Nursing as Profession & Science

Copyright © 2015 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Chapter 1Chapter 1
Philosophy, Science, and NursingPhilosophy, Science, and Nursing

Topics for Discussion
• Is nursing a profession or an occupation?
• Is nursing a science? If yes, what type of science?
• What is nursing’s theoretical base?
• What are different kinds of knowledge?

Nursing as a Profession
• Characteristics of occupations
– Varying levels of training or education
– Variable defined knowledge bases
– Varying levels of skill

Nursing as a Profession—(cont.)
• Examples of professions
– Medicine
– Law
– Clergy
– Education

Question
Tell whether the following statement is true or false:
Nursing is a profession.

Answer
True
Rationale: Nursing is a profession. Nursing meets the
characteristics of a profession, and nurses are valued by
society because the services they provide are beneficial
to members of the society.

• All professions are occupations, but not all
occupations are professions.

– What is our knowledge base?
– Authority over education?
– Registration?
– Altruistic service?
– Code of ethics?
– Formal training?
– Socialization process?
– Autonomy?

Nursing as an Academic Discipline
• Discipline—a field of inquiry
– Unique perspective and terminology
– Determination of what phenomena are of interest
– Determination of the context in which phenomena are viewed
– Determination of what questions to ask
– Determination of what methods of research are used and what
evidence is proof

Nursing as an Academic Discipline—(cont.)
• A unique perspective
• An identifiable philosophy
• Conceptual frameworks/theories
• Acceptable methodologic approaches for development of
knowledge

Academic Disciplines
• Basic sciences
– Physics
– Biology
– Chemistry
– Sociology
• Humanities
– Philosophy
– History
– Fine arts
– Languages

Academic Disciplines—(cont.)
• Professional disciplines
– Medicine
– Law
– Dentistry
– Engineering
– Nursing

Science
• Science is concerned with causality (cause and effect).
• Science is both a process and a product.
– A body of empirically tested knowledge
– A system of gathering and verifying information
(process)
• Science represents knowledge and is generated by the
application of methods to acquire that knowledge.

Science—(cont.)
• A discipline’s science:
– Focuses on solving problems related to the discipline
– Directs answering questions of the discipline
• The science contains the research aspect of the discipline.
• A discipline’s science is tied to its philosophy.

Classification of Sciences
• Natural sciences
– Chemistry, physics, biology, geology
• Basic or pure sciences
– Mathematics, chemistry, physics, language
• Human or social sciences
– Psychology, anthropology, economics
• Practice or applied sciences
– Engineering, medicine, pharmacology, law

Classification of Sciences—(cont.)
• Nursing draws on basic/pure sciences (physiology,
biology).
• Nursing has characteristics of social sciences.
• Nursing is without question an applied science.

Philosophy
• Philosophy is the “study of . . . the nature of existence,
knowledge, morality, reason and human purpose.”
• Philosophy seeks to:
– Discover knowledge and truth
– Identify what is valuable

Philosophy—(cont.)
• Philosophy is concerned with:
– Purpose of human life
– Nature of being and reality
– Source(s) of knowledge

Question
Which of the following do science and philosophy have in
common?
A. Hypothesis testing
B. Nature of being
C. Goal of increasing knowledge
D. Verifiability of information

Answer
C. Goal of increasing knowledge
Rationale: Science and philosophy share the common goal
of increasing knowledge. Science is tied to the philosophy
of the discipline, with a shared goal to increase the
knowledge of the discipline.

Branches of Philosophy
• Metaphysics—study of nature of reality and existence
– Ontology—study of the theory of being
– Cosmology—study of the physical universe
• Epistemology—study of knowledge (ways of knowing)
• Logic—study of principles and methods of reasoning
(inference and argument)
• Ethics (axiology)—study of values (right and wrong)
• Esthetics—study of appreciation of arts or things beautiful

Nursing Philosophy
• Statement of foundational and universal assumptions, beliefs,
and principles about the nature of knowledge and thought
(epistemology) and the nature of entities represented in the
metaparadigm (i.e., nursing practice and human health
[ontology])
• Provides perspectives for practice, scholarship, and research

Science and Philosophy—Worldviews
• Empiricism/positivism (received view)
– What is experienced is what exists.
– Examines parts to understand the whole (reductionistic)
– Individuals learn by being told or receiving knowledge.

Science and Philosophy—Worldviews—
(cont.)
• Empiricism/positivism (received view)—(cont.)
– Knowledge is described and verified through scientific
methods (experimentation).
– Theories are generated which describe, explain, and predict
phenomena of interest.

(cont.)
• Empiricism/positivism (received view)—(cont.)
– Dominant worldview of the pure and basic sciences (e.g.,
physiology, biology)

(cont.)
• Perceived view—phenomenology, constructivism, humanism
– Focus is on perceptions of the subject and the researcher.
– Phenomena are studied and described from lived
experiences, interrelatedness, interpretation, and learned
reality.
– Desire is to understand the actions and meaning of
individuals.

(cont.)
• Perceived view—phenomenology, constructivism, humanism—
(cont.)
– What exists depends on what individuals perceive to exist.
– Knowledge is subjective and created by individuals.
– Research investigates the individual’s world.
 Emphasis is on subjectivity, multiple truths, trends and
patterns, discovery, description, and understanding.

(cont.)
• Perceived view—phenomenology, constructivism, humanism—
(cont.)
– Dominant worldview of the social/human sciences (e.g.,
psychology, sociology)

(cont.)
Received View—EmpiricismReceived View—Empiricism Perceived View—HumanismPerceived View—Humanism
Reality/truth considered separateReality/truth considered separate
from contextfrom context
Reality/truth considered in contextReality/truth considered in context
ObjectiveObjective SubjectiveSubjective
Prediction and controlPrediction and control Description and understandingDescription and understanding
DeductiveDeductive InductiveInductive
One truthOne truth Multiple truthsMultiple truths
Quantitative research methodsQuantitative research methods Qualitative research methodsQualitative research methods

Nursing Science
• System of relationships of human response in health and
illness (includes biologic, behavioral, social, and cultural
domains)

Nursing Science and Worldviews
• Nursing is both a practice science and a human science.
– Practice sciences typically use quantitative research
methods (e.g., controlled experimentation) to
develop knowledge.
– Human sciences typically use qualitative research
methods (e.g., phenomenology, ethnography) to
develop knowledge

Nursing Science and Worldviews—(cont.)
• Until very recently, quantitative methods for research
were most valued.
• Nursing scholars are still undecided about which method
(quantitative or qualitative) best demonstrate the
essence and uniqueness of nursing.

Nursing Science and Worldviews—(cont.)
• In recent years, it has been argued that both approaches
are important and essential for nursing science.
• Thus, multiple approaches to knowledge development
and methodological pluralism should be encouraged.

Question
There is only one research method of value for use in
nursing.

Answer
False
Rationale: Quantitative and qualitative research methods
are both of value for use in nursing research.

Ways of Knowing in Nursing
• Nursing epistemology is the study of the origins of
nursing knowledge, its structure and methods, the
patterns of knowing of its members, and the criteria for
validating its knowledge claims.

Ways of Knowing in Nursing—(cont.)
• Understanding how nursing knowledge develops
– Allows judgment of the validity and appropriateness of the
knowledge
– Determines appropriateness of methods used to develop
knowledge
• Nursing has both scientific knowledge and knowledge that can be
termed “conventional wisdom.”

Ways of Knowing in Nursing—(cont.)
• Empirics—the science of nursing
• Esthetics—the art of nursing
• Personal knowledge in nursing
• Ethics—moral knowledge in nursing

Question
The only true way of knowledge development is through
empirics and science.

Answer
False
Rationale: There are multiple ways of knowing and
knowledge development. There are many theories on
knowledge and learning. Nursing epistemology is the
study of the origins of nursing knowledge and
encompasses much more than empirics.

Empirical Knowledge
• Objective, verifiable, and generally quantifiable knowledge
• When verified through research/testing, empirical knowledge
becomes laws, theories, and principles that explain and predict.

Empirical Knowledge—(cont.)
• The most emphasized way of knowing in nursing
• Purpose is to describe, explain, and predict phenomena of
concern to nurses.

Esthetic Knowledge
• Expressive, subjective, experiential understanding
• Includes sensing the meaning of a moment
• Expressed in actions, conduct, attitudes, and interactions
of the nurse

Esthetic Knowledge—(cont.)
• Relies on perception
• Incorporates empathy, intuition, values, and
understanding
• Not expressed in words

Personal Knowledge
• Subjective view of the self and the client
• Promotes integrity in personal encounters
• Incorporates experience, personal maturity, knowing,
encountering, and actualizing the self within the practice

Personal Knowledge—(cont.)
• May include spiritual or metaphysical elements
• Largely expressed in personality—therapeutic use of self

Ethical Knowledge
• Moral code for nursing
• Based on obligation to service and respect for human life
• Occurs as moral dilemmas arise in ambiguous and
uncertain situations

Ethical Knowledge—(cont.)
• Requires evaluation of what is good, valuable, and
desirable
• Must address conflicting norms, interests, and principles

Nursing as Profession & Science

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