The document discusses dividend policies, theories, and factors influencing how dividends are paid to shareholders. It outlines key dividend theories including Walter’s and Gordon’s models, which address the relationship between dividends, market price, and investment opportunities. Additionally, it notes that there is no legal obligation for firms to pay dividends and highlights the considerations companies must take into account when establishing their dividend policies.

1. CHAPTER TWO
DIVIDEND AND DIVIDEND POLICY
OUTLINE
Dividend theories
Establishing the dividend policy in practice
Factors influencing dividend policy
Other factors related to cash dividends

2. INTRODUCTION
The term dividend usually refers to payment made
out of a firm’s earnings to its owners, either in the
form of cash or stock .
•Dividend is the return given to the shareholders on
their investment.
•Payments made to stockholders from the firm’s earnings,
whether those earnings were generated in the current period
or in previous periods.

3.  Dividend policy is the policy used by a company to decide
how much it will pay out to shareholders in dividends.
Dividend policy is based on the answers to several important
questions:
1. How much dividend should a company distribute to
shareholders?
2. What will the impact of the dividend policy be on the
company’s market price per share?
3. What will happen if the amount of dividend changes from
year to year?

4. • Dividend Policy refers to the explicit or implicit
decision of the Board of Directors regarding the
amount of residual earnings (past or present) that
should be distributed to the shareholders of the
corporation.
– This decision is considered a Financing Decision
because the profits of the corporation are an important
source of financing available to the firm.
The firm’s dividend policy is formulated with two
basic objectives in mind:
1. Providing for sufficient financing , and
2. Maximizing the shareholders wealth

5. • There is no legal obligation for firms to pay dividends to
common shareholders.
• Shareholders cannot force a Board of Directors to declare
a dividend, and courts will not interfere with the BOD’s
right to make the dividend decision because:
– Board members are jointly and severally liable for any damages
they may cause
– Board members are constrained by legal rules affecting
dividends including:
• Not paying dividends out of capital
• Not paying dividends when that decision could cause the
firm to become insolvent
• Not paying dividends in contravention of contractual
commitments (such as debt covenant agreements)

6. Dