A summary of Chapter 8 - Personality Development and Mental Health Preaired by: je-y 09 credits to: Mmbear xoxo

1. Chapter 8
Personality Development
And Mental Health
Prepaired by: Jerick Y. Escultura
1
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Chapter 8

2. Introduction
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3. Personality
 Stems from the fact that it concerns the total
person.
 It involves the expression of man’s relations
and interrelation with other people.
 Psychologist look on personality as involving
traits and psychological properties that
influence man’s actions in various situations
and how these develop and work.
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4. Cont’d
 Personality and adjustment are inextricably
bound together.
 Personality and adjustive reactions are also
related to concepts of mental health.
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5. A. THE HEALTHY
PERSONALITY
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6. Cont’d
Definition and characteristics of personality
 Personality is taken from the Latin term
persona meaning “masks”.
 Hilgard defines personality as the
arrangement or configuration of individual
characteristics and ways of behaving that
determine one’s unique adjustment to his
environment.
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7. Cont’d
 Gordon W. Allport mentions at least 50
different meanings that personality has
acquired in:
 Philosophy
 Theology
 Law
 Sociology
 Psychology
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8. Cont’d
 Hence personality involves characteristics
like:
1. Physical
2. Mental
3. Emotional
4. Social
5. Moral
6. Spiritual
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9. Cont’d
Factors in Personality Development
 Nature-nurture Theory
 i.e. heredity-environment factor which attempts
t explain a lot of controversial, heretofore
learned and unlearned aspects of psychology.
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10. Cont’d
 One authority, Morgan, divides these factors
into four convenient terms:
a) Inherited Predisposition
b) Abilities
c) Family and Home environment
d) Culture
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11. Cont’d
 Inherited Predisposition
 This means that we are only predisposed, through
heredity, to develop patterns of personality which are
not set or fixed but which are only tendencies.
 Abilities
 These, too, may be inherited or acquired.
 Family and Home environment
 These play a most vital role in personality
development.
 Culture
 The set-up of families is shaped by culture.
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12. Cont’d
Theories of Personality
 Theories of personality are as varied as the
attempts to explore the subject matter are.
Among these theories are:
1. Type Theories or Constitutional Types
 These theories postulate that human subjects
can profitably be classified into a smaller
number of classes or types, each class or type
having characteristics in common which set its
members apart from each other classes or
types.
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13. Cont’d
1) Type Theories or Constitutional Types
A. Physique(Body Types)
1) William Sheldon (1899- )
 Bases his theory on the three layers of tissue in
the human embryo – the endoderm, mesoderm
and ectoderm.
a. Endomorphy
b. Mesomorphy
c. Ectomorpy
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14. Cont’d
Sheldon believes that he has found evidence
that the three basic bodily builds are related to
three primary temperaments like:
a. Visceratonia
b. Somatotonia
c. Cerebrotonia
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15. Cont’d
Each of these temperamental and bodily
components is measured on a 7-point scale.
Average Individual 4-4-4
Extreme Ectomorphy 7-1-1
Extreme Vicerotonic 1-7-1
Extreme Endomorphy 1-1-7
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16. Cont’d
High coefficients of correlation have been
obtained between endomorphy and viscerotona
(.79); between mesomorphy and somatotonia
(.82) and between ectomorphy and cerebrotonia
(.83)
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17. Four Kinds of Personality Types according to
William Sheldon
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18. Cont’d
1) Type Theories or Constitutional Types
A. Physique(Body Types)
2) Ernest Kretschmer (1888 - )
 A German psycho-artist, who described four
types of techniques and their related
characteristics:
a. Pyknic
b. Asthenic
c. Athletic
d. Dysplastic
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19. Cont’d
 Schizophrenia
 Is the name for psychotic reactions
characterized by withdrawal, disturbances in
emotional and affective life, and depending
upon the type, the presence of hallucinations,
delusions, negativistic behavior and progressive
deterioration.
 Manic –depressive psychoses
 Is a severe mental disorder characterized by
cyclic swings in emotions or mood.
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20. Cont’d
1) Type Theories or Constitutional Types
B. Behavior
1) Carl Jung (1875 – 1962)
 A Swiss psychoanalyst and founder of Analytical
Psychology.
a) attitude types
1. Extrovert
2. Introvert
b) Function types
1. Thinking
2. Feeling
3. Sensation
4. intuition
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21. Cont’d
 8 principal classes of personality are
indicated:
1. Extraverted thinking type – concerned with facts
and their classification.
2. Extraverted feeling type – wishes to be in harmony
with the outside world and is able to achieve close
sympathy with others.
3. Introverted-feeling type – chiefly concerned with
internal harmony and tends to depreciate the
influence of other factors.
4. Sensation – principally influenced by pure pleasure
and pain
5. Intuitive types – dominated by indirect judgments
or “hunches”, either extroverts or introverts.
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22. Cont’d
 Other Assertions:
1. More than one of the four main functions may
be important and that an individual may be
extroversive in one function and introversive in
another
2. If the “conscious” is extraverted in any one
line, the “unconscious” attitude is introverted
and vice versa
3. All persons belong definitely to one or another
class and these differences are assumed to
be inborn. They can be modified.
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23. Cont’d
1) Type Theories or Constitutional Types
C. Physiological or Body Chemistry
1. Hippocrates (400 b.c) – laid the foundation for the
doctrine of temperament based on the humors (fluids)
of the body.
Galen (167 A.D.) – A Greek Physician, elaborated
on this.
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24. Cont’d
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TEMPERAMENTS HUMORS
Quick-strong (choleric)
(easily angered,
quick to react)
Yellow bile
Quick-weak (sanguine)
(Generally warm-
hearted, pleasant, Had a
prominence of blood)
Blood
Slow-strong (melancholic)
(suffers from
depression and Sadness,
much black bile)
Black bile
Slow-weak (phlegmatic)
(listless and slow)
Phlegm

25. Cont’d
2. R.J. Williams (1956) “Biochemical Individuality”.
Each person has his own distinctive pattern of
endocrine activity. Endocrine activity is a kind of
endocrine symphony”
3. Macey, Bateman and Van Lehn (1952). “Individuals
may demonstrate quite specific patterns of
physiological response”
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26. Cont’d
2) Trait Theories
A. Gordon W. Allport (1937 – 1961) Theory of
Personal Dispositions.
 Two kinds of Traits
1. Common Traits: traits comparable among people
and are appraised by comparing one with
another according to preferred values
(theoretical, economic, esthetic, social, political,
religious)
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27. Cont’d
2. Personal Dispositions: traits unique for the
person.
a) Cardinal Disposition:
 characteristics so pervasive influencing all
aspects of behavior, i.e., “reference
personalities”: a sexy individual is called a
Marilyn Monroe; the stronger one, a
Superman etc.
a) Central Traits:
 a few traits that centrally describe their
personalities, i.e., if someone is described
as being sensible, vivacious, sociable etc.
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28. Cont’d
c) Secondary Traits:
 traits expressing relatively isolated interests or
modes of responding, i.e., shaving the right side
of the face before he left every morning is a
particular mode of responding.
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29. Cont’d
2) Trait Theories
B. Raymund B. Cattell (1905)
 American psychologist who formulated the
Theory of Surface and Source Traits or the
Factorial Theory of Personality). He defines
personality in terms of “what a person will do in
a given situation” and believes that predictions
can be achieved by the identification and
measurement, through objective tests and
rating scales.
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30. Cont’d
 Surface traits
 Independent factor loadings identified as
fundamental modes of behavior.
 Source traits
 Are independent factor loadings identified as
fundamental modes of behavior.
 Source traits verified are:
a) sizothymia vs. affectothymia
b) general mental ability vs. mental defect
c) emotional stability vs. emotional instability and
d) dominance vs. submissiveness
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31. Cont’d
3) Developmental Theories
 These theories stress continuities.
A. Sigmund Freud’s “Psychoanalytic Theory”
 Three Divisions:
1. Theory of Personality Structure:
2. Theory of Personality Development:
3. Theory of Personality Dynamics
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32. Cont’d
3) Developmental Theories
1. Theory of Personality Structure
 Three basic aspects of personality
1) Id
 the repository of unconscious wishes primarily libidinal
and aggressiveness; all the animal-like impulses the
individual experiences. The urge to kill is an impulse of
the Id.
2) Ego
 the mediator between the demands of the Id and the
outer forces to reality.
3) Superego
 this maintains the standard of personality. It
corresponds to one’s conscience.
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33. Cont’d
2. Theory of Personality Development
 The five psychosexual stages
1. Oral - (the first 2 years of life)
 The infant finds gratification through
stimulation of the lips and mouth region as in
sucking and nursing.
 2 phases:
1. Oral-receptive phase
- (involves intake of food for body use or
pleasure)
2. Oral-aggressive phase
- (biting to represent displeasure)
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34. Cont’d
2. Anal – (Between 12 – 30 months)
 Toilet training is related to this period.
 2 phases:
1. Anal phase
 (related to tension related to expelling
waste)
2. Retentive phase
 (related to pleasurable stimulation from
retaining feces)
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35. Cont’d
3. Phallic – (Between the third and sixth year of
life)
 The child demonstrates instinctual attraction for the
opposite-sex parent.
 Oedipus Complex – the attraction and fear (son-
mother relationship)
 Electra Complex – represents the daughter-father
relations
4. Latency – (period of repressed sexual activity
between 6 and puberty)
 There is increased activity with the same-sex peers
which corresponds with a decrease in heterosexual
activity
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36. Cont’d
5. Genital – (stage of normal adulthood)
 This stage is characterized by attraction to
opposite sex.
 Fixation – occurs when there is arrested
development or inability to pass to the next
stage.
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37. Cont’d
3. Theory of Personality Dynamics
 Aims at the motivational and emotional
components of personality. According to Freud,
man inherits the life instinct and the death
instinct (libido and mortido).
 Life instincts – include urges which have to do
with the survival of the organism. They derive
their energy from the libido – a word meaning
all the mental energy available to the individual.
 Death instincts – the destructive urges in man.
 Cathexis – the investment of libidinal energy in
an idea, memory, object or activity.
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38. Cont’d
3) Developmental Theories
B. E.H. Erickson and the “Psychosexual
Stages”
Eight stages of Psychosocial Development
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40. Cont’d
4) Learning Theories
 These theories desire to find specific experiences of
reward and punishment in later problem solving.
5) A. Karen Horney’s “Anxiety Theory” (1885 –
1952)
 Karen Horney – American psychoanalyst.
 This theory has its central concept, social influences in
the development of the child which the child deals with
in certain ways forming a pattern of “neurotic needs”
 The neurotic need for affection and approval is
developed if the child learns to cope with anxiety by
running to mother for affection and approval
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41. Cont’d
4) Learning Theories
B. Alfred Adler’s “Superiority and
Compensation Theory”
 Ways of Improving Personality
1. Self-appraisal – listing down and evaluating
your physical, intellectual, social and
emotional traits in terms of effectiveness,
ineffectiveness or partial effectiveness.
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42. Cont’d
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43. Cont’d
1. Effective regulation of emotional life – One must develop a
high degree of control over one’s emotions and not allowing
one’s emotions to control you.
2. Social relations – One should be capable of social intimacy –
forming friendships and participating in social relations that
are deeper than mere acquaintances.
3. Work – One must be committed to some form of work that is
satisfying as well as economically good.
4. Love and sex – One must be able to forego personal
gratification, even sexual gratification, to satisfy the loved
one.
5. Self – One must have a positive regard of one’s self as a
distinguished part of the world he lives.
6. Philosophy of Life – One should live by philosophy of life that
should give direction to one’s actuations.
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44. B. CONFLICT,
FRUSTRATION,
ADJUSTMENT
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45. Cont’d
Frustration
 Results from the blocking or thwarting of goal-
directed behavior resulting in an unpleasant
state of tension, anxiety and heightened
sympathetic activity.
 Is a condition in which a course of action
cannot be carried out or brought to its
conclusion for some reason or another.
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46. Cont’d
 Frustrating situations may be:
1. Social
 Results from social conditions or those that
have to do with relations with people
2. Non-social
 Arise from conditions beyond your help
3. Personal
4. Internal
 Occurs in the mind of the person.
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47. Cont’d
Kinds of Conflicts
1. Approach-approach Conflict
 Conflict occurs when two positive goals, both
equally attractive, are presented at the same
time.
2. Avoidance-avoidance Conflict
 The individual is attracted at the same time to two
goals which are incompatible to each other.
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48. Cont’d
 Two kinds of conflict are likely in this conflict:
1) Vacillation – as one nears the negative goal, he
finds it increasingly repelling and withdraws.
When he does this, he nears the other negative
goal
2) The tendency to run away from the conflict
situation
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49. Cont’d
Kinds of Conflicts
3. Approach-avoidance Conflict
 The person is both attracted and repelled by the
same goal object.
4. Double-approach-avoidance Conflict
 Two goals have both positive and negative
signs.
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50. Cont’d
Consequence of Frustration
A. Restlessness and Tension
 In this manifestation, there is excess movement
as the result of homeostatic change generally
referred to as “general adaptive syndrome”
B. Aggression and Destructiveness
 Frustration always precedes all kinds of
aggression
 Scapegoat – the person who is the victim of a
displaced aggression.
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51. Cont’d
C. Apathy
 Characterized as indifference, inactivity,
inattention.
D. Fantasy
 The individual tries to seek escape in a
dream world of his own creation.
E. Stereotype
 There is a tendency to blind, repetitive,
fixated behavior.
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52. Cont’d
F. Regression
 To regress – to move backward and is the
opposite of progress
 Retrogressive Behavior – the person returns to
modes of behavior as in early childhood where
in the midst of insecurity, he returns to behavior
characteristic of seeking security
 Primitivation – the childish behavior is simply of
a more primitive quality i.e., in solving a
problem; a child may result to fist fighting. A girl
may turn into hair-pulling
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53. Cont’d
Abnormal Behavior
 Viewpoints:
1. Normative View: Anybody who is different
from one making the judgment is said to be
abnormal
2. Statistical View: Anybody is abnormal who
diverges very much from the average
3. Social Viewpoint: The normal person is the
one who is adjusted to his environment, to
such an extent that he finds life enjoyable –
and the abnormal one is unadjusted – the one
who would like to escape from reality.
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54. Cont’d
4. Generally View: the individual is recognized
as normal if he has some socially acceptable
goals around which his activities are
integrated, if he finds the pursuit of his goal
worthwhile and if in general, he gets
pleasure out of living. The person with no
socially-acceptable goals, is at cross-
purpose within himself and his group, and
doesn’t enjoy life as it is but tries to shut
himself from it, is abnormal.
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55. Cont’d
An abnormal behavior is a neurosis or a
psychoneurosis, a benign mental disorder
characterized by:
a) Incomplete insight into the nature of the
difficulty;
b) Conflicts;
c) Anxiety reactions;
d) Partial impairment of personality;
e) Often, but not necessarily, the presence of
phobias, digestive disturbances and
obsessive-compulsive behavior.
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56. Cont’d
1. Anxiety Reaction
 The person is continually uneasy, with secondary
complaints like insomnia, inability to concentrate,
and other autonomic nervous system signs of
chronic disturbance. Anxiety reactions may be:
chronic or acute. In the acute anxiety reaction or
panic state, the person senses an impending danger
without being able to specify its nature. In the
chronic anxiety reaction, the person has never
developed a reasonably successful defense
mechanism for dealing with his conflicts unlike the
panic reaction where a previously successful
defense has broken down.
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57. Cont’d
2. Neurasthenia
 This is an early classification of anxiety reaction
characterized by physical and mental fatigue as well
as anxiety.
3. Hypochondriasis
 An anxiety about peculiar organic symptoms or
sensations.
4. Dissociative Reactions
 There are neurotic reactions which include
amnesias, fugues, multiple personalities, and
somnambulism’s. The common quality is a
dissociation of disturbing memories or thoughts, from
the rest of the personality.
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58. Cont’d
a) Amnesia – a condition where the person cannot
recall certain past experiences of his life.
b) Fugus States – characterized by a general
amnesia for the person’s entire past, including
who he is and where he lived
c) Multiple Personalities – it is as if several parts of
personality have not been successfully
integrated so they become separated or
dissociated from each other and the person
frequently shifts from one to the other.
d) Somnambulism – certain thoughts become so
strong during sleep as to determine the person’s
behavior
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59. Cont’d
5. Conversion Reaction
 Here the person suffers from physical symptoms
with no organic basis. It could be in the form of
anesthesia where the person does not feel any pain,
or even hysterical blindness, deafness, convulsions
and inability to talk or to swallow.
 Cohen, Hilgard and Wendt (1933) – found
experimental proof that such disorders had
psychological basis rather than neurological ones
 La Belle Indifference (beautiful indifference) one type
of reaction here the patient apparently presents no
overt anxiety over his stress and that he is simply
suffering from some symptom that he wants cured.
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60. Cont’d
6. Phobias
 These are reactions characterized by intense
and chronic fear of something. According to the
Psycho-analytic theory, phobias are acquired
form a shameful impulse or act early in life of
which had been too ashamed or frightened to
talk about and which had been repressed.
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61. Cont’d
 Some of the common phobias are:
Claustrophobia – fear of enclosed places;
Acrophobia – fear of high places;
Zoophobia – fear of animals or some particular
animal;
Hydrophobia – fear of water;
Misophobia – fear of germs;
Thanatophobia – fear of death;
Pathophobia – fear of disease;
Photophobia – fear of light;
Monophobia – fear of being alone; Agoraphobia –
fear of open places, etc.
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62. Cont’d
7. Obsessive-Compulsive Reactions:
 Obsession is a useless or irrational thought that
persists (example: a tune that keeps repeating
itself in the mind; or being impelled to do a
ritualistic act like drumming his fingers in some
rhythmical pattern)
 Compulsions are useless irrational acts which
one is impelled to carry out. (Example: the hand
washing stance, stepping over cracks on
sidewalks, doing things by twos, counting the
steps of the stairs in regular fashion etc.)
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63. Cont’d
Compulsions are useless irrational acts which
one is impelled to carry out. (Example: the hand
washing stance, stepping over cracks on
sidewalks, doing things by twos, counting the
steps of the stairs in regular fashion etc.)
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64. Cont’d
Kinds of Adjustment
 Adjustment mechanisms – changes in our
environment require adjustment responses.
A. Motives for Adjustment
 There are three possible motives to reduce
anxiety:
1. His goal-directed behavior is blocked; he is
frustrated.
2. There is a conflict between motives.
3. There is an increase in intensity of a motive.
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65. Cont’d
B. Types of Adjustment Mechanisms
1. Repression
 the dismissal from consciousness of a thought or
feeling which is too painful to experience or recall.
 If we consciously avoid thinking of something, it is
suppression.
2. Projection
 instead of accepting an impulse as one’s own, one
may attribute it to someone else. This is believed to
be the defense mechanism of the paranoid individual
who believes that others are seeking to injure him
when actually, he has injurious thoughts toward them.
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66. Cont’d
3. Identification
 This is a defense mechanism by which an
individual enhances self-esteem by behaving in
fantasy or in actual conduct as if he were
another person – the one with whom he
identifies.
4. Reaction Formation
 is concealing a motive by giving strong
expression to the opposite.
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67. Cont’d
5. Rationalization
 the process of justifying one’s conduct by
offering plausible or socially acceptable reasons
in place of real reasons. The excuses are made
up to hide or disguise the true motive.
 Rationalization may take two forms:
a) Sour-grapes mechanism – pretending to dislike
what one really likes
b) Sweet-lemon mechanism – pretending to like
what one really dislikes
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68. Cont’d
6) Substitution or Compensation
 This is like the reaction formation but the cover
behavior is an unrelated one rather than the
opposite. The individual replaces specially
disapproved activities or goals with socially-
acceptable ones.
Freud called this Sublimation whereby the
unconscious process of the libido or the sex
instinct is transformed into a more acceptable
from as artistic, scientific, social work, religious
activities and the like.
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69. Cont’d
7. Intellectualization
 Here, a person gains detachment from a
threatening event in order to remain untouched
by it emotionally.
8. Withdrawal or Escape Responses
 One from of withdrawal is Negativism
characterized by a purposeful rebellion against
requests or wishes of others.
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70. Cont’d
Defense Mechanism: Advantages and
Disadvantages
 Success refers to whether or not the self-
deception is convincing to the person
 Adaptiveness refers to whether it aids or harms
him in his transactions with the environment
 Defense is a distortion of reality but it does not
usually succeed in altering the actual
circumstances.
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71. Cont’d
Values or Advantages
They help us meet the anxiety
One may learn new ways of behaving by
assuming parts of the observed role of others
as in Identification.
It may lead to a more consistent and valuable
view of one’s self.
The resultant behavior may have a potential
value as in sublimation or substitution.
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72. Cont’d
Disadvantages of defense mechanisms
Defense mechanism usually work to circumvent
problems rather than to face them directly;
hence, they tend to be self-deceiving
Their excessive use may lead to greater
personal or social difficulty.
The roles adopted may remain unrealistic as in
identification or work through the exploits of
others as in compensation
They do not generally solve the problem which
required their use and therefore are not fully
tension-reducing.
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73. C. METAL HEALTH AND
PSYCHOTERAPHY
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74. Cont’d
Definition of Mental Health
 Is a state of good adjustment with a subjective state of
well-being, zest for living and the feeling that one is
exercising his talents and abilities.
1. Adjusted – a mentally-healthy person is not unduly
distressed by conflicts he handles his conflicts in a
realistic manner. He faces and accepts his problems.
2. Productive – he has spontaneity in work and play. He
uses his potential to the full. He does not waste time
worrying what cannot be helped.
3. Zest for living – he has a high energy level and can
do hard work with enthusiasm. He is not easily
discouraged.
4. Sensitive – he is sensitive of his own needs, motives,
potentials and dose not make demands on others. He
is able to give and to receive.
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75. Cont’d
Personality-Appraisal Techniques
1. Personality Inventories
 this method requires to answer “yes” or “no” to
printed questions or statements.
 MMPI – Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory
Sample statements:
1) I do not like everyone I know
2) At times I feel like swearing
3) Children should be taught all the main facts of
sex
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4) Someone had been trying to rob me
5) I believe in a life hereafter
6) I am troubled by attacks of nausea and vomiting
7) I have been told that I walk during sleep
Validation Scales:
Hs – Hypochondriasis – abnormal concern for
bodily functions
D – Depression – mood state of pessimism and
depression
Hy – Hysteria – using physical symptoms to cover
up conflicts
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Pd – Psychopathic deviancy – a moral and a
social personality disorder
Mf – Masculinity – presence of delusional
beliefs
Pa – Paranoid – presence of delusional beliefs
Pt – Psychasthenia – obsessions, compulsions
and abnormal fears
Sc – Schizophrenia – withdrawal, delusions,
and disorientation
Ma – Hypomania – over activity and emotional
excitement
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2. Projective Tests
a. The Rorschach Ink-Blot Test: consists of ten
cards, each displaying a rather complex ink
blot.
b. The Thematic Apperception Test requires
imaginative stories about relatively ambiguous
pictures of people in situations.
3. Rating Scale
 This is a device by which a rater can record his
judgment of another person according to the
traits defined by a scale.
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4. Case History
 This is an attempt to summarize and define a
person’s personality in terms of his past actions,
ancestry, experience, health record, etc.
5. Behavior Tests
 This tests individuals in actual situations.
Examples of such tests include the behavior
test used by Marston (1925) who studied
behavior of children in a museum, charting
introverted and extroverted behavior in terms of
stops and distances traversed by the children.
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 Parents rated in terms of 1) type of control used
(democratic or autocratic), 2) severity of control
(degree of control exerted), and 3) source of
control (one or both parents)
6. Free Association and Dream Analysis
 In Free Association, the patient is asked to say
anything that comes to his mind, occasionally
being directed by the therapist by some
questions. In dream analysis, the patient simply
tells about his dreams and the therapist analyses
them in terms of motivation and other aspects.
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Psychotherapy and Psychotherapeutic
Procedures
 Psychotherapy – Application of specialized
techniques to treat mental disorders or to everyday
problems of adjustment.
 Derived from the Greeks, meaning literally “to serve”
or “to treat (medically)”
 It refers to the application of psychic or
psychological methods to remedy diseases or
disorders
 Sigmund Freud – formulated his Psychoanalytic
Theory
 Josef Breuer – Freud’s colleague who believes that
constitutional weakness is the cause.
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1. Free Association : a procedure where the patient
relaxes, and is allowed to let his thoughts
wander as he muses without any apparent
preconceived goal or prodding from the therapist
 Three main experiences can be the cause of the
patient’s cure:
a) Abreaction or catharsis – when the patient
experiences a kind of emotional cleansing
because of the free expression of his feelings.
b) Insight – has to do with gradual self-
understanding. The patient must understand his
feelings and feel what e understands
c) Working-through - is a lengthy process of re-
education and problem-solving. He learns to face
reality, to become more mature and becomes
stronger to face the threats without anxiety.
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2. Client-Centered or Nondirective Therapy: this is
the method devised by Carl Rogers and his
associates where the task of the therapist is to
provide a warm, pleasant atmosphere wherein to
explore his attitudes and feelings.
3. Psychotherapy Based on the Learning Theory
 Principle of Counter-conditioning – this is a
technique whereby maladaptive responses are
weakened or eliminated by strengthening
incompatible or antagonistic ones.
 The Principle of Reinforcement (Punishment or
aversion therapy)
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4. Group Therapy: the members of a group,
discuss their personal problems under the
leadership of a therapist.
5. Psychodrama: this is a diagnostic and
therapeutic technique developed by J. L.
Moreno which consists of having the
individual act out on a stage his relations
with others around whom conflict centers
6. Role Playing: This is a more informal type of
psychodrama as is used to prepare patients
about to be discharged from hospitals.
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7. Family Therapy: The group consists of the
patient and the members of his family with
whom he interacts.
8. Eclectic Approach: this method utilizes any
number of methods discussed.
 Eclectic – “coming from various sources”
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