. Aspects of globalization, especially communications and migration, reinforce perceptions of a common humanity. In general, there is global agreement that human beings, simply because we exist, are entitled to at least three types of rights. First is civil rights, which include personal liberties such as freedom of speech, religion, and thought; the right to own property; and the right to equal treatment under the law. Second is political rights, including the right to vote, to voice political opinions, and to participate in the political process. Third is social rights, including the right to be secure from violence and other physical danger, the right to a decent standard of living, and the right to health care and education. Societies differ in terms of which rights they emphasize. Four types of human rights claims that dominate global politics are
1. The abuse of individual rights by governments
2. Demands for autonomy or independence by various groups
3. Demands for equality and privacy by groups with unconventional lifestyles
4. Cla.
More Related Content
Similar to Chapter 9 The People in Information Systems Learning Ob.docx
Management Information Systems – Week 7 Lecture 2Developme.docxcroysierkathey
Management Information Systems – Week 7 Lecture 2
Development & Improvement
Chapter 13 Systems Development: Design, Implementation, Maintenance,
and Review
You have learned about information systems and seen a little about how the project is run to create a new
system. This week you will focus on the actual systems design process. This will help you whether you
become a programmer, systems analyst or are a department manager. There are countless articles on
this subject on the internet and some great YouTube videos so take a moment to do some extra research
and learn more about systems development.
When an IS manager sits down to design a system they look at several areas and have many special
tools at their disposal.
A systems engineer or senior developer will first look at the logical design. This usually means that they
look at the user request and determine what they really mean! Once they have clarification they will create
a physical design. This might be object-oriented (using code that has already been created) or mock ups
showing interface design and controls. This is sometimes called storyboarding. This image is an example
of creating a new user interface:
System design time is an investment for the business, it will help by preventing, detecting, and correcting
errors prior to the application software being written. It will generate systems design alternatives. One
alternative is to ask software developers to create the application for the business, this is done by creating
a request for proposal (RFP). Software vendors will then propose several options at various price points.
The business can then review the proposals, do a cost benefit analysis and select an appropriate plan of
action.
Once a project has started it is a good idea to freezing design specifications using a contract, and even a
design report called a Functional Design Document. This process is intended to allow the development
team to focus on creating a specific application and not have to try to hit a constantly moving target. As
the application is being developed it is also time to acquire the hardware that will be needed. If the
application requires a headset with microphone for voice input or a super-fast computer, this is the time to
make sure the application will be functional when it is implemented.
Types of IS hardware vendors include:
General computer manufacturers
Small computer manufacturers
Peripheral equipment manufacturers
Computer dealers and distributors
Chip makers
While the application is being developed and the hardware acquired, in a perfect world the personnel will
be hired and trained and any preparations will be done for the site and data requirements (additional disk
drives for databases or could computing). One of the phases of software development is the testing
phase. It really cannot be considered the final stage because it may result in some additional planning,
programming or other modifications. It can be considered to be ...
CHAPTER 8 User InterfaceDesignChapter 8 is the first of thre.docxchristinemaritza
CHAPTER 8 User Interface
Design
Chapter 8 is the first of three chapters in the systems design phase of the SDLC. This chapter explains how to design an effective user interface, and how to handle data security and control issues. The chapter stresses the importance of user feedback and involvement in all design decisions.
OBJECTIVES
When you finish this chapter, you will be able to:
· Explain the concept of user interface design and human-computer interaction, including basic principles of user-centered design
· Explain how experienced interface designers perform their tasks
· Describe rules for successful interface design
· Discuss input and output technology issues
· Design effective source documents and forms
· Explain printed output guidelines
· Describe output and input controls and security
· Explain modular design and prototyping techniques
INTRODUCTION
User interface design is the first task in the systems design phase of the SDLC. Designing the interface is extremely important because everyone wants a system that is easy to learn and use.
After discussing the user interface, human-computer interaction, and interface design rules, the chapter describes output, data security and control issues, prototyping, and the next steps in the systems design process.
PREVIEW CASE: Mountain View College Bookstore
Background: Wendy Lee, manager of college services at Mountain View College, wants a new information system that will improve efficiency and customer service at the three college bookstores.
In this part of the case, Tina Allen (systems analyst) and David Conroe (student intern) are talking about user interface design issues.
Participants:
Tina and David
Location:
Mountain View College Cafeteria, Monday afternoon, November 25, 2013
Project status:
Tina and David have examined development strategies for the new bookstore system. After performing cost-benefit analysis, they recommended in-house development of the new bookstore system. Now they are ready to begin the systems design phase by working on user interface design for the new system.
Discussion topics:
User interface design concepts and principles
Tina:
Hi, David. Ready to start work on user interface design?
David:
Sure. Will we start with output because it’s important to users?
Tina:
Output is very important, but the most important issue for users is the interface itself. For example, is it easy to learn? Is it easy to work with? We’ll try to design everything — output, input, and all the other elements — from a user’s point of view.
David:
How do we do that?
Tina:
Well, many sources of information about effective design concepts and principles are available. We’ll study those, and then ask our own users for their input and suggestions.
David:
What about input and data entry?
Tina:
Good question, You’ve heard the old saying, “garbage in, garbage out.” User interface principles apply to user input generally, but repetitive data entry deserves special attention. We need to creat ...
CHAPTER 3Understanding Regulations, Accreditation Criteria, and .docxtiffanyd4
CHAPTER 3
Understanding Regulations, Accreditation Criteria, and Other Standards ofPractice
NAEYC Administrator Competencies Addressed in This Chapter:
Management Knowledge and Skills
2. Legal and Fiscal Management
· Knowledge and application of the advantages and disadvantages of different legal structures
· Knowledge of different codes and regulations as they relate to the delivery of early childhood program services
· Knowledge of child custody, child abuse, special education, confidentiality, anti-discrimination, insurance liability, contract, and laborlaws pertaining to program management
5. Program Operations and Facilities Management
· Knowledge and application of policies and procedures that meet state/local regulations and professional standards pertaining to thehealth and safety of young children
7. Marketing and public relations
· Skill in developing a business plan and effective promotional literature, handbooks, newsletters, and press releases
Early Childhood Knowledge and Skills
5. Children with Special Needs
· Knowledge of licensing standards, state and federal laws (e.g., ADA, IDEA) as they relate to services and accommodations for childrenwith special needs
10. Professionalism
· Knowledge of laws, regulations, and policies that impact professional conduct with children and families
· Knowledge of center accreditation criteria
Learning Outcomes
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
1. Describe the purpose of regulations that apply to programs of early care and education and list several topics they address.
2. Identify several ways accreditation standards are different from child care regulations.
3. State the purpose of Quality Rating and Improvement Systems (QRIS).
4. List some ways qualifications for administrators and teachers are different for licensure, for accreditation, and in QRIS systems.
5. Identify laws that apply to the childcare workplace, such as those that govern the program’s financial management and employees’well-being.
Marie’s Experience
Marie has been successful over the years in keeping her center in compliance with all licensing regulations. She is proud of her teachers andconfident that the center consistently goes above and beyond licensing provisions designed simply to keep children healthy and safe. She knowsthat the center provides high-quality care to the children it serves, but has never pursued accreditation or participated in her state’s optionalQuality Rating and Improvement System (QRIS) because of the time and effort it would require. Her families have confidence in her program anddo not seem to need this additional assurance that it provides high-quality services day in and day out.
Large numbers of families rely on out-of-home care for their infants, toddlers, preschoolers, and school-age children during the workday. In2011, there were 312,254 licensed child care facilities with a capacity to serve almost 10.2 million children. About 34% of these facilitieswere child care center.
Chapter 3 Human RightsINTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS–BASED ORGANIZ.docxtiffanyd4
Chapter 3 Human Rights
INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS–BASED ORGANIZATIONS LIKE THE UN COMMISSION ON HUMAN RIGHTS HAVE MADE MONITORING HUMAN RIGHTS A GLOBAL ISSUE. The United Nations is headquartered in New York City.
Learning Objectives
1. 3.1Review the expansion of and the commitment to the human rights agenda
2. 3.2Evaluate the milestones that led to the current concerns around human rights
3. 3.3Evaluate some of the philosophical controversies over human rights
4. 3.4Recognize global, regional, national, and local institutions and rules designed to protect human rights across the globe
5. 3.5Report the efforts made globally in bringing violators of human rights to justice
6. 3.6Relate the need for stricter laws to protect women’s human rights across the globe.
7. 3.7Recognize the need to protect the human rights of the disabled
8. 3.8Distinguish between the Western and the Islamic beliefs on individual and community rights
9. 3.9Review the balancing act that needs to be played while fighting terrorism and protecting human rights
10. 3.10Report the controversy around issuing death penalty as punishment
When Muammar Qaddafi used military force to suppress people demonstrating in Libya for a transition to democracy, there was a general consensus that there was a global responsibility to protect civilians. However, when Bashar Assad used fighter jets, tanks, barrel bombs, chemical weapons, and a wide range of brutal methods, including torture, to crush the popular uprising against his rule in Syria, the world did not respond forcefully to protect civilians. The basic reason given for allowing Syria to descend into brutality and chaos was that it was difficult to separate Syrians favoring human rights from those who embraced terrorism. Although cultural values differ significantly from one society to another, our common humanity has equipped us with many shared ideas about how human beings should treat each other. Aspects of globalization, especially communications and migration, reinforce perceptions of a common humanity. In general, there is global agreement that human beings, simply because we exist, are entitled to at least three types of rights. First is civil rights, which include personal liberties such as freedom of speech, religion, and thought; the right to own property; and the right to equal treatment under the law. Second is political rights, including the right to vote, to voice political opinions, and to participate in the political process. Third is social rights, including the right to be secure from violence and other physical danger, the right to a decent standard of living, and the right to health care and education. Societies differ in terms of which rights they emphasize. Four types of human rights claims that dominate global politics are
1. The abuse of individual rights by governments
2. Demands for autonomy or independence by various groups
3. Demands for equality and privacy by groups with unconventional lifestyles
4. Cla.
CHAPTER 13Contributing to the ProfessionNAEYC Administrator Co.docxtiffanyd4
CHAPTER 13
Contributing to the Profession
NAEYC Administrator Competencies Addressed in This Chapter:
Management Knowledge and Skills
1. Personal and Professional Self-Awareness
· The ability to evaluate ethical and moral dilemmas based on a professional code of ethics
8. Leadership and Advocacy
· Knowledge of the legislative process, social issues, and public policy affecting young children and their families
· The ability to advocate on behalf of young children, their families and the profession
Early Childhood Knowledge and Skills
1. Historical and Philosophical Foundations
· Knowledge of research methodologies
10. Professionalism
· Knowledge of different professional organizations, resources, and issues impacting the welfare of early childhood practitioners
· Ability to make professional judgments based on the NAEYC “Code of Ethical Conduct and Statement of Commitment”
· Ability to work as part of a professional team and supervise support staff or volunteers
Learning Outcomes
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
1. Describe how the field of early childhood education has made progress achieving two of the eight criteria of professional status.
2. Identify the advocacy tools that early childhood advocates should have at their disposal.
3. Discuss opportunities that program administrators have to contribute to the field’s future.
Grace’s Experience
Grace had found that working with children came naturally, and she considered herself to be a gifted teacher after only a short time in theclassroom. She thought she would spend her entire career working directly with children. She is now somewhat surprised how much she isenjoying the new responsibilities that come with being a program director. She is gaining confidence that she can work effectively with allfamilies, even when faced with difficult conversations; and her skills as a supervisor, coach, and mentor are increasing as well. She is nowcomfortable as a leader in her own center and is considering volunteering to fill a leadership role in the local early childhood professionalorganization. That would give her opportunities to refine her leadership skills while contributing to the quality of care provided for childrenthroughout her community.
Early childhood administrators are leaders. They contribute to the profession by making the public aware of the field’s emergingprofessionalism, including its reliance on a code of ethics; engaging in informed advocacy; becoming involved in research to increase whatwe know about how children learn, grow, and develop; and coaching and mentoring novices, experienced practitioners, and emergingleaders.
13.1 PROMOTING PROFESSIONALIZATION1
Lilian Katz, one of the most influential voices in the field of early care and education, began discussions about the professionalism of thefield in the mid-1980s. Her work extended a foundation that had been laid by sociologists, philosophers, and other scholars and continuesto influence how early childhoo.
Chapter 2 The Law of EducationIntroductionThis chapter describ.docxtiffanyd4
Chapter 2 The Law of Education
Introduction
This chapter describes the various agencies and types of law that affect education. It also discusses the organization and functions of the various judicial bodies that have an impact on education. School leadership candidates are introduced to standards of review, significant federal civil rights laws, the contents of legal decisions, and a sample legal brief.
Focus Questions
1. How are federal courts organized, and what kind of decisions do they make?
2. What is law? How is law different from policy?
3. From what source does the authority of local boards of education emanate?
4. How can campus and district leaders remain current with changes in law and policy at the national and state level?
Key Terms
1.
2.
3.
4. En banc
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11. Stare decisis
12.
13.
14.
15.
Case Study Confused Yet?
As far as Elise Daniels was concerned, the monthly meeting of the 20 River County middle school principals was the most informative and relaxing activity in her school year. Twice per year, the principals invited a guest to speak to the group. Elise was particularly interested in the fall special guest speaker, the attorney for the state school boards association. Elise had heard him speak several times, so she was aware of his deep knowledge of school law and emerging issues. As the attorney, spoke Elise found herself becoming more anxious. It was as if the attorney was speaking a foreign language. Tinker rules, due process, Title IX, Office of Civil Rights, and the state bullying law. Elise found herself thinking, “The Americans with Disabilities Act has been amended? How am I supposed to keep up with all of this?”
Leadership Perspectives
Middle School Principal Elise Daniels in the case study “Confused Yet?” is correct. School law can be confusing. Educators work in a highly regulated environment directly and indirectly impacted by a wide variety of local, state, and federal authorities. When P–12 educators refer to “the law,” they are often referring to state and/or federal statutes enacted by legislatures (). This understanding is correct. The U.S. Congress and 50 state legislatures are active in the law-making business. To make matters more difficult, the law is constantly changing and evolving as new situations arise. For example, 10 years ago few if any states had passed antibullying laws. By 2008, however, almost every state had some form of antibullying legislation on the books. Soon after, the phenomenon of cyberbullying emerged, and state legislators rushed to add cyberbullying and/or electronic bullying to their state education laws. One can only guess at what new real or perceived problem affecting public P–12 schools will be next.
P–12 educators also refer to school board policy as “law.” However, law and policy are not necessarily identical. , p. 4) defines policy as “one way through which a political system handles a public problem. It includes a government’s expressed inten.
CHAPTER 1 Legal Heritage and the Digital AgeStatue of Liberty,.docxtiffanyd4
CHAPTER 1 Legal Heritage and the Digital Age
Statue of Liberty, New York Harbor
The Statue of Liberty stands majestically in New York Harbor. During the American Revolution, France gave the colonial patriots substantial support in the form of money for equipment and supplies, officers and soldiers who fought in the war, and ships and sailors who fought on the seas. Without the assistance of France, it is unlikely that the American colonists would have won their independence from Britain. In 1886, the people of France gave the Statue of Liberty to the people of the United States in recognition of friendship that was established during the American Revolution. Since then, the Statue of Liberty has become a symbol of liberty and democracy throughout the world.
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Define law.
2. Describe the functions of law.
3. Explain the development of the U.S. legal system.
4. List and describe the sources of law in the United States.
5. Discuss the importance of the U.S. Supreme Court’s decision in Brown v. Board of Education.
Chapter Outline
1. Introduction to Legal Heritage and the Digital Age
2. What Is Law?
1. Landmark U.S. Supreme Court Case • Brown v. Board of Education
3. Schools of Jurisprudential Thought
1. CASE 1.1 • U.S. Supreme Court Case • POM Wonderful LLC v. Coca-Cola Company
2. Global Law • Command School of Jurisprudence of Cuba
4. History of American Law
1. Landmark Law • Adoption of English Common Law in the United States
2. Global Law • Civil Law System of France and Germany
5. Sources of Law in the United States
1. Contemporary Environment • How a Bill Becomes Law
2. Digital Law • Law of the Digital Age
6. Critical Legal Thinking
1. CASE 1.2 • U.S. Supreme Court Case • Shelby County, Texas v. Holder
“ Where there is no law, there is no freedom.”
—John Locke Second Treatise of Government, Sec. 57
Introduction to Legal Heritage and the Digital Age
In the words of Judge Learned Hand, “Without law we cannot live; only with it can we insure the future which by right is ours. The best of men’s hopes are enmeshed in its success.”1 Every society makes and enforces laws that govern the conduct of the individuals, businesses, and other organizations that function within it.
Although the law of the United States is based primarily on English common law, other legal systems, such as Spanish and French civil law, also influence it. The sources of law in this country are the U.S. Constitution, state constitutions, federal and state statutes, ordinances, administrative agency rules and regulations, executive orders, and judicial decisions by federal and state courts.
Human beings do not ever make laws; it is the accidents and catastrophes of all kinds happening in every conceivable way that make law for us.
Plato
Laws IV, 709
Businesses that are organized in the United States are subject to its laws. They are also subject to the laws of other countries in which they operate. Busin.
CHAPTER 1 BASIC CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS OF HUMAN SERVICESPAUL F.docxtiffanyd4
CHAPTER 1 BASIC CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS OF HUMAN SERVICES
PAUL F. CIMMINO
This chapter is dedicated to the development of basic definitions that describe and identify human services. However, any attempt to define human services in one sentence, or to use one description, is doomed to fail. According to Schmolling, Youkeles, and Burger, there is no generally accepted or “official” definition of human services (, p. 9). Human services is a multidisciplinary profession that reflects complex human interactions and a comprehensive social system. To understand human services, it is important to develop ideas that construct an organized perspective of the field. In this chapter, three general questions about human services are incorporated into the text. First, “What is it, and what isn’t it?” Second, “Who is helped and why?” Third, “How is help delivered and by whom?” These fundamental questions tend to exemplify the basic concepts and definitions in human services. This chapter proceeds to introduce important terms, definitions, subconcepts, and concentration areas in human services, which are expounded upon by a host of authors who have contributed their expertise to create this book.
The professional field of human services can be reduced to three basic concepts: intervention (needs and services); professionalism (applied practice and credentialing); and education (academic training and research). Each basic concept comprises important aspects of the human service field and identifies primary areas of the profession. The supporting background that nourishes intervention, professionalism, and education in human services is the history of the human service movement (Fullerton, ). The formal development of human services in society is located in the legislative, training, and service history of the field. This chapter attempts to offer a collective understanding of these important areas related to the professional development of human services. In this chapter, basic concepts and definitions converge to generate a comprehensive and theoretical notion of human services in forming an overview of the field. To further assist the reader in developing thoughts about the human service profession, and to avoid ambiguity in the field, a medley of contemporary definitions of human services is presented later in the chapter.
Finally, an important letter written by Dr. Harold McPheeters in 1992, which addresses the basic question of what comprises human services, is presented to close the chapter. McPheeters’s letter was sent in response to a manuscript written by me in 1991. The paper proposes an idealistic model that defines human services in terms of its purpose and professional responsibility in society. Later in the chapter, the central ideas are summarized, providing an orientation to the thoughtful feedback from Harold McPheeters. In my view, his written response conveys landmark perspectives in development of the emerging human service field. Thus, .
CHAPTER 20 Employment Law and Worker ProtectionWashington DC.docxtiffanyd4
CHAPTER 20 Employment Law and Worker Protection
Washington DC
Federal and state laws provide workers’ compensation and occupational safety laws to protect workers in the United States.
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Explain how state workers’ compensation programs work and describe the benefits available.
2. Describe employers’ duty to provide safe working conditions under the Occupational Safety and Health Act.
3. Describe the minimum wage and overtime pay rules of the Fair Labor Standards Act.
4. Describe the protections afforded by the Family and Medical Leave Act.
5. Describe unemployment insurance and Social Security.
Chapter Outline
1. Introduction to Employment Law and Worker Protection
2. Workers’ Compensation
1. Case 20.1 • Kelley v. Coca-Cola Enterprises, Inc.
3. Occupational Safety
1. Case 20.2 • R. Williams Construction Company v. Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission
4. Fair Labor Standards Act
1. Case 20.3 U.S. SUPREME COURT Case • IBP, Inc. v. Alvarez
5. Family and Medical Leave Act
6. Consolidated Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act and Employee Retirement Income Security Act
7. Government Programs
“ It is difficult to imagine any grounds, other than our own personal economic predilections, for saying that the contract of employment is any the less an appropriate subject of legislation than are scores of others, in dealing with which this Court has held that legislatures may curtail individual freedom in the public interest.”
—Stone, Justice Dissenting opinion, Morehead v. New York (1936)
Introduction to Employment Law and Worker Protection
Generally, the employer–employee relationship is subject to the common law of contracts and agency law. This relationship is also highly regulated by federal and state governments that have enacted myriad laws that protect workers from unsafe working conditions, require employers to provide workers’ compensation to employers injured on the job, prohibit child labor, require minimum wages and overtime pay to be paid to workers, require employers to provide time off to employees with certain family and medical emergencies, and provide other employee protections and rights.
Poorly paid labor is inefficient labor, the world over.
Henry George
This chapter discusses employment law, workers’ compensation, occupational safety, pay and hour rules, and other laws affecting employment.
Workers’ Compensation
Many types of employment are dangerous, and many workers are injured on the job each year. Under common law, employees who were injured on the job could sue their employers for negligence. This time-consuming process placed the employee at odds with his or her employer. In addition, there was no guarantee that the employee would win the case. Ultimately, many injured workers—or the heirs of deceased workers—were left uncompensated.
Workers’ compensation acts were enacted by states in response to the unfairness of that result. These acts crea.
Chapter 1 Global Issues Challenges of GlobalizationA GROWING .docxtiffanyd4
Chapter 1 Global Issues: Challenges of Globalization
A GROWING WORLDWIDE CONNECTEDNESS IN THE AGE OF GLOBALIZATION HAS GIVEN CITIZENS MORE OF A VOICE TO EXPRESS THEIR DISSATISFACTION. In Brazil, Protestors calling for a wide range of reforms marched toward the soccer stadium where a match would be played between Brazil and Uruguay.
Learning Objectives
1. 1.1Identify important terms in international relations
2. 1.2Report the need to adopt an interdisciplinary approach in understanding the impact of new world events
3. 1.3Examine the formation of the modern states with respect to the thirty years’ war in 1618
4. 1.4Recall the challenges to the four types of sovereignty
5. 1.5Report that the European Union was created by redefining the sovereignty of its nations for lasting peace and security
6. 1.6Recall the influence exerted by the Catholic church, transnational companies, and other NGOs in dictating world events
7. 1.7Examine how globalization has brought about greater interdependence between states
8. 1.8Record the major causes of globalization
9. 1.9Review the most important forms of globalization
10. 1.10Recount the five waves of globalization
11. 1.11Recognize reasons as to why France and the US resist globalization
12. 1.12Examine the three dominant views of the extent to which globalization exists
Revolutions in technology, finance, transportation, and communications and different ways of thinking that characterize interdependence and globalization have eroded the power and significance of nation-states and profoundly altered international relations. Countries share power with nonstate actors that have proliferated as states have failed to deal effectively with major global problems.
Many governments have subcontracted several traditional responsibilities to private companies and have created public-private partnerships in some areas. This is exemplified by the hundreds of special economic zones in China, Dubai, and elsewhere. Contracting out traditional functions of government, combined with the centralization of massive amounts of data, facilitated Edward Snowden’s ability to leak what seems to be an almost unlimited amount of information on America’s spying activities.
The connections between states and citizens, a cornerstone of international relations, have been weakened partly by global communications and migration. Social media enable people around the world to challenge governments and to participate in global governance. The prevalence of mass protests globally demonstrates growing frustration with governments’ inability to meet the demands of the people, especially the global middle class.
The growth of multiple national identities, citizenships, and passports challenges traditional international relations. States that played dominant roles in international affairs must now deal with their declining power as global power is more diffused with the rise of China, India, Brazil, and other emerging market countries. States are i.
CHAPTER 23 Consumer ProtectionRestaurantFederal and state go.docxtiffanyd4
CHAPTER 23 Consumer Protection
Restaurant
Federal and state governments have enacted many statutes to protect consumers from unsafe food items.
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Describe government regulation of food and food additives.
2. Describe government regulation of drugs, cosmetics, and medicinal devices.
3. Identify and describe unfair and deceptive business practices.
4. Describe the United Nations Biosafety Protocol concerning genetically altered foods.
5. List and describe consumer financial protection laws.
Chapter Outline
1. Introduction to Consumer Protection
2. Food Safety
1. Case 23.1 • United States of America v. LaGrou Distribution Systems, Incorporated
3. Food, Drugs, and Cosmetics Safety
1. LANDMARK LAW • Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act
2. ETHICS • Restaurants Required to Disclose Calories of Food Items
3. GLOBAL LAW • United Nations Biosafety Protocol for Genetically Altered Foods
4. Product and Automobile Safety
5. Medical and Health Care Protection
1. LANDMARK LAW • Health Care Reform Act of 2010
6. Unfair and Deceptive Practices
1. CONTEMPORARY ENVIRONMENT • Do-Not-Call Registry
7. Consumer Financial Protection
1. CONTEMPORARY ENVIRONMENT • Consumer Financial Protection Bureau
2. ETHICS • Credit CARD Act
3. BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT • Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act
“ I should regret to find that the law was powerless to enforce the most elementary principles of commercial morality.”
—Lord Herschell Reddaway v. Banham (1896)
Introduction to Consumer Protection and Product Safety
Originally, sales transactions in this country were guided by the principle of caveat emptor(“let the buyer beware”). This led to abusive practices by businesses that sold adulterated food products and other unsafe products. In response, federal and state governments have enacted a variety of statutes that regulate the safety of food, drugs, cosmetics, toys, vehicles, and other products. In addition, governments have enacted consumer financial protection laws that protect consumer-debtors in credit transactions. These laws are collectively referred to as consumer protection laws .
consumer protection laws
Federal and state statutes and regulations that promote product safety and prohibit abusive, unfair, and deceptive business practices.
This chapter covers consumer protection and product safety laws.
Food Safety
The safety of food is an important concern in the United States and worldwide. In the United States, the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) is the federal administrative agency that is responsible primarily for regulating meat, poultry, and other food products. The USDA conducts inspections of food-processing and storage facilities. The USDA can initiate legal proceedings against violators.
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)
A federal administrative agency that is responsible for regulating the safety of meat, poultry, and other food products.
The following case involve.
Chapter 18 When looking further into the EU’s Energy Security and.docxtiffanyd4
Chapter 18
: When looking further into the EU’s Energy Security and ICT sustainable urban development, and government policy efforts:
Q2
– What are the five ICT enablers of energy efficiency identified by European strategic research Road map to ICT enabled Energy-Efficiency in Buildings and constructions, (REEB, 2010)?
identify and name those
five ICT enablers
,
provide a brief narrative for each enabler,
note:
Need 400 words. Need references
Please find the attached
.
CHAPTER 17 Investor Protection and E-Securities TransactionsNe.docxtiffanyd4
CHAPTER 17 Investor Protection and E-Securities Transactions
New York Stock Exchange
This is the home of the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) in New York City. The NYSE, nicknamed the Big Board, is the premier stock exchange in the world. It lists the stocks and securities of approximately 3,000 of the world’s largest companies for trading. The origin of the NYSE dates to 1792, when several stockbrokers met under a buttonwood tree on Wall Street. The NYSE is located at 11 Wall Street, which has been designated a National Historic Landmark. The NYSE is now operated by NYSE Euronext, which was formed when the NYSE merged with the fully electronic stock exchange Euronext.
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Describe the procedure for going public and how securities are registered with the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC).
2. Describe e-securities transactions and public offerings.
3. Describe the requirements for qualifying for private placement, intrastate, and small offering exemptions from registration.
4. Describe insider trading that violates Section 10(b) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934.
5. Describe the changes made to securities law by the Jumpstart Our Business Startups (JOBS) Act and its effect on raising capital by small businesses.
Chapter Outline
1. Introduction to Investor Protection and E-Securities Transactions
2. Securities Law
1. LANDMARK LAW • Federal Securities Laws
3. Definition of Security
4. Initial Public Offering: Securities Act of 1933
1. BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT • Facebook’s Initial Public Offering
2. CONTEMPORARY ENVIRONMENT • Jumpstart Our Business Startups (JOBS) Act: Emerging Growth Company
5. E-Securities Transactions
1. DIGITAL LAW • Crowdfunding and Funding Portals
6. Exempt Securities
7. Exempt Transactions
8. Trading in Securities: Securities Exchange Act of 1934
9. Insider Trading
1. Case 17.1 • United States v. Bhagat
2. Case 17.2 • United States v. Kluger
3. ETHICS • Stop Trading on Congressional Knowledge Act
10. Short-Swing Profits
11. State “Blue-Sky” Laws
“The insiders here were not trading on an equal footing with the outside investors.”
—Judge Waterman Securities and Exchange Commission v. Texas Gulf Sulphur Company 401 F.2d 833, 1968 U.S. App. Lexis 5796 (1968)
Introduction to Investor Protection and E-Securities Transactions
Prior to the 1920s and 1930s, the securities markets in this country were not regulated by the federal government. Securities were issued and sold to investors with little, if any, disclosure. Fraud in these transactions was common. To respond to this lack of regulation, in the early 1930s Congress enacted federal securities statutes to regulate the securities markets, including the Securities Act of 1933 and the Securities Exchange Act of 1934. The federal securities statutes were designed to require disclosure of information to investors, provide for the regulation of securities issues and trading, and prevent fraud. Today, many .
Chapter 13 Law, Ethics, and Educational Leadership Making the Con.docxtiffanyd4
Chapter 13 Law, Ethics, and Educational Leadership: Making the Connection
Introduction
This chapter presents examples from the ISLLC standards of the relationship between law and ethics. The chapter also provides examples of how knowledge of law and the application of ethical principles to decision making helps guide school leaders through the sometimes treacherous waters of educational leadership.
Focus Questions
1. How may ethical considerations and legal knowledge guide school leader decision making?
2. Why is it important to consider a balance between these two sometimes competing concepts?
Case Study So Many Detentions, So Little Time
Jefferson Middle School (JMS) was the most racially and culturally diverse of the three middle schools in Riverboat School District, a relatively affluent bedroom community within commuter distance of Capital City. Unfortunately, the culture of Jefferson Middle School was not going well. Over the past 5 years, assistant superintendent Sharon Grey had seen JMS become a school divided by an underlying animosity along racial and socioeconomic lines. This animosity was characterized by numerous clashes between student groups, between teachers and students, between campus administrators and teachers, and between teachers and parents. Sharon finally concluded that JMS was a “mess.”
After much thought and a few sleepless nights, Sharon as part of her job description made the recommendation to the Riverboat school board to not reemploy Jeremy Smith as principal of JMS. Immediately after the board decision, Sharon organized a search committee of teachers, parents, and campus administrators and began the process of finding the right principal for JMS. The committee finally agreed on Charleston Jones. Charleston was a relatively inexperienced campus administrator but had impressed the committee with his instructional leadership knowledge, intelligence, and youthful energy. However, the job of stabilizing JMS was proving to be more of a challenge than anyone had anticipated.
Charleston had instituted a schoolwide discipline plan and had insisted that teachers and school administrators not deviate from the plan. However, he could sense that things were still not right. Animosity among student and parent groups remained just below the surface, ready to erupt at the slightest provocation. Clashes between teachers and students were still relatively frequent. Teachers still blamed one another, school administrators, and the school resource officer for a lack of order in the school. Change was not coming quickly to RMS, and Charleston understood that although school management had improved, several aspects of school culture were less than desirable. Student suspension rates remained high, and parental support was waning. As one of the assistant principals remarked after the umpteenth student referral, “So many detentions, so little time!”
Charleston felt the need to talk. He reached for the phone and made an appointment with.
Chapter 12 presented strategic planning and performance with Int.docxtiffanyd4
Chapter 12 presented strategic planning and performance with Intuit. Define Key Performance Indicators (KPI) and Key Risk Indicators (KRI)? How does an organization come up with these key indicators? Do you know of any top-down indicators? Do you know of any bottom-up indicators? Give some examples of both. In what way does identifying these indicators help an organization? Are there any other key indicators that would help an organization?
Requirements:
Initial posting by Wednesday
Reply to at least 2 other classmates by Sunday (Post a response on different days throughout the week)
Provide a minimum of 2 references on the initial post and one reference any response posts.
Proper APA Format (References & Citations)/No plagiarism
.
ChapterTool KitChapter 7102715Corporate Valuation and Stock Valu.docxtiffanyd4
ChapterTool KitChapter 710/27/15Corporate Valuation and Stock Valuation7-4 Valuing Common Stocks—Introducing the Free Cash Flow (FCF) Valuation ModelData for B&B Corporation (Millions)Constant free cash flow (FCF) =$10Weighted average cost of capital (WACC) =10%Short-term investments =$2Debt =$28Preferred stock =$4Number of shares of common stock =5The first step is to estimate the value of operations, which is the present value of all expected free cash flows. Because the FCF's are expected to be constant, this is a perpetuity. The present value of a perpetuity is the cash flow divided by the cost of capital:Value of operations (Vop) =FCF/WACCValue of operations (Vop) =$100.00millionB&B's total value is the sum of value of operations and the short-term investments: Value of operations$100+ ST investments$2Estimated total intrinsic value$102The next step is to estimate the intrinsic value of equity, which is the remaining total value after accounting for the claims of debtholders and preferred stockholders: Value of operations$100+ ST investments$2Estimated total intrinsic value$102− All debt$28− Preferred stock$4Estimated intrinsic value of equity$70The final step is to estimate the intrinsic common stock price per share, which is the estimated intrinsic value of equity divided by the number of shares of common stock: Value of operations$100+ ST investments$2Estimated total intrinsic value$102− All debt$28− Preferred stock$4Estimated intrinsic value of equity$70÷ Number of shares5Estimated intrinsic stock price =$14.00The figure below shows a summary of the previous calculations.Figure 7-2B&B Corporation's Sources of Value and Claims on Value (Millions of Dollars except Per Share Data)Inputs:Valuation AnalysisConstant free cash flow (FCF) =$10Value of operations$100Weighted average cost of capital (WACC) =10%+ ST investments$2Short-term investments =$2Estimated total intrinsic value$102Debt =$28− All debt$28Preferred stock =$4− Preferred stock$4Number of shares of common stock =5Estimated intrinsic value of equity$70÷ Number of shares5Estimated intrinsic stock price$14.00Data for Pie ChartsShort-term investments =$2Value of operations =$100Total =$102Debt =$28Preferred stock =$4Estimated equity value =$70Total =$1027-5 The Constant Growth Model: Valuation when Expected Free Cash Flow Grows at a Constant RateCase 1: The expected free cash flow at t=1 and the expected constant growth rate after t=1 are known.First expected free cash flow (FCF1) =$105Weighted average cost of capital (WACC) =9%Constant growth rate (gL) =5%When free cash flows are expected to grow at a constant rate, the value of operations is:Value of operations (Vop) =FCF1 / [WACC-gL]Value of operations (Vop) =$2,625Case 2: Constant growth is expected to begin immediately.Most recent free cash flow (FCF0) =$200Weighted average cost of capital (WACC) =12%Constant growth rate (gL) =7%When free cash flows are expected to grow at a constant rate, the value of operations is:.
CHAPTER 12Working with Families and CommunitiesNAEYC Administr.docxtiffanyd4
CHAPTER 12
Working with Families and Communities
NAEYC Administrator Competencies Addressed in This Chapter:
Management Knowledge and Skills
6. Family Support
· Knowledge and application of family systems and different parenting styles
· The ability to implement program practices that support families of diverse cultural, ethnic, linguistic, and socio-economic backgrounds
· The ability to support families as valued partners in the educational process
3. Staff Management and Human Relations
· The ability to relate to staff and board members of diverse racial, cultural, and ethnic backgrounds
7. Marketing and Public Relations
· The ability to promote linkages with local schools
9. Oral and Written Communication
· Knowledge of oral communication techniques, including establishing rapport, preparing the environment, active listening, and voicecontrol
· The ability to communicate ideas effectively in a formal presentation
Early Childhood Knowledge and Skills
6. Family and Community Relationships
· Knowledge of the diversity of family systems, traditional, non-traditional and alternative family structures, family life styles, and thedynamics of family life on the development of young children
· Knowledge of socio-cultural factors influencing contemporary families including the impact of language, religion, poverty, race,technology, and the media
· Knowledge of different community resources, assistance, and support available to children and families
· Knowledge of different strategies to promote reciprocal partnerships between home and center
· Ability to communicate effectively with parents through written and oral communication
· Ability to demonstrate awareness and appreciation of different cultural and familial practices and customs
· Knowledge of child rearing patterns in other countries
10. Professionalism
· Ability to make professional judgments based on the NAEYC “Code of Ethical Conduct and Statement of Commitment”
Learning Outcomes
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
1. Explain three approaches that programs of early care and education might take to working with families.
2. Identify some of the benefits enjoyed by children, families, and programs when families are engaged with the programs serving theiryoung children.
3. Describe some effective strategies for building trusting relationships with all families.
4. Identify the stakeholder groups and the kinds of expertise that should be represented on programs’ advisory committees and boardsof directors.
Grace’s Experience
The program that Grace directs has been an important part of the neighborhood for more than 20 years. She knows she is benefiting from thegoodwill it has earned over the years. It is respected because of its tradition of high-quality outreach projects, such as the sing-along the childrenpresent at the senior center in the spring. The program’s tradition of community involvement has meant that local businesses have always beenwilling to help out when asked fo.
Chapter 10. Political Socialization The Making of a CitizenLear.docxtiffanyd4
Chapter 10. Political Socialization: The Making of a Citizen
Learning Objectives
· 1Describe the model citizen in democratic theory and explain the concept.
· 2Define socialization and explain the relevance of this concept in the study of politics.
· 3Explain how a disparate population of individuals and groups (families, clans, and tribes) can be forged into a cohesive society.
· 4Demonstrate how socialization affects political behavior and analyze what happens when socialization fails.
· 5Characterize the role of television and the Internet in influencing people’s political beliefs and behavior, and evaluate their impact on the quality of citizenship in contemporary society.
The year is 1932. The Soviet Union is suffering a severe shortage of food, and millions go hungry. Joseph Stalin, leader of the Communist Party and head of the Soviet government, has undertaken a vast reordering of Soviet agriculture that eliminates a whole class of landholders (the kulaks) and collectivizes all farmland. Henceforth, every farm and all farm products belong to the state. To deter theft of what is now considered state property, the Soviet government enacts a law prohibiting individual farmers from appropriating any grain for their own private use. Acting under this law, a young boy reports his father to the authorities for concealing grain. The father is shot for stealing state property. Soon after, the boy is killed by a group of peasants, led by his uncle, who are outraged that he would betray his own father. The government, taking a radically different view of the affair, extols the boy as a patriotic martyr.
Stalin considered the little boy in this story a model citizen, a hero. How citizenship is defined says a lot about a government and the philosophy or ideology that underpins it.
The Good Citizen
Stalin’s celebration of a child’s act of betrayal as heroic points to a distinction Aristotle originally made: The good citizen is defined by laws, regimes, and rulers, but the moral fiber (and universal characteristics) of a good person is fixed, and it transcends the expectations of any particular political regime.*
Good citizenship includes behaving in accordance with the rules, norms, and expectations of our own state and society. Thus, the actual requirements vary widely. A good citizen in Soviet Russia of the 1930s was a person whose first loyalty was to the Communist Party. The test of good citizenship in a totalitarian state is this: Are you willing to subordinate all personal convictions and even family loyalties to the dictates of political authority, and to follow the dictator’s whims no matter where they may lead? In marked contrast are the standards of citizenship in constitutional democracies, which prize and protect freedom of conscience and speech.
Where the requirements of the abstract good citizen—always defined by the state—come into conflict with the moral compass of actual citizens, and where the state seeks to obscure or obliterate t.
Chapters one and twoAnswer the questions in complete paragraphs .docxtiffanyd4
Chapters one and two
Answer the questions in complete paragraphs (at least 3), APA style (citations/references) and make sure to separate/number the answers
1. Explain the differences between Classic Autism and Asperger Disorder according to the DSM-V (Diagnostic Statistical Manual of the American Psychiatric Association).
2. How is ASD identified and diagnosed? Name and describe some of the measurement tools.
3. Describe the characteristics of ASD under each criterion: a) language deficits, b) social differences, c) behavior, and d) motor deficits.
4. List and describe the evidence-base practices for educating ASD children discussed in chapter 2.
5. Describe the differences between a focused intervention and comprehensive treatment models.
6. What are the components of effective instruction for students with ASD?
.
ChapterTool KitChapter 1212912Corporate Valuation and Financial .docxtiffanyd4
ChapterTool KitChapter 1212/9/12Corporate Valuation and Financial Planning12-2 Financial Planning at MicroDrive, Inc.The process used by MicroDrive to forecast the free cash flows from its operating plan is described in the sections below.Setting Up the Model to Forecast OperationsWe begin with MicroDrive's most recent financial statements and selected additional data.Figure 12-1 MicroDrive’s Most Recent Financial Statements (Millions, Except for Per Share Data)INCOME STATEMENTSBALANCE SHEETS20122013Assets20122013Net sales$ 4,760$ 5,000Cash$ 60$ 50COGS (excl. depr.)3,5603,800ST Investments40-Depreciation170200Accounts receivable380500Other operating expenses480500Inventories8201,000EBIT$ 550$ 500Total CA$ 1,300$ 1,550Interest expense100120Net PP&E1,7002,000Pre-tax earnings$ 450$ 380Total assets$ 3,000$ 3,550Taxes (40%)180152NI before pref. div.$ 270$ 228Liabilities and equityPreferred div.88Accounts payable$ 190$ 200Net income$ 262$ 220Accruals280300Notes payable130280Other DataTotal CL$ 600$ 780Common dividends$48$50Long-term bonds1,0001,200Addition to RE$214$170Total liabilities$ 1,600$ 1,980Tax rate40%40%Preferred stock100100Shares of common stock5050Common stock500500Earnings per share$5.24$4.40Retained earnings800970Dividends per share$0.96$1.00Total common equity$ 1,300$ 1,470Price per share$40.00$27.00Total liabs. & equity$ 3,000$ 3,550The figure below shows all the inputs required to project the financial statements for the scenario that has been selected with the Scenario Manager: Data, What-If Analysis, Scenario Manager. There are two scenarios. The first is named Status Quo because all operating ratios except the sales growth rate are assumed to remain unchanged. The initial sales growth rate was chosen by MicroDrive's managers based on the existing product lines. The growth rate declines over time until it eventually levels off at a sustainable rate. The other scenario is named Final because it is the set of inputs chosen by MicroDrive's management team.Section 1 shows the inputs required to estimate the items in an operating plan. For each of these inputs, Section 1 shows the industry averages, the actual values for the past two years for MicroDrive, and the forecasted values for the next five years. The managers assumed the inputs for future years (except the sales growth rate) would be equal to the inputs in the first projected year.MicroDrive's managers assume that sales will eventually level off at a sustaniable constant rate.Sections 2 and 3 show the data required to estimate the weighted average cost of capital. Section 4 shows the forecasted growth rate in dividends.Note: These inputs are linked throughout the model. If you want to change an input, do it here and not other places in the model.Figure 12-2MicroDrive's Forecast: Inputs for the Selected ScenarioStatus QuoIndustryMicroDriveMicroDriveInputsActualActualForecast1. Operating Ratios2013201220132014201520162017201.
Chapters 4-6 Preparing Written MessagesPrepari.docxtiffanyd4
Chapters 4-6: Preparing Written Messages
Preparing Written Messages
Lesson Outline
Seven Steps to Preparing Written Messages
Effective Sentences and Coherent Paragraphs
Revise to Grab Your Audience’s Attention
Improve Readability
Proofread and Revise
Seven Steps to Preparing
Written Messages
Seven Preparation Steps
Step 1: Consider Contextual Forces
Step 2: Determine Purpose, Channel, and Medium
Step 3: Envision Audience
Step 4: Adapt Message to Audience Needs and Concerns
Step 5: Organize the Message
Step 6: Prepare First Draft
Step 7: Revise, Edit, and Proofread
Effective Sentences and
Coherent Paragraphs
Step 6: Prepare the First Draft
Proceed Deductively or Inductively
Know Logical Sequence of Minor Points
Write rapidly with Intent to Rewrite
Use Active More Than Passive Voice
Craft Powerful Sentences
Rely on Active Voice—Subject Doer of Action
(Passive—Subject Receiver of Action Sentence Is Less Emphatic)
Passive Voice Uses
Conceal the Doer/Avoid Finger Pointing
Doer Is Unknown
Place More Emphasis on What Was Done
(Receiver of Action)
5
Emphasize Important Ideas
Techniques
Sentence Structure—place important ideas in simple sentences/place in independent clauses (emphasis)
Repetition—repeat a word in a sentence
Labeling Words—use words that signal important
Position—position it first or last in a clause, sentence, paragraph, or presentation
Space and Format—use extraordinary amount of space for important items or use headings
Develop Coherent Paragraphs
Develop Deductive/Inductive Paragraphs Consistently
Link Ideas to Achieve Coherence
Keep Paragraphs Unified
Vary Sentence and Paragraph Length
Position Topic Sentences and
Link Ideas
Deductive—topic sentence precedes details
Inductive—topic sentence follows details
Link Ideas to Achieve Coherence (Cohesion)
Repeat Word from Preceding Sentence
Use a Pronoun for a Noun in Preceding Sentence
Use Connecting Words (e.g., Conjunctive Adverbs)
Link Paragraphs by Using Transition Words
Use Transition Sentences before Headings,
But Not Subheadings
Paragraph Unity
Keep Paragraphs Unified—support must be focused on topic sentences
Ensure Paragraphs Cover Topic Sentence, But Do Not Write Extraneous Materials
Arrange Paragraphs in a Logical and Systematic Sequence
Vary Sentence and
Paragraph Length
Vary Sentence Length (Average—Short)
Vary Sentence Structure (Sentence Variety)
Vary Paragraph Length (Average—Short
8-10 Lines)
Changes in Tense, Voice, and Person in Paragraphs Are Discouraged
Revise to Grab
Reader’s Attention
Cultivate a Frame of Mind (Mind-set) for Revising and Proofreading
Have Your Revising/Editing Space/Room
View from Audience Perspective (You Attitude)
Revise until No More Changes Would Improve the Document
Be Willing to Allow Others to Make Suggestions (Writer’s Pride of Ownership?)
Ensure Error-Free Messages
Use Visual Enhancements for More Readability
Add Only When They Aid Comprehension
Create an A.
How to Split Bills in the Odoo 17 POS ModuleCeline George
Bills have a main role in point of sale procedure. It will help to track sales, handling payments and giving receipts to customers. Bill splitting also has an important role in POS. For example, If some friends come together for dinner and if they want to divide the bill then it is possible by POS bill splitting. This slide will show how to split bills in odoo 17 POS.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Students, digital devices and success - Andreas Schleicher - 27 May 2024..pptxEduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher presents at the OECD webinar ‘Digital devices in schools: detrimental distraction or secret to success?’ on 27 May 2024. The presentation was based on findings from PISA 2022 results and the webinar helped launch the PISA in Focus ‘Managing screen time: How to protect and equip students against distraction’ https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/managing-screen-time_7c225af4-en and the OECD Education Policy Perspective ‘Students, digital devices and success’ can be found here - https://oe.cd/il/5yV
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
We all have good and bad thoughts from time to time and situation to situation. We are bombarded daily with spiraling thoughts(both negative and positive) creating all-consuming feel , making us difficult to manage with associated suffering. Good thoughts are like our Mob Signal (Positive thought) amidst noise(negative thought) in the atmosphere. Negative thoughts like noise outweigh positive thoughts. These thoughts often create unwanted confusion, trouble, stress and frustration in our mind as well as chaos in our physical world. Negative thoughts are also known as “distorted thinking”.
The Art Pastor's Guide to Sabbath | Steve ThomasonSteve Thomason
What is the purpose of the Sabbath Law in the Torah. It is interesting to compare how the context of the law shifts from Exodus to Deuteronomy. Who gets to rest, and why?
How to Create Map Views in the Odoo 17 ERPCeline George
The map views are useful for providing a geographical representation of data. They allow users to visualize and analyze the data in a more intuitive manner.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
GIÁO ÁN DẠY THÊM (KẾ HOẠCH BÀI BUỔI 2) - TIẾNG ANH 8 GLOBAL SUCCESS (2 CỘT) N...
Chapter 9 The People in Information Systems Learning Ob.docx
1. Chapter 9: The People in
Information Systems
Learning Objectives
Upon successful completion of this chapter, you will be
able to:
• describe each of the different roles that people play
in the design, development, and use of information
systems;
• understand the different career paths available to
those who work with information systems;
• explain the importance of where the information-
systems function is placed in an organization; and
• describe the different types of users of information
systems.
Introduction
The opening chapters of this text focused on the technology
behind
2. information systems, namely hardware, software, data, and
networking. The last chapter covered business processes and the
Chapter 9: The People in Information
Systems | 189
U. S. Bureau
of Labor
Statistics –
2020
Projections
key role they can play in the success of a business. This chapter
discusses people, the last component of an information system.
People are involved in information systems in just about every
way. People imagine information systems, people develop
information systems, people support information systems, and,
perhaps most importantly, people use information systems.
The Creators of Information Systems
The first group of people to be considered play a role in
designing,
developing, and building information systems. These people are
generally technical and have a background in programming,
3. analysis, information security, or database design. Just about
everyone who works in the creation of information systems has
a
minimum of a bachelor’s degree in computer science or
information
systems, though that is not necessarily a requirement. The
process
of creating information systems will be covered in more detail
in
Chapter 10.
The following chart shows the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
projections for computing career employment in 2020.
190 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)
Systems Analyst
The systems analyst straddles the divide between identifying
business needs and imagining a new or redesigned system to
fulfill
those needs. This individual works with a team or department
seeking to identify business requirements and analyze the
specific
4. details of an existing system or a system that needs to be built.
Generally, the analyst is required to have a good understanding
of the business itself, the purpose of the business, the business
processes involved, and the ability to document them well. The
analyst identifies the different stakeholders in the system and
works
to involve the appropriate individuals in the analysis process.
Prior to analyzing the problem or the system of concern, the
analyst needs to a) clearly identify the problem, b) gain
approval for
the project, c) identify the stakeholders, and d) develop a plan
to
monitor the project. The analysis phase of the project can be
broken
down into five steps.
1. Seek out and identify the details
2. Specify requirements
3. Decide which requirements are most important
4. Create a dialog showing how the user interacts with the
existing system
5. 5. Ask users to critique the list of requirements that have been
developed
The analysis phase involves both the systems analyst and the
users. It is important to realize the role the users take in the
analysis
of the system. Users can have significant insights into how well
the
current system functions as well as suggest improvements.
Once the requirements are determined, the analyst begins the
process of translating these requirements into an information
systems design. It is important to understand which different
technological solutions will work and provide several
alternatives
to the client, based on the company’s budgetary constraints,
Chapter 9: The People in Information Systems | 191
technology constraints, and culture. Once the solution is
selected,
the analyst will create a detailed document describing the new
system. This new document will require that the analyst
6. understand
how to speak in the technical language of systems developers.
The design phase results in the components of the new system
being identified, including how they relate to one another. The
designer needs to communicate clearly with software developers
as
well database administrators by using terminology that is
consistent
with both of these specialties. The design phase of the project
can
be broken down into six steps.
1. Design the hardware environment
2. Design the software
3. Design how the new system will interface with the users
4. Design hardware interfaces
5. Design database tables
6. Design system security
A systems analyst generally is not the one who does the actual
development of the information system. The design document
created by the systems analyst provides the detail needed to
7. create
the system and is handed off to a developer to actually write the
software and to the database administrator to build the database
and tables that will be in the database.
Sometimes the system may be assembled from off-the-shelf
components by a person called a systems integrator. This is a
specific type of systems analyst that understands how to get
different software packages to work with each other.
To become a systems analyst, you should have a background
both
in the business analysis and in systems design. Many analysts
first
work as developers and have business experience before
becoming
system analysts. It is vital for analysts to clearly understand the
purpose of the business of interest, realizing that all businesses
are
unique.
192 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)
8. Programmer/Developer
Programmers spend their time writing computer code in a
programming language. In the case of systems development,
programmers generally attempt to fulfill the design
specifications
given to them by a systems analyst/designer. Many different
styles
of software development exist A programmer may work alone
for
long stretches of time or work as part of a team with other
developers. A programmer needs to be able to understand
complex
processes and also the intricacies of one or more programming
languages.
Computer Engineer
Computer engineers design the computing devices that are used
every day. There are many types of computer engineers who
work
on a variety of different types of devices and systems. Some of
the
more prominent computer engineering jobs are as follows:
9. • Hardware engineer. A hardware engineer designs hardware
and test components such as microprocessors, memory
devices, routers, and networks. Many times, a hardware
engineer is at the cutting edge of computing technology,
creating something brand new. Other times, the hardware
engineer’s job is to re-engineer an existing component to work
faster or use less power. Many times a hardware engineer’s job
is to write code to create a program that will be implemented
directly on a computer chip.
• Software engineer. Software engineers tend to focus on a
specific area of software such as operating systems, networks,
applications, or databases. Software engineers use three
primary skill areas: computer science, engineering, and
mathematics.
Chapter 9: The People in Information Systems | 193
• Systems engineer. A systems engineer takes the components
designed by other engineers and makes them all work
together, focusing on the integration of hardware and
software. For example, to build a computer the mother board,
10. processor, memory, and hard disk all have to work together. A
systems engineer has experience with many different types of
hardware and software and knows how to integrate them to
create new functionality.
• Network engineer. A network engineer understands the
networking requirements of an organization and then designs
a communications system to meet those needs, using the
networking hardware and software, sometimes referred to as a
network operating system. Network engineers design both
local area networks as well as wide area networks.
There are many different types of computer engineers, and often
the job descriptions overlap. While many may call themselves
engineers based on a company job title, there is also a
professional
designation of “professional engineer” which has specific
requirements. In the United States each state has its own set of
requirements for the use of this title, as do different countries
around the world. Most often, it involves a professional
licensing
11. exam.
Information Systems Operations and
Administration
Another group of information systems professionals are
involved in
the day-to-day operations and administration of IT. These
people
must keep the systems running and up-to-date so that the rest
of the organization can make the most effective use of these
resources.
194 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)
Computer Operator
A computer operator is the person who oversees the mainframe
computers and data centers in organizations. Some of their
duties
include keeping the operating systems up to date, ensuring
available
memory and disk storage, providing for redundancy (think
electricity, connectivity to the Internet, and database backups),
and
12. overseeing the physical environment of the computer. Since
mainframe computers increasingly have been replaced with
servers,
storage management systems, and other platforms, computer
operators’ jobs have grown broader and include working with
these
specialized systems.
Database Administrator
A Database Administrator (DBA) is the person who designs and
manages the databases for an organization. This person creates
and
maintains databases that are used as part of applications or the
data warehouse. The DBA also consults with systems analysts
and
programmers on projects that require access to or the creation
of
databases.
Help Desk/Support Analyst
Most mid-size to large organizations have their own information
technology help desk. The help desk is the first line of support
for
13. computer users in the company. Computer users who are having
problems or need information can contact the help desk for
assistance. Many times a help desk worker is a junior level
employee
who is able to answer basic issues that users need assistance
with.
Help desk analysts work with senior level support analysts or
have a
Chapter 9: The People in Information Systems | 195
computer knowledgebase at their disposal to help them
investigate
the problem at hand. The help desk is a great place to break into
working in IT because it exposes you to all of the different
technologies within the company. A successful help desk
analyst
should have good communications skills and a sincere interest
in
helping users.
Trainer
A computer trainer conducts classes to teach people specific
14. computer skills. For example, if a new ERP system is being
installed
in an organization, one part of the implementation process is to
teach all of the users how to use the new system. A trainer may
work
for a software company and be contracted to come in to conduct
classes when needed; a trainer may work for a company that
offers
regular training sessions. Or a trainer may be employed full
time for
an organization to handle all of their computer instruction
needs.
To be successful as a trainer you need to be able to
communicate
technical concepts clearly and demonstrate patience with
learners.
Managing Information Systems
The management of information-systems functions is critical to
the success of information systems within the organization.
Here
are some of the jobs associated with the management of
information systems.
15. 196 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)
CIO
The Chief Information Officer (CIO) is the head of the
information-
systems function. This person aligns the plans and operations of
the
information systems with the strategic goals of the organization.
Tasks include budgeting, strategic planning, and personnel
decisions for the information systems function. The CIO must
also
be the face of the IT department within the organization. This
involves working with senior leaders in all parts of the
organization
to ensure good communication, planning, and budgeting.
Interestingly, the CIO position does not necessarily require a lot
of technical expertise. While helpful, it is more important for
this
person to have good management skills and understand the
business. Many organizations do not have someone with the title
16. of CIO. Instead, the head of the information systems function is
called the Vice President of Information Systems or Director of
Information Systems.
Functional Manager
As an information systems organization becomes larger, many
of
the different functions are grouped together and led by a
manager.
These functional managers report to the CIO and manage the
employees specific to their function. For example, in a large
organization there are a group of systems analysts who report to
a manager of the systems analysis function. For more insight
into
how this might look, see the discussion later in the chapter of
how
information systems are organized.
Chapter 9: The People in Information Systems | 197
Gantt Chart
for
managing
projects
17. ERP Management
Organizations using an ERP require one or more individuals to
manage these systems. EPR managers make sure that the ERP
system is completely up to date, work to implement any changes
to
the ERP that are needed, and consult with various user
departments
on needed reports or data extracts.
Project Managers
Information systems projects are notorious for going over
budget
and being delivered late. In many cases a failed IT project can
spell
doom for a company. A project manager is responsible for
keeping
projects on time and on budget. This person works with the
stakeholders of the project to keep the team organized and
communicates the status of the project to management. Gantt
charts, shown above, are used to graphically illustrate a
project’s
schedule, tasks, and resources.
18. A project manager does not have authority over the project
team.
198 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)
Instead, the project manager coordinates schedules and
resources
in order to maximize the project outcomes. This leader must be
a
good communicator and an extremely organized person. A
project
manager should also have good people skills. Many
organizations
require each of their project managers to become certified as a
Project Management Professional (PMP).
Information Security Officer
An information security officer is in charge of setting
information
security policies for an organization and then overseeing the
implementation of those policies. This person may have one or
more
people reporting to them as part of the information security
team.
19. As information has become a critical asset, this position has
become
highly valued. The information security officer must ensure that
the
organization’s information remains secure from both internal
and
external threats.
Emerging Roles
As technology evolves many new roles are becoming more
common
as other roles diminish. For example, as we enter the age of
“big
data,” we are seeing the need for more data analysts and
business
intelligence specialists. Many companies are now hiring social
media experts and mobile technology specialists. The increased
use
of cloud computing and Virtual Machine (VM) technologies
also is
increasing demand for expertise in those areas.
Chapter 9: The People in Information Systems | 199
http://www.pmi.org/Certification/Project-Management-
20. Professional-PMP.aspx
Career Paths in Information Systems
(click to enlarge)
Career Paths in Information Systems
These job descriptions do not
represent all possible jobs
within an information systems
organization. Larger
organizations will have more
specialized roles, while smaller
organizations may combine
some of these roles. Many of
these roles may exist outside of
a traditional information-
systems organization, as we will
discuss below.
Working with information
systems can be a rewarding
21. career choice. Whether you
want to be involved in very
technical jobs (programmer,
database administrator), or you
want to be involved in working
with people (systems analyst, trainer, project manager), there
are
many different career paths available.
Many times those in technical jobs who want career
advancement
find themselves in a dilemma. A person can continue doing
technical work, where sometimes their advancement options are
limited, or become a manager of other employees and put
themselves on a management career track. In many cases those
proficient in technical skills are not gifted with managerial
skills.
Some organizations, especially those that highly value their
technically skilled employees, create a technical track that
exists in
parallel to the management track so that they can retain
22. employees
who are contributing to the organization with their technical
skills.
200 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)
https://opentextbook.site/informationsystems2019/wp-
content/uploads/sites/3/2018/07/Career-Paths.png
https://opentextbook.site/informationsystems2019/wp-
content/uploads/sites/3/2018/07/Career-Paths.png
CISCO certification badge
Sidebar: Are Certifications Worth Pursuing?
As technology becomes more important to businesses, hiring
employees with technical skills is becoming critical. But how
can
an organization ensure that the person they are hiring has the
necessary skills? Many organizations are including technical
certifications as a prerequisite for getting hired.
Cisco Certified Internetwork Expert.
Certifications are
designations given by a
certifying body that someone
23. has a specific level of
knowledge in a specific
technology. This certifying
body is often the vendor of the
product itself, though
independent certifying
organizations, such as
CompTIA, also exist. Many of these organizations offer
certification
tracks, allowing a beginning certificate as a prerequisite to
getting
more advanced certificates. To get a certificate, you generally
attend one or more training classes and then take one or more
certification exams. Passing the exams with a certain score will
qualify you for a certificate. In most cases, these classes and
certificates are not free. In fact a highly technical certification
can
cost thousands dollars. Some examples of the certifications in
highest demand include Microsoft (software certifications),
Cisco
24. (networking), and SANS (security).
For many working in IT, determining whether to pursue one or
more of these certifications is an important question. For many
jobs,
Chapter 9: The People in Information Systems | 201
http://certification.comptia.org/home.aspx
http://www.microsoft.com/learning/en/us/certification-
overview.aspx
http://www.cisco.com/web/learning/certifications/index.html
http://www.sans.org/
such as those involving networking or security, a certificate will
be
required by the employer as a way to determine which potential
employees have a basic level of skill. For those who are already
in
an IT career, a more advanced certificate may lead to a
promotion.
For those wondering about the importance of certification, the
best
solution is to talk to potential employers and those already
working
in the field to determine the best choice.
25. Organizing the Information Systems
Function
In the early years of computing, the information-systems
function
(generally called “data processing”) was placed in the finance
or
accounting department of the organization. As computing
became
more important, a separate information-systems function was
formed, but it still was generally placed under the Chief
Financial
Officer and considered to be an administrative function of the
company. By the 1980s and 1990s, when companies began
networking internally and then connecting to the Internet, the
information systems function was combined with the
telecommunications functions and designated as the Information
Technology (IT) department. As the role of information
technology
continued to increase, its place in the organization became more
important. In many organizations today, the head of IT (the
CIO)
reports directly to the CEO.
26. Where in the Organization Should IS Be?
Before the advent of the personal computer, the information
202 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)
systems function was centralized within organizations in order
to
maximize control over computing resources. When the PC began
proliferating, many departments within organizations saw it as a
chance to gain some computing resources for themselves. Some
departments created an internal information systems group,
complete with systems analysts, programmers, and even
database
administrators. These departmental IS groups were dedicated to
the information needs of their own departments, providing
quicker
turnaround and higher levels of service than a centralized IT
department. However, having several IS groups within an
organization led to a lot of inefficiencies. There were now
several
people performing the same jobs in different departments. This
27. decentralization also led to company data being stored in
several
places all over the company.
In some organizations a matrix reporting structure developed in
which IT personnel were placed within a department and
reported
to both the department management and the functional
management within IS. The advantages of dedicated IS
personnel
for each department must be weighed against the need for more
control over the strategic information resources of the company.
For many companies, these questions are resolved by the
implementation of the ERP system (see discussion of ERP in
Chapter
8). Because an ERP system consolidates most corporate data
back
into a single database, the implementation of an ERP system
requires organizations to find “silos” of data so that they can
integrate them back into the corporate system. The ERP allows
organizations to regain control of their information and
influences
28. organizational decisions throughout the company.
Outsourcing
Frequently an organization needs a specific skill for a limited
period
of time. Instead of training existing employees or hiring new
staff,
Chapter 9: The People in Information Systems | 203
it may make more sense to outsource the job. Outsourcing can
be
used in many different situations within the information systems
function, such as the design and creation of a new website or
the
upgrade of an ERP system. Some organizations see outsourcing
as a
cost-cutting move, contracting out a whole group or department.
New Models of Organizations
The integration of information technology has influenced the
structure of organizations. The increased ability to communicate
and share information has led to a “flattening” of the
organizational
29. structure due to the removal of one or more layers of
management.
The network-based organizational structure is another changed
enabled by information systems. In a network-based
organizational
structure, groups of employees can work somewhat
independently
to accomplish a project. People with the right skills are brought
together for a project and then released to work on other
projects
when that project is over. These groups are somewhat informal
and
allow for all members of the group to maximize their
effectiveness.
Information Systems Users – Types of Users
Besides the people who work to create, administer, and manage
information systems, there is one more extremely important
group
of people, namely, the users of information systems. This group
represents a very large percentage of an organization’s
employees.
If the user is not able to successfully learn and use an
30. information
system, the system is doomed to failure.
Technology adoption user types
204 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)
Diffusion of Innovation (click to
enlarge)
One tool that can be used to
understand how users will
adopt a new technology comes
from a 1962 study by Everett
Rogers. In his book, Diffusion of
Innovation,[1]Rogers studied
how farmers adopted new
technologies and noticed that
the adoption rate started slowly
and then dramatically
increased once adoption hit a
31. certain point. He identified five specific types of technology
adopters:
• Innovators. Innovators are the first individuals to adopt a new
technology. Innovators are willing to take risks, are the
youngest in age, have the highest social class, have great
financial liquidity, are very social, and have the closest contact
with scientific sources and interaction with other innovators.
Risk tolerance is high so there is a willingness to adopt
technologies thast may ultimately fail. Financial resources help
absorb these failures (Rogers, 1962, p. 282).
• Early adopters. The early adopters are those who adopt
innovation soon after a technology has been introduced and
proven. These individuals have the highest degree of opinion
leadership among the other adopter categories, which means
that these adopters can influence the opinions of the largest
majority. Characteristics include being younger in age, having a
higher social status, possessing more financial liquidity, having
advanced education, and being more socially aware than later
adopters. These adopters are more discrete in adoption
32. choices than innovators, and realize judicious choice of
adoption will help them maintain a central communication
position (Rogers, 1962, p. 283).
• Early majority. Individuals in this category adopt an
innovation
Chapter 9: The People in Information Systems | 205
https://opentextbook.site/informationsystems2019/wp-
content/uploads/sites/3/2018/07/diffusion-of-innovation.png
https://opentextbook.site/informationsystems2019/wp-
content/uploads/sites/3/2018/07/diffusion-of-innovation.png
after a varying degree of time. This time of adoption is
significantly longer than the innovators and early adopters.
This group tends to be slower in the adoption process, has
above average social status, has contact with early adopters,
and seldom holds positions of opinion leadership in a system
(Rogers, 1962, p. 283).
• Late majority. The late majority will adopt an innovation after
the average member of the society. These individuals approach
an innovation with a high degree of skepticism, have below
average social status, very little financial liquidity, are in
33. contact with others in the late majority and the early majority,
and show very little opinion leadership.
• Laggards. Individuals in this category are the last to adopt an
innovation. Unlike those in the previous categories, individuals
in this category show no opinion leadership. These individuals
typically have an aversion to change agents and tend to be
advanced in age. Laggards typically tend to be focused on
“traditions,” are likely to have the lowest social status and the
lowest financial liquidity, be oldest of all other adopters, and be
in contact with only family and close friends.[2]
These five types of users can be translated into information
technology adopters as well, and provide additional insight into
how
to implement new information systems within the organization.
For
example, when rolling out a new system, IT may want to
identify
the innovators and early adopters within the organization and
work
with them first, then leverage their adoption to drive the rest of
the
34. implementation to the other users.
Summary
In this chapter we have reviewed the many different categories
of individuals who make up the people component of
information
206 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)
systems. The world of information technology is changing so
fast
that new roles are being created all the time and roles that
existed
for decades are being phased out. This chapter this chapter
should
have given you a good idea and appreciation for the importance
of
the people component of information systems.
Study Questions
1. Describe the role of a systems analyst.
2. What are some of the different roles for a computer engineer?
3. What are the duties of a computer operator?
4. What does the CIO do?
35. 5. Describe the job of a project manager.
6. Explain the point of having two different career paths in
information systems.
7. What are the advantages and disadvantages of centralizing
the
IT function?
8. What impact has information technology had on the way
companies are organized?
9. What are the five types of information-systems users?
10. Why would an organization outsource?
Exercises
1. Which IT job would you like to have? Do some original
research and write a two-page paper describing the duties of
the job you are interested in.
2. Spend a few minutes on Dice or Monster to find IT jobs in
your
area. What IT jobs are currently available? Write up a two-page
Chapter 9: The People in Information Systems | 207
http://dice.com/
36. http://monster.com/
paper describing three jobs, their starting salary (if listed), and
the skills and education needed for the job.
3. How is the IT function organized in your school or place of
employment? Create an organization chart showing how the IT
organization fits into your overall organization. Comment on
how centralized or decentralized the IT function is.
4. What type of IT user are you? Take a look at the five types of
technology adopters and then write a one-page summary of
where you think you fit in this model.
Lab
1. Define each job in the list, then ask 10 friends to identify
which
jobs they have heard about or know something about. Tabulate
your results.
2. Chief marketing technologist
3. Developer evangelist
4. Ethical hacker
37. 5. Business intelligence analyst
6. Digital marketing manager
7. Growth hacker
8. UX designer
9. Cloud architect
10. Data detective
11. Master of edge computing
12. Digital prophet
13. NOC specialist
14. SEO/SEM specialist
1. Rogers, E. M. (1962). Diffusion of innovations. New York:
Free
Press↵
208 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)
2. Rogers, E. M. (1962). Diffusion of innovations. New York:
Free
Press↵
Chapter 9: The People in Information Systems | 209
38. Chapter 10: Information
Systems Development
Learning Objectives
Upon successful completion of this chapter, you will be
able to:
• Explain the overall process of developing new
software;
• Explain the differences between software
development methodologies;
• Understand the different types of programming
languages used to develop software;
• Understand some of the issues surrounding the
development of websites and mobile applications; and
• Identify the four primary implementation policies.
Introduction
When someone has an idea for a new function to be performed
by
a computer, how does that idea become reality? If a company
39. wants
to implement a new business process and needs new hardware or
210 | Chapter 10: Information
Systems Development
Software
development
methodologie
s
software to support it, how do they go about making it happen?
This chapter covers the different methods of taking those ideas
and
bringing them to reality, a process known as information
systems
development.
Programming
Software is created via programming, as discussed in Chapter 2.
Programming is the process of creating a set of logical
instructions
for a digital device to follow using a programming language.
The
process of programming is sometimes called “coding” because
the
40. developer takes the design and encodes it into a programming
language which then runs on the computer.
The process of developing good software is usually not as
simple
as sitting down and writing some code. Sometimes a
programmer
can quickly write a short program to solve a need, but in most
instances the creation of software is a resource-intensive
process
that involves several different groups of people in an
organization.
In order to do this effectively, the groups agree to follow a
specific
software development methodology. The following sections
review
several different methodologies for software development, as
summarized in the table below and more fully described in the
following sections.
Chapter 10: Information Systems Development | 211
41. Systems Development Life Cycle
The Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) was first
developed in
the 1960s to manage the large software projects associated with
corporate systems running on mainframes. This approach to
software development is very structured and risk averse,
designed
to manage large projects that include multiple programmers and
systems that have a large impact on the organization. It requires
a clear, upfront understanding of what the software is supposed
to do and is not amenable to design changes. This approach is
roughly similar to an assembly line process, where it is clear to
all stakeholders what the end product should do and that major
changes are difficult and costly to implement.
Various definitions of the SDLC methodology exist, but most
contain the following phases.
1. Preliminary Analysis. A request for a replacement or new
system is first reviewed. The review includes questions such
as: What is the problem-to-be-solved? Is creating a solution
42. possible? What alternatives exist? What is currently being
done about it? Is this project a good fit for our organization?
After addressing these question, a feasibility study is launched.
The feasibility study includes an analysis of the technical
feasibility, the economic feasibility or affordability, and the
legal feasibility. This step is important in determining if the
project should be initiated and may be done by someone with a
title of Requirements Analyst or Business Analyst
2. System Analysis. In this phase one or more system analysts
work with different stakeholder groups to determine the
specific requirements for the new system. No programming is
done in this step. Instead, procedures are documented, key
players/users are interviewed, and data requirements are
developed in order to get an overall impression of exactly what
the system is supposed to do. The result of this phase is a
212 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)
system requirements document and may be done by someone
43. with a title of Systems Analyst
3. System Design. In this phase, a designer takes the system
requirements document created in the previous phase and
develops the specific technical details required for the system.
It is in this phase that the business requirements are translated
into specific technical requirements. The design for the user
interface, database, data inputs and outputs, and reporting are
developed here. The result of this phase is a system design
document. This document will have everything a programmer
needs to actually create the system and may be done by
someone with a title of Systems Analyst, Developer, or Systems
Architect, based on the scale of the project.
4. Programming. The code finally gets written in the
programming phase. Using the system design document as a
guide, programmers develop the software. The result of this
phase is an initial working program that meets the
requirements specified in the system analysis phase and the
design developed in the system design phase. These tasks are
44. done by persons with titles such as Developer, Software
Engineer, Programmer, or Coder.
5. Testing. In the testing phase the software program developed
in the programming phase is put through a series of structured
tests. The first is a unit test, which evaluates individual parts of
the code for errors or bugs. This is followed by a system test in
which the different components of the system are tested to
ensure that they work together properly. Finally, the user
acceptance test allows those that will be using the software to
test the system to ensure that it meets their standards. Any
bugs, errors, or problems found during testing are resolved
and then the software is tested again. These tasks are done by
persons with titles such as Tester, Testing Analyst, or Quality
Assurance.
6. Implementation. Once the new system is developed and
tested,
it has to be implemented in the organization. This phase
Chapter 10: Information Systems Development | 213
45. The SDLC method (click to enlarge)
includes training the users, providing documentation, and data
conversion from the previous system to the new system.
Implementation can take many forms, depending on the type
of system, the number and type of users, and how urgent it is
that the system become operational. These different forms of
implementation are covered later in the chapter.
7. Maintenance. This final phase takes place once the
implementation phase is complete. In the maintenance phase
the system has a structured support process in place. Reported
bugs are fixed and requests for new features are evaluated and
implemented. Also, system updates and backups of the
software are made for each new version of the program. Since
maintenance is normally an Operating Expense (OPEX) while
much of development is a Capital Expense (CAPEX), funds
normally come out of different budgets or cost centers.
The SDLC methodology is
sometimes referred to as the
46. waterfall methodology to
represent how each step is a
separate part of the process.
Only when one step is
completed can another step
begin. After each step an
organization must decide when
to move to the next step. This methodology has been criticized
for
being quite rigid, allowing movement in only one direction,
namely,
forward in the cycle. For example, changes to the requirements
are
not allowed once the process has begun. No software is
available
until after the programming phase.
Again, SDLC was developed for large, structured projects.
Projects
using SDLC can sometimes take months or years to complete.
Because of its inflexibility and the availability of new
programming
47. techniques and tools, many other software development
214 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)
https://opentextbook.site/informationsystems2019/wp-
content/uploads/sites/3/2019/07/SDLC-Waterfall.png
https://opentextbook.site/informationsystems2019/wp-
content/uploads/sites/3/2019/07/SDLC-Waterfall.png
methodologies have been developed. Many of these retain some
of
the underlying concepts of SDLC, but are not as rigid.
Rapid Application Development
RAD Methodology (click to enlarge)
Rapid Application Development (RAD) focuses on quickly
building
a working model of the software, getting feedback from users,
and
then using that feedback to update the working model. After
several
iterations of development, a final version is developed and
implemented.
The RAD methodology consists of four phases.
1. Requirements Planning. This phase is similar to the
48. preliminary
analysis, system analysis, and design phases of the SDLC. In
this phase the overall requirements for the system are defined,
a team is identified, and feasibility is determined.
Chapter 10: Information Systems Development | 215
https://opentextbook.site/informationsystems2019/wp-
content/uploads/sites/3/2018/06/RADModel.jpg
https://opentextbook.site/informationsystems2019/wp-
content/uploads/sites/3/2018/06/RADModel.jpg
2. User Design. In the user design phase representatives of the
users work with the system analysts, designers, and
programmers to interactively create the design of the system.
Sometimes a Joint Application Development (JAD) session is
used to facilitate working with all of these various
stakeholders. A JAD session brings all of the stakeholders for a
structured discussion about the design of the system.
Application developers also participate and observe, trying to
understand the essence of the requirements.
3. Construction. In the construction phase the application
49. developers, working with the users, build the next version of
the system through an interactive process. Changes can be
made as developers work on the program. This step is
executed in parallel with the User Design step in an iterative
fashion, making modifications until an acceptable version of
the product is developed.
4. Cutover. Cutover involves switching from the old system to
the
new software. Timing of the cutover phase is crucial and is
usually done when there is low activity. For example, IT
systems in higher education undergo many changes and
upgrades during the summer or between fall semester and
spring semester. Approaches to the migration from the old to
the new system vary between organizations. Some prefer to
simply start the new software and terminate use of the old
software. Others choose to use an incremental cutover,
bringing one part online at a time. A cutover to a new
accounting system may be done one module at a time such as
general ledger first, then payroll, followed by accounts
50. receivable, etc. until all modules have been implemented. A
third approach is to run both the old and new systems in
parallel, comparing results daily to confirm the new system is
accurate and dependable. A more thorough discussion of
implementation strategies appears near the end of this
chapter.
216 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)
As you can see, the RAD methodology is much more
compressed
than SDLC. Many of the SDLC steps are combined and the
focus
is on user participation and iteration. This methodology is much
better suited for smaller projects than SDLC and has the added
advantage of giving users the ability to provide feedback
throughout
the process. SDLC requires more documentation and attention
to
detail and is well suited to large, resource-intensive projects.
RAD
51. makes more sense for smaller projects that are less resource
intensive and need to be developed quickly.
Agile Methodologies
Agile methodologies are a group of methodologies that utilize
incremental changes with a focus on quality and attention to
detail.
Each increment is released in a specified period of time (called
a
time box), creating a regular release schedule with very specific
objectives. While considered a separate methodology from
RAD,
the two methodologies share some of the same principles such
as
iterative development, user interaction, and flexibility to
change.
The agile methodologies are based on the “Agile Manifesto,”
first
released in 2001.
Chapter 10: Information Systems Development | 217
http://agilemanifesto.org/
Agile Methodology
52. Agile and Iterative Development
The diagram above emphasizes iterations in the center of agile
development. You should notice how the building blocks of the
developing system move from left to right, a block at a time,
not the
entire project. Blocks that are not acceptable are returned
through
feedback and the developers make the needed modifications.
Finally, notice the Daily Review at the top of the diagram.
Agile
Development means constant evaluation by both developers and
customers (notice the term “Collaboration”) of each day’s work.
The characteristics of agile methodology include:
• Small cross-functional teams that include development team
members and users;
• Daily status meetings to discuss the current state of the
project;
• Short time-frame increments (from days to one or two weeks)
for each change to be completed; and
53. 218 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)
https://opentextbook.site/informationsystems2019/wp-
content/uploads/sites/3/2018/07/AGILE.png
https://opentextbook.site/informationsystems2019/wp-
content/uploads/sites/3/2018/07/AGILE.png
Lean Methodology (click to enlarge)
• Working project at the end of each iteration which
demonstrates progress to the stakeholders.
The goal of agile methodologies is to provide the flexibility of
an
iterative approach while ensuring a quality product.
Lean Methodology
One last methodology to
discuss is a relatively new
concept taken from the
business bestseller The Lean
Startup by Eric Reis. Lean
focuses on taking an initial idea
and developing a Minimum
Viable Product (MVP). The MVP
54. is a working software
application with just enough
functionality to demonstrate
the idea behind the project.
Once the MVP is developed, the development team gives it to
potential users for review. Feedback on the MVP is generated in
two
forms. First, direct observation and discussion with the users
and
second, usage statistics gathered from the software itself. Using
these two forms of feedback, the team determines whether they
should continue in the same direction or rethink the core idea
behind the project, change the functions, and create a new MVP.
This change in strategy is called a pivot. Several iterations of
the
MVP are developed, with new functions added each time based
on
the feedback, until a final product is completed.
The biggest difference between the iterative and non-iterative
methodologies is that the full set of requirements for the system
55. are
not known when the project is launched. As each iteration of the
Chapter 10: Information Systems Development | 219
https://opentextbook.site/informationsystems2019/wp-
content/uploads/sites/3/2018/06/Lean-Methology.png
https://opentextbook.site/informationsystems2019/wp-
content/uploads/sites/3/2018/06/Lean-Methology.png
http://theleanstartup.com/
http://theleanstartup.com/
The quality triangle (click to enlarge)
project is released, the statistics and feedback gathered are used
to
determine the requirements. The lean methodology works best
in
an entrepreneurial environment where a company is interested
in
determining if their idea for a program is worth developing.
Sidebar: The Quality Triangle
When developing software or
any sort of product or service,
there exists a tension between
the developers and the
56. different stakeholder groups
such as management, users,
and investors. This tension
relates to how quickly the
software can be developed
(time), how much money will be spent (cost), and how well it
will be
built (quality). The quality triangle is a simple concept. It states
that
for any product or service being developed, you can only
address
two of the following: time, cost, and quality.
So why can only two of the three factors in the triangle be
considered? Because each of these three components are in
competition with each other! If you are willing and able to
spend
a lot of money, then a project can be completed quickly with
high
quality results because you can provide more resources towards
its development. If a project’s completion date is not a priority,
57. then it can be completed at a lower cost with higher quality
results
using a smaller team with fewer resources. Of course, these are
just generalizations, and different projects may not fit this
model
perfectly. But overall, this model is designed to help you
understand
220 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)
https://opentextbook.site/informationsystems2019/wp-
content/uploads/sites/3/2018/06/Quality-Triangle.png
https://opentextbook.site/informationsystems2019/wp-
content/uploads/sites/3/2018/06/Quality-Triangle.png
the trade-offs that must be made when you are developing new
products and services.
There are other, fundamental reasons why low-cost, high-
quality
projects done quickly are so difficult to achieve.
1. The human mind is analog and the machines the software run
on are digital. These are completely different natures that
depend upon context and nuance versus being a 1 or a 0.
Things that seem obvious to the human mind are not so
58. obvious when forced into a 1 or 0 binary choice.
2. Human beings leave their imprints on the applications or
systems they design. This is best summed up by Conway’s Law
(1968) – “Organizations that design information systems are
constrained to do so in a way that mirrors their internal
communication processes.” Organizations with poor
communication processes will find it very difficult to
communicate requirements and priorities, especially for
projects at the enterprise level (i.e., that affect the whole
organization.
Programming Languages
As noted earlier, developers create programs using one of
several
programming languages. A programming language is an
artificial
language that provides a way for a developer to create
programming
code to communicate logic in a format that can be executed by
the computer hardware. Over the past few decades, many
different
59. types of programming languages have evolved to meet a variety
of
needs. One way to characterize programming languages is by
their
“generation.”
Chapter 10: Information Systems Development | 221
http://melconway.com/Home/Conways_Law.html
Generations of Programming Languages
Early languages were specific to the type of hardware that had
to be
programmed. Each type of computer hardware had a different
low
level programming language. In those early languages very
specific
instructions had to be entered line by line – a tedious process.
First generation languages were called machine code because
programming was done in the format the machine/computer
could
read. So programming was done by directly setting actual ones
and zeroes (the bits) in the program using binary code. Here is
an
example program that adds 1234 and 4321 using machine
60. language:
10111001 00000000
11010010 10100001
00000100 00000000
10001001 00000000
00001110 10001011
00000000 00011110
00000000 00011110
00000000 00000010
10111001 00000000
11100001 00000011
00010000 11000011
10001001 10100011
00001110 00000100
00000010 00000000
Assembly language is the second generation language and uses
English-like phrases rather than machine-code instructions,
making it easier to program. An assembly language program
must
be run through an assembler, which converts it into machine
code.
Here is a sample program that adds 1234 and 4321 using
assembly
language.
MOV CX,1234
222 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)
61. MOV DS:[0],CX
MOV CX,4321
MOV AX,DS:[0]
MOV BX,DS:[2]
ADD AX,BX
MOV DS:[4],AX
Third-generation languages are not specific to the type of
hardware on which they run and are similar to spoken
languages.
Most third generation languages must be compiled. The
developer
writes the program in a form known generically as source code,
then the compiler converts the source code into machine code,
producing an executable file. Well-known third generation
languages include BASIC, C, Python, and Java. Here is an
example
using BASIC:
A=1234
B=4321
C=A+B
END
Fourth generation languages are a class of programming tools
that
enable fast application development using intuitive interfaces
and
62. environments. Many times a fourth generation language has a
very
specific purpose, such as database interaction or report-writing.
These tools can be used by those with very little formal training
in
programming and allow for the quick development of
applications
and/or functionality. Examples of fourth-generation languages
include: Clipper, FOCUS, SQL, and SPSS.
Why would anyone want to program in a lower level language
when they require so much more work? The answer is similar to
why some prefer to drive manual transmission vehicles instead
of
automatic transmission, namely, control and efficiency. Lower
level
languages, such as assembly language, are much more efficient
and
execute much more quickly. The developer has finer control
over
the hardware as well. Sometimes a combination of higher and
lower
Chapter 10: Information Systems Development | 223
63. level languages is mixed together to get the best of both worlds.
The
programmer can create the overall structure and interface using
a
higher level language but use lower level languages for the
parts of
the program that are used many times, require more precision,
or
need greater speed.
The programming language spectrum (click to enlarge).
Compiled vs. Interpreted
Besides identifying a programming language based on its
generation, we can also classify it through the distinction of
whether it is compiled or interpreted. A computer language is
written in a human-readable form. In a compiled language the
program code is translated into a machine-readable form called
an executable that can be run on the hardware. Some well-
known
compiled languages include C, C++, and COBOL.
Interpreted languages require a runtime program to be installed
64. in order to execute. Each time the user wants to run the software
the runtime program must interpret the program code line by
line,
then run it. Interpreted languages are generally easier to work
with
but also are slower and require more system resources.
Examples
224 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)
https://opentextbook.site/informationsystems2019/wp-
content/uploads/sites/3/2018/06/Programming-Languages-
Spectrum.png
https://opentextbook.site/informationsystems2019/wp-
content/uploads/sites/3/2018/06/Programming-Languages-
Spectrum.png
of popular interpreted languages include BASIC, PHP, PERL,
and
Python. The web languages of HTML and JavaScript are also
considered interpreted because they require a browser in order
to
run.
The Java programming language is an interesting exception to
this classification, as it is actually a hybrid of the two. A
program
65. written in Java is partially compiled to create a program that
can
be understood by the Java Virtual Machine (JVM). Each type of
operating system has its own JVM which must be installed
before
any program can be executed. The JVM approach allows a
single
Java program to run on many different types of operating
systems.
Procedural vs. Object-Oriented
A procedural programming language is designed to allow a
programmer to define a specific starting point for the program
and
then execute sequentially. All early programming languages
worked
this way. As user interfaces became more interactive and
graphical,
it made sense for programming languages to evolve to allow the
user to have greater control over the flow of the program. An
object-
oriented programming language is designed so that the
programmer
66. defines “objects” that can take certain actions based on input
from
the user. In other words, a procedural program focuses on the
sequence of activities to be performed while an object oriented
program focuses on the different items being manipulated.
Chapter 10: Information Systems Development | 225
Employee object
Consider a human resources
system where an “EMPLOYEE”
object would be needed. If the
program needed to retrieve or
set data regarding an employee,
it would first create an
employee object in the program
and then set or retrieve the
values needed. Every object has
properties, which are
descriptive fields associated with the object. Also known as a
67. Schema, it is the logical view of the object (i.e., each row of
properties represents a column in the actual table, which is
known
as the physical view). The employee object has the properties
“EMPLOYEEID”, “FIRSTNAME”, “LASTNAME”,
“BIRTHDATE” and
“HIREDATE”. An object also has methods which can take
actions
related to the object. There are two methods in the example. The
first is “ADDEMPLOYEE()”, which will create another
employee
record. The second is “EDITEMPLOYEE()” which will modify
an
employee’s data.
Programming Tools
To write a program, you need little more than a text editor and a
good idea. However, to be productive you must be able to check
the syntax of the code, and, in some cases, compile the code. To
be more efficient at programming, additional tools, such as an
Integrated Development Environment (IDE) or computer-aided
68. software-engineering (CASE) tools can be used.
226 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)
https://opentextbook.site/informationsystems2019/wp-
content/uploads/sites/3/2019/07/employee-table-schema.png
https://opentextbook.site/informationsystems2019/wp-
content/uploads/sites/3/2019/07/employee-table-schema.png
Screen shot
of Oracle
Eclipse
Integrated Development Environment
For most programming languages an Integrated Development
Environment (IDE) can be used to develop the program. An IDE
provides a variety of tools for the programmer, and usually
includes:
• Editor. An editor is used for writing the program. Commands
are automatically color coded by the IDE to identify command
types. For example, a programming comment might appear in
green and a programming statement might appear in black.
• Help system. A help system gives detailed documentation
regarding the programming language.
• Compiler/Interpreter. The compiler/interpreter converts the
programmer’s source code into machine language so it can be
69. executed/run on the computer.
• Debugging tool. Debugging assists the developer in locating
errors and finding solutions.
• Check-in/check-out mechanism. This tool allows teams of
programmers to work simultaneously on a program without
overwriting another programmer’s code.
Examples of IDEs include Microsoft’s Visual Studio and
Oracle’s
Eclipse. Visual Studio is the IDE for all of Microsoft’s
programming
Chapter 10: Information Systems Development | 227
https://opentextbook.site/informationsystems2019/wp-
content/uploads/sites/3/2018/07/ECLIPSE-IDE.png
https://opentextbook.site/informationsystems2019/wp-
content/uploads/sites/3/2018/07/ECLIPSE-IDE.png
http://www.microsoft.com/visualstudio
http://www.eclipse.org/downloads/index-developer.php
http://www.eclipse.org/downloads/index-developer.php
languages, including Visual Basic, Visual C++, and Visual C#.
Eclipse
can be used for Java, C, C++, Perl, Python, R, and many other
languages.
CASE Tools
70. While an IDE provides several tools to assist the programmer in
writing the program, the code still must be written. Computer-
Aided Software Engineering (CASE) tools allow a designer to
develop
software with little or no programming. Instead, the CASE tool
writes the code for the designer. CASE tools come in many
varieties.
Their goal is to generate quality code based on input created by
the
designer.
Sidebar: Building a Website
In the early days of the World Wide Web, the creation of a
website
required knowing how to use HyperText Markup Language
(HTML).
Today most websites are built with a variety of tools, but the
final
product that is transmitted to a browser is still HTML. At its
simplest
HTML is a text language that allows you to define the different
components of a web page. These definitions are handled
through
71. the use of HTML tags with text between the tags or brackets.
For
example, an HTML tag can tell the browser to show a word in
italics,
to link to another web page, or to insert an image. The HTML
code
below selects two different types of headings (h1 and h2) with
text
below each heading. Some of the text has been italicized. The
output
as it would appear in a browser is shown after the HTML code.
<h1>This is a first-level heading</h1>
228 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)
HTML
output
Here is some text. <em>Here is some emphasized text.</em>
<h2>Here is a second-level heading</h2)
Here is some more text.
HTML code
While HTML is used to define the components of a web page,
Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) are used to define the styles of
72. the
components on a page. The use of CSS allows the style of a
website
to be set and stay consistent throughout. For example, a
designer
who wanted all first-level headings (h1) to be blue and centered
could set the “h1″ style to match. The following example shows
how
this might look.
<style>
h1
{
color:blue;
text-align:center;
}
</style>
<h1>This is a first-level heading</h1>
Here is some text. <em>Here is some emphasized text.</em>
<h2>Here is a second-level heading</h2)
Here is some more text.
Chapter 10: Information Systems Development | 229
https://opentextbook.site/informationsystems2019/wp-
content/uploads/sites/3/2018/07/OUTPUT-HTML.png
https://opentextbook.site/informationsystems2019/wp-
content/uploads/sites/3/2018/07/OUTPUT-HTML.png
HTML with
73. CSS output
HTML code with CSS added
The combination of HTML and CSS can be used to create a
wide
variety of formats and designs and has been widely adopted by
the web design community. The standards for HTML are set by
a governing body called the World Wide Web Consortium. The
current version of HTML 5 includes new standards for video,
audio,
and drawing.
When developers create a website, they do not write it out
manually in a text editor. Instead, they use web design tools
that
generate the HTML and CSS for them. Tools such as Adobe
Dreamweaver allow the designer to create a web page that
includes
images and interactive elements without writing a single line of
code. However, professional web designers still need to learn
HTML
and CSS in order to have full control over the web pages they
are
74. developing.
Sidebar: Building a Mobile App
In many ways building an application for a mobile device is
exactly
the same as building an application for a traditional computer.
Understanding the requirements for the application, designing
the
230 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)
https://opentextbook.site/informationsystems2019/wp-
content/uploads/sites/3/2018/06/HTML-CSS-output.png
https://opentextbook.site/informationsystems2019/wp-
content/uploads/sites/3/2018/06/HTML-CSS-output.png
http://www.w3.org/
http://www.adobe.com/products/dreamweaver.html
http://www.adobe.com/products/dreamweaver.html
interface, and working with users are all steps that still need to
be
carried out.
Mobile Apps
So what’s different about building an application for a mobile
device? There are five primary differences:
1. Breakthroughs in component technologies. Mobile devices
require multiple components that are not only smaller but
75. more energy-efficient than those in full-size computers
(laptops or desktops). For example, low-power CPUs combined
with longer-life batteries, touchscreens, and Wi-Fi enable very
efficient computing on a phone, which needs to do much less
actual processing than their full-size counterparts.
2. Sensors have unlocked the notion of context. The
combination of sensors like GPS, gyroscopes, and cameras
enables devices to be aware of things like time, location,
velocity, direction, altitude, attitude, and temperature.
Location in particular provides a host of benefits.
3. Simple, purpose-built, task-oriented apps are easy to
use. Mobile apps are much narrower in scope than enterprise
software and therefore easier to use. Likewise, they need to be
intuitive and not require any training.
4. Immediate access to data extends the value proposition. In
addition to the app providing a simpler interface on the front
end, cloud-based data services provide access to data in near
real-time, from virtually anywhere (e.g., banking, travel,
driving
directions, and investing). Having access to the cloud is needed
76. to keep mobile device size and power use down.
5. App stores have simplified acquisition. Developing,
acquiring,
and managing apps has been revolutionized by app stores such
as Apple’s App Store and Google Play. Standardized
Chapter 10: Information Systems Development | 231
development processes and app requirements allow
developers outside Apple and Google to create new apps with
a built-in distribution channel. Average low app prices
(including many of which that are free) has fueled demand.
In sum, the differences between building a mobile app and other
types of software development look like this:
Mobile app differences
Building a mobile app for both iOS and Android operating
systems is
known as cross platform development. There are a number of
third-
party toolkits available for creating your app. Many will convert
existing code such as HTML5, JavaScript, Ruby, C++, etc.
However,
77. if your app requires sophisticated programming, a cross
platform
developer kit may not meet your needs.
Responsive Web Design (RWD) focuses on making web pages
render well on every device: desktop, laptop, tablet,
smartphone.
Through the concept of fluid layout RWD automatically adjusts
the
content to the device on which it is being viewed. You can find
out
more about responsive design here.
232 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)
https://opentextbook.site/informationsystems2019/wp-
content/uploads/sites/3/2019/07/Mobile-app-differentiators.png
https://opentextbook.site/informationsystems2019/wp-
content/uploads/sites/3/2019/07/Mobile-app-differentiators.png
https://responsivedesign.is/
Build vs. Buy
When an organization decides that a new program needs to be
developed, they must determine if it makes more sense to build
it
themselves or to purchase it from an outside company. This is
78. the
“build vs. buy” decision.
There are many advantages to purchasing software from an
outside company. First, it is generally less expensive to
purchase
software than to build it. Second, when software is purchased, it
is
available much more quickly than if the package is built in-
house.
Software can take months or years to build. A purchased
package
can be up and running within a few days. Third, a purchased
package has already been tested and many of the bugs have
already
been worked out. It is the role of a systems integrator to make
various purchased systems and the existing systems at the
organization work together.
There are also disadvantages to purchasing software. First, the
same software you are using can be used by your competitors. If
a
company is trying to differentiate itself based on a business
process
79. incorporated into purchased software, it will have a hard time
doing
so if its competitors use the same software. Another
disadvantage
to purchasing software is the process of customization. If you
purchase software from a vendor and then customize it, you will
have to manage those customizations every time the vendor
provides an upgrade. This can become an administrative
headache,
to say the least.
Even if an organization determines to buy software, it still
makes
sense to go through the same analysis as if it was going to be
developed. This is an important decision that could have a long-
term strategic impact on the organization.
Chapter 10: Information Systems Development | 233
Web Services
Chapter 3 discussed how the move to cloud computing has
allowed
80. software to be viewed as a service. One option, known as web
services, allows companies to license functions provided by
other
companies instead of writing the code themselves. Web services
can
greatly simplify the addition of functionality to a website.
Suppose a company wishes to provide a map showing the
location
of someone who has called their support line. By utilizing
Google
Maps API web services, the company can build a Google Map
directly into their application. Or a shoe company could make it
easier for its retailers to sell shoes online by providing a shoe
sizing
web service that the retailers could embed right into their
website.
Web services can blur the lines between “build vs. buy.”
Companies can choose to build an application themselves but
then
purchase functionality from vendors to supplement their system.
End-User Computing (EUC)
In many organizations application development is not limited to
81. the programmers and analysts in the information technology
department. Especially in larger organizations, other
departments
develop their own department-specific applications. The people
who build these applications are not necessarily trained in
programming or application development, but they tend to be
adept
with computers. A person who is skilled in a particular
program,
such as a spreadsheet or database package, may be called upon
to
build smaller applications for use by their own department. This
phenomenon is referred to as end-user development, or end-user
computing.
End-user computing can have many advantages for an
organization. First, it brings the development of applications
closer
234 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)
https://developers.google.com/maps/documentation/webservices
https://developers.google.com/maps/documentation/webservices
82. to those who will use them. Because IT departments are
sometimes
backlogged, it also provides a means to have software created
more
quickly. Many organizations encourage end-user computing to
reduce the strain on the IT department.
End-user computing does have its disadvantages as well. If
departments within an organization are developing their own
applications, the organization may end up with several
applications
that perform similar functions, which is inefficient, since it is a
duplication of effort. Sometimes these different versions of the
same application end up providing different results, bringing
confusion when departments interact. End-user applications are
often developed by someone with little or no formal training in
programming. In these cases, the software developed can have
problems that then have to be resolved by the IT department.
End-user computing can be beneficial to an organization
provided it is managed. The IT department should set guidelines
and provide tools for the departments who want to create their
83. own
solutions. Communication between departments can go a long
way
towards successful use of end-user computing.
Sidebar: Risks of EUC’s as “Shadow IT”
The Federal Home Loan Mortgage Company, better known as
Freddie Mac, was fined over $100 million in 2003 in part for
understating its earnings. This triggered a large-scale project to
restate its financials, which involved automating financial
reporting
to comply with the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002. Part of the
restatement project found that EUCs (such as spreadsheets and
databases on individual laptops) were feeding into the General
Ledger. While EUCs were not the cause of Freddie Mac’s
problems
(they were a symptom of insufficient oversight) to have such
poor
Chapter 10: Information Systems Development | 235
IT governance in such a large company was a serious issue. It
turns
84. these EUCs were done in part to streamline the time it took to
make changes to their business processes (a common complaint
of
IT departments in large corporations is that it takes too long to
get
things done). As such, these EUCs served as a form of “shadow
IT”
that had not been through a normal rigorous testing process.
Implementation Methodologies
Once a new system is developed or purchased, the organization
must determine the best method for implementation. Convincing
a group of people to learn and use a new system can be a very
difficult process. Asking employees to use new software as well
as
follow a new business process can have far reaching effects
within
the organization.
There are several different methodologies an organization can
adopt to implement a new system. Four of the most popular are
listed below.
85. • Direct cutover. In the direct cutover implementation
methodology, the organization selects a particular date to
terminate the use of the old system. On that date users begin
using the new system and the old system is unavailable. Direct
cutover has the advantage of being very fast and the least
expensive implementation method. However, this method has
the most risk. If the new system has an operational problem or
if the users are not properly prepared, it could prove
disastrous for the organization.
• Pilot implementation. In this methodology a subset of the
organization known as a pilot group starts using the new
system before the rest of the organization. This has a smaller
236 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)
impact on the company and allows the support team to focus
on a smaller group of individuals. Also, problems with the new
software can be contained within the group and then resolved.
• Parallel operation. Parallel operations allow both the old and
new systems to be used simultaneously for a limited period of
time. This method is the least risky because the old system is
86. still being used while the new system is essentially being
tested. However, this is by far the most expensive methodology
since work is duplicated and support is needed for both
systems in full.
• Phased implementation. Phased implementation provides for
different functions of the new application to be gradually
implemented with the corresponding functions being turned
off in the old system. This approach is more conservative as it
allows an organization to slowly move from one system to
another.
Your choice of an implementation methodology depends on the
complexity of both the old and new systems. It also depends on
the
degree of risk you are willing to take.
Change Management
As new systems are brought online and old systems are phased
out,
it becomes important to manage the way change is implemented
in
the organization. Change should never be introduced in a
87. vacuum.
The organization should be sure to communicate proposed
changes
before they happen and plan to minimize the impact of the
change
that will occur after implementation. Change management is a
critical component of IT oversight.
Chapter 10: Information Systems Development | 237
Sidebar: Mismanaging Change
Target Corporation, which operates more than 1,500 discount
stores throughout the United States, opened 133 similar stores
in
Canada between 2013 and 2015. The company decided to
implement
a new Enterprise Resources Planning (ERP) system that would
integrate data from vendors, customers, and do currency
calculations (US Dollars and Canadian Dollars). This
implementation
was coincident with Target Canada’s aggressive expansion plan
and
88. stiff competition from Wal-Mart. A two-year timeline –
aggressive
by any standard for an implementation of this size – did not
account
for data errors from multiple sources that resulted in erroneous
inventory counts and financial calculations. Their supply chain
became chaotic and stores were plagued by not having sufficient
stock of common items, which prevented the key advantage of
“one-stop shopping” for customers. In early 2015, Target
Canada
announced it was closing all 133 stores. In sum, “This
implementation broke nearly all of the cardinal sins of ERP
projects.
Target set unrealistic goals, didn’t leave time for testing, and
neglected to train employees properly.”
1
1. Taken from ACC Software
Solution
s. "THE MANY FACES
89. OF FAILED ERP IMPLEMENTATIONS (AND HOW TO
AVOID THEM)" https://4acc.com/article/failed-erp-
implementations/
238 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)
Maintenance
After a new system has been introduced, it enters the
maintenance
phase. The system is in production and is being used by the
organization. While the system is no longer actively being
developed, changes need to be made when bugs are found or
new
features are requested. During the maintenance phase, IT
management must ensure that the system continues to stay
90. aligned
with business priorities and continues to run well.
Summary
Software development is about so much more than
programming. It
is fundamentally about solving business problems. Developing
new
software applications requires several steps, from the formal
SDLC
process to more informal processes such as agile programming
or lean methodologies. Programming languages have evolved
from
very low-level machine-specific languages to higher-level
languages that allow a programmer to write software for a wide
variety of machines. Most programmers work with software
91. development tools that provide them with integrated
components
to make the software development process more efficient. For
some
organizations, building their own software does not make the
most
sense. Instead, they choose to purchase software built by a third
party to save development costs and speed implementation. In
end-
user computing, software development happens outside the
information technology department. When implementing new
software applications, there are several different types of
implementation methodologies that must be considered.
Chapter 10: Information Systems Development | 239
92. Study Questions
1. What are the steps in the SDLC methodology?
2. What is RAD software development?
3. What makes the lean methodology unique?
4. What are three differences between second-generation and
third-generation languages?
5. Why would an organization consider building its own
software
application if it is cheaper to buy one?
6. What is responsive design?
7. What is the relationship between HTML and CSS in website
design?
93. 8. What is the difference between the pilot implementation
methodology and the parallel implementation methodology?
9. What is change management?
10. What are the four different implementation methodologies?
Exercises
1. Which software-development methodology would be best if
an
organization needed to develop a software tool for a small
group of users in the marketing department? Why? Which
implementation methodology should they use? Why?
2. Doing your own research, find three programming languages
and categorize them in these areas: generation, compiled vs.
interpreted, procedural vs. object-oriented.
94. 3. Some argue that HTML is not a programming language.
Doing
your own research, find three arguments for why it is not a
programming language and three arguments for why it is.
4. Read more about responsive design using the link given in
the
text. Provide the links to three websites that use responsive
design and explain how they demonstrate responsive-design
240 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)
behavior.
Labs
1. Here’s a Python program for you to analyze. The code
below
95. deals with a person’s weight and height. See if you can guess
what
will be printed and then try running the code in a Python
interpreter
such as https://www.onlinegdb.com/online_python_interpreter.
measurements = (8, 20)
print("Original measurements:")
for measurement in measurements:
print(measurement)
measurements = (170, 72)
print("nModified measurements:")
for measurement in measurements:
print(measurement)
2. Here’s a broken Java program for you to analyze. The code
below deals with calculating tuition, multiplying the tuition rate
96. and
the number of credits taken. The number of credits is entered by
the user of the program. The code below is broken and gives the
incorrect answer. Review the problem below and determine
what it
would output if the user entered “6” for the number of credits.
How
would you fix the program so that it would give the correct
output?
package calcTuition;
//import Scanner
import java.util.Scanner;
Chapter 10: Information Systems Development | 241
https://www.onlinegdb.com/online_python_interpreter
97. public class CalcTuition
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
//Declare variables
int credits;
final double TUITION_RATE = 100;
double tuitionTotal;
//Get user input
Scanner inputDevice = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.println("Enter the number of credits: ");
credits = inputDevice.nextInt();
//Calculate tuition
tuitionTotal = credits + TUITION_RATE;
//Display tuition total
System.out.println("You total tuition is: " + tuitionTotal);
}
}
98. 242 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)
PART III: INFORMATION
SYSTEMS BEYOND THE
ORGANIZATION
Part III: Information Systems Beyond
the Organization | 243
Information Systems for Business and Beyond
(2019)Information Systems for Business and Beyond
(2019)Title PageCopyrightBook ContributorsChanges from
Previous EditionHow you can helpIntroductionPart I: What is an
information system?Chapter 1: What Is an Information
System?Chapter 2: HardwareChapter 3: SoftwareChapter 4:
Data and DatabasesChapter 5: Networking and
CommunicationChapter 6: Information Systems SecurityPart II:
Information Systems for Strategic AdvantageChapter 7: Does IT
Matter?Chapter 8: Business ProcessesChapter 9: The People in
Information SystemsChapter 10: Information Systems
DevelopmentPart III: Information Systems Beyond the
99. OrganizationChapter 11: Globalization and the Digital
DivideChapter 12: The Ethical and Legal Implications of
Information SystemsChapter 13: Trends in Information
SystemsIndex
16 3
7
viRTual Te ams anD
ouTsouRCing
Introduction
Much has been written and published about virtual teams. Most
define virtual teams as those that are geographically dispersed,
although others state that virtual teams are those that primarily
inter-
act electronically. Technology has been the main driver of the
growth
of virtual teams. In fact, technology organizations, due mostly
to the
advent of competitive outsourcing abroad, have pushed
100. information
technology (IT) teams to learn how to manage across
geographical
locations, in such countries as India, China, Brazil, Ireland, and
many
others. These countries are not only physically remote but also
present
barriers of culture and language. These barriers often impede
commu-
nications about project status, and affect the likelihood of
delivering a
project on time, and within forecasted budgets.
Despite these major challenges, outsourcing remains attractive
due
to the associated cost savings and talent supply. These two
advantages
are closely associated. Consider the migration of IT talent that
began
with the growth of India in providing cheap and educated talent.
The
promise of cost savings caused many IT development
departments to
begin using more India-based firms. The ensuing decline in IT
jobs
101. in the United States resulted in fewer students entering IT
curricu-
lums at U.S. universities for fear that they would not be able to
find
work. Thus, began a cycle of lost jobs in the United States and
further
demand for talent abroad. Now, technology organizations are
faced
with the fact that they must learn to manage virtually because
the tal-
ent they need is far away.
From an IT perspective, successful outsourcing depends on
effec-
tive use of virtual teams. However, the converse is not true; that
is,
virtual teams do not necessarily imply outsourcing. Virtual
teams can
16 4 INFORMATION TECHNOLO GY
be made up of workers anywhere, even those in the United
States
102. who are working from a distance rather than reporting to an
office
for work. A growing number of employees in the United States
want
more personal flexibility; in response, many companies are
allow-
ing employees to work from home more often— and have found
the
experience most productive. This type of virtual team
management
generally follows a hybrid model, with employees working at
home
most of the time but reporting to the office for critical
meetings; an
arrangement that dramatically helps with communication and
allows
management to have quality checkpoints.
This chapter addresses virtual teams working both within the
United States and on an outsource basis and provides readers
with
an understanding of when and how to consider outsource
partners.
Chapter topics include management considerations, dealing with
multiple locations, contract administration, and in-house
103. alternatives.
Most important, this chapter examines organizational learning
as a
critical component of success in using virtual teams. Although
the
advent of virtual teams creates another level of complexity for
design-
ing and maintaining learning organizations, organizational
learning
approaches represent a formidable solution to the growing
dilemma of
how teams work, especially those that are 100% virtual.
Most failures in virtual management are caused by poor
communi-
cation. From an organizational learning perspective, we would
define
this as differences in meaning making— stemming mostly from
cul-
tural differences in the meaning of words and differing
behavioral
norms. There is also no question that time zone differences play
a role
in certain malfunctions of teams, but the core issues remain
commu-
104. nication related.
As stated, concerning the Ravell case study, cultural
transformation
is slow to occur and often happens in small intervals. In many
virtual
team settings, team members may never do more than
communicate
via e-mail. As an example, I had a client who was outsourcing
produc-
tion in China. One day, they received an e-mail stating, “ We
cannot
do business with you.” Of course, the management team was
confused
and worried, seeking to understand why the business
arrangement
was ending without any formal discussions of the problem. A
trans-
lator in China was hired to help clarify the dilemma. As it
turned
out, the statement was meant to suggest that the company
needed
105. 16 5vIrtuAl te AMs And outsourCInG
to provide more business— more work, that is. The way the
Chinese
communicated that need was different from the Western
interpre-
tation. This is just a small example of what can happen without
a
well-thought-out organizational learning scheme. That is,
individuals
need to develop more reflective abilities to comprehend the
meaning
of words before they take action, especially in virtual
environments
across multiple cultures. The development of such abilities—
the
continual need for organizations to respond effectively to
dynamic
changes, brought about by technology, in this case, e-mail— is
consis-
tent with my theory of responsive organizational dynamism
(ROD).
The e-mail established a new dynamic of communication. Think
how
often specifications and product requirements are changing and
106. need
virtual teams to somehow come together and agree on how to
get the
work done— or think they agree.
Prior research and case studies provide tools and procedures as
ways
to improve productivity and quality of virtual team operations.
While
such processes and methodologies are helpful, they will not
necessar-
ily ensure the successful outcomes that IT operations seek
unless they
also change. Specifically, new processes alone are not sufficient
or a
substitute for learning how to better communicate and make
mean-
ing in a virtual context. Individuals must learn how to develop
new
behaviors when working virtually. We must also remember that
vir-
tual team operations are not limited to IT staffs. Business users
often
need to be involved as they would in any project, particularly
when
107. users are needed to validate requirements and test the product.
Status of Virtual Teams
The consensus tells us that virtual teams render results.
According to
Bazarova and Walther (2009), “ Virtual groups whose members
com-
municate primarily or entirely via email, computer
conferencing, chat,
or voice— have become a common feature of twenty-first
century
organizations” (p. 252). Lipnack and Stamps (2000) state that
virtual
teams will become the accepted way to work and will likely
reshape
the work world. While this prediction seems accurate, there has
also
been evidence of negative attribution or judgment about
problems that
arise in virtual team performance. Thus, it is important to
understand
how virtual teams need to be managed and how realistic
expectations
108. 16 6 INFORMATION TECHNOLO GY
of such teams might be formed. So, while organizations
understand
the need for virtual teams, they are not necessarily happy with
proj-
ect results. Most of the disappointment relates to a lack of
individual
development that helps change the mindset of how people need
to
communicate, coupled with updated processes.
Management Considerations
Attribution theory “ describes how people typically generate
explana-
tions for outcomes and actions— their own and others”
(Bazarova &
Walther, 2009, p. 153). This theory explains certain behavior
patterns
that have manifested during dysfunctional problems occurring
in man-
aging virtual teams. Virtual teams are especially vulnerable to
109. such
problems because their limited interactions can lead to members
not
having accurate information about one another. Members of
virtual
teams can easily develop perceptions of each other’ s motives
that are
inaccurate or distorted by differing cultural norms. Research
also shows
us that virtual team members typically attribute failure to the
external
factors and successes to internal factors. Problems are blamed
on the
virtual or outside members for not being available or
accountable to the
physical community. The successes then tend to reinforce that
virtual
teams are problematic because of their very nature. This then
estab-
lishes the dilemma of the use of virtual teams and
organizations— its
use will continue to increase and dominate workplace structures
and
yet will present challenges to organizations that do not want to
change.
110. The lack of support to change will be substantiated during
failures in
expected outcomes. Some of the failures, however, can and
should be
attributable to distance. As Olson and Olson (2000) state: “
Distance
will persist as an important element of human experience” (p.
172). So,
despite the advent of technology, it is important not to ignore
the social
needs that teams need to have to be effective.
Dealing with Multiple Locations
Perhaps the greatest difficulty in implementing virtual teams is
the
reality that they span multiple locations. More often, these
locations
can be in different time zones and within multiple cultures. To
prop-
erly understand the complexity of interactions, it makes sense to
revisit
111. 16 7vIrtuAl te AMs And outsourCInG
the organizational learning tools discussed in prior chapters.
Perhaps
another way of viewing virtual teams and their effects on
organiza-
tion learning is to perceive it as another dimension— a
dimension that
is similar to multiple layers in a spreadsheet. This notion means
that
virtual teams do not upset the prior relations between
technology as
a variable from a two-dimensional perspective, rather in the
depth
of how it affects this relationship in a third dimension. Figure
7.1
reflects how this dimension should be perceived.
In other words, the study of virtual teams should be viewed as
a subset of the study of organizations. When we talk about
work-
place activities, we need to address issues at the component
level. In
this example, the components are the physical organization and
the
112. Technology as an
independent
variable
Creates
Virtual organizational
dynamism dimension
Physical organizational
dynamism dimension
Virtual acceleration
dimension
Strategic
integration
Cultural
assimilation
Total
organizational
113. dynamism
Acceleration of events that
require different
infrastructures and
organizational processes
Virtual cultural
assimilation dimension
Virtual strategic
integration dimension
Figure 7.1 The three-dimensional ROD.
16 8 INFORMATION TECHNOLO GY
virtual organization. The two together make up the superset or
the
entire organization. To be fruitful, any discussion of virtual
organiza-
114. tions must be grounded in the context of the entire organization
and
address the complete topic of workplace learning and
transformation.
In Chapter 4, I discussed organizational learning in
communities of
practice (COP). In this section, I expand that discussion to
include
virtual organizational structures.
The growing use of virtual teams may facilitate the complete
inte-
gration of IT and non-IT workers. The ability to connect from
various
locations using technology itself has the potential to expand
COP.
But, as discussed in Chapter 4, it also presents new challenges,
most
of which relate to the transient nature of members, who tend to
par-
ticipate on more of a subject or transactional basis, rather than
being
permanent members of a group. Table 7.1 reflects some of the
key
differences between physical and virtual teams.
115. There has been much discussion about whether every employee
is
suited to perform effectively in a virtual community. The
consensus is
that effective virtual team members need to be self-motivated,
able to
work independently, and able to communicate clearly and in a
posi-
tive way. However, given that many workers lack some or all of
these
skills, it seems impractical to declare that workers who do not
meet
these criteria should be denied the opportunity to work in
virtual
Table 7.1 Operating Differences between Traditional and
Virtual Teams
TRADITIONAL OR PHYSICAL TEAMS VIRTUAL TEAMS
Teams tend to have fixed participation and
members.
Membership shifts based on topics and needs.
116. Members tend to be from the same
organization.
Team members can include people from outside
the organization (clients and collaborators).
Team members are 100% dedicated. Members are assigned to
multiple teams.
Team members are collocated geographically
and by organization.
Team members are distributed geographically and
by organization.
Teams tend to have a fixed term of
membership; that is, start and stop dates.
Teams are reconfigured dynamically and may
never terminate.
Teams tend to have one overall manager. Teams have multiple
reporting relationships with
different parts of the organization at different
117. times.
Teamwork is physical and practiced in
face-to-face interactions.
Teamwork is basically social.
Engagement is often during group events
and can often be hierarchical in nature.
Individual engagement is inseparable from
empowerment.
16 9vIrtuAl te AMs And outsourCInG
teams. A more productive approach might be to encourage
workers to
recognize that they must adapt to changing work environments
at the
risk of becoming marginal in their organizations.
To better understand this issue, I extended the COP matrix,
presented in Chapter 4, to include virtual team considerations in
118. Table 7.2.
Item 7 in Table 7.2 links the study of knowledge management
with
COP. Managing knowledge in virtual communities within an
orga-
nization has become associated directly with the ability of a
firm to
sustain competitive advantage. Indeed, Peddibhotla and
Subramani
(2008) state that “ virtual communities are not only recognized
as
important contributors to both the development of social
networks
among individuals but also towards individual performance and
firm
performance” (p. 229). However, technology-enabled facilities
and
support, while providing a repository for better documentation,
also
create challenges in maintaining such knowledge. The process
of how
information might become explicit has also dramatically
changed
with the advent of virtual team communications. For example,
119. much
technology-related documentation evolves from bottom-up
sources,
rather than the traditional top-down process. In effect, virtual
com-
munities share knowledge more on a peer-to-peer basis or
through
mutual consensus of the members. As a result, virtual
communities
have historically failed to meet expectations, particularly those
of
management, because managers tend to be uninvolved in
communi-
cation. While physical teams can meet with management more
often
before making decisions, virtual teams have no such contact
available.
To better understand the complexities of knowledge
management and
virtual teams, Sabherwal and Becerra-Fernandez (2005) expand
on
Nonaka’ s (1994) work on knowledge management, which
outlined
four modes of knowledge creation: externalization,
internalization,
120. combination, and socialization. Each of these modes is defined
and
discussed next.
Externalization
Externalization is the process of converting or translating tacit
knowl-
edge (undocumented knowledge) into explicit forms. The
problem with
this concept is whether individuals really understand what they
know
170 INFORMATION TECHNOLO GY
Table 7.2 Communities of Practice: Virtual Team Extensions
STEP
COMMUNITIES-OF-
PRACTICE STEP TECHNOLOGY EXTENSION VIRTUAL
EXTENSION
121. 1 Understanding strategic
knowledge needs: What
knowledge is critical to
success.
Understanding how
technology affects
strategic knowledge and
what specific
technological knowledge
is critical to success.
Understanding how to
integrate multiple visions
of strategic knowledge and
where it can be found
across the organization.
2 Engaging practice
domains: Where people
form communities of
practice to engage in
and identify with.
Technology identifies
122. groups based on
business-related
benefits, requiring
domains to work together
toward measurable
results.
Virtual domains are more
dynamic and can be
formed for specific
purposes and then
reconfigured based on
practice needs of subjects
discussed.
3 Developing communities:
How to help key
communities reach their
full potential.
Technologies have life
cycles that require
communities to continue;
treats the life cycle as a
supporter for attaining
123. maturation and full
potential.
Communities can be
reallocated to participate
in multiple objectives.
Domains of discussion
have no limits to reach
organizational needs.
4 Working the boundaries:
How to link communities
to form broader learning
systems
Technology life cycles
require new boundaries
to be formed. This will
link other communities
that were previously
outside of discussions
and thus expand input
into technology
innovations.
124. Virtual abilities allow for
customer interfaces,
vendors, and other
interested parties to join
the community.
5 Fostering a sense of
belonging: How to
engage people’ s
identities and sense of
belonging.
The process of integrating
communities: IT and
other organizational
units will create new
evolving cultures that
foster belonging as well
as new social identities.
Communities establish
belonging in a virtual way.
Identities are established
more on content of
discussion than on
125. physical attributes of
members.
6 Running the business:
How to integrate
communities of practice
into running the
business of the
organization.
Cultural assimilation
provides new
organizational structures
that are necessary to
operate communities of
practice and to support
new technological
innovations.
The organization functions
more as a virtual
community or team, being
more agile to demands of
the business, and
interactions may not
126. always include all
members.
(Continued)
171vIrtuAl te AMs And outsourCInG
and how it might affect organizational knowledge. Virtual
communi-
ties have further challenges in that the repository of tacit
information
can be found in myriad storage facilities, namely, audit trails of
e-mail
communications. While Sabherwal and Becerra-Fernandez
(2005)
suggest that technology may indeed assist in providing the
infrastruc-
ture to access such information, the reality is that the challenge
is not
one of process but rather of thinking and doing. That is, it is
more a
process of unlearning existing processes of thinking and doing,
into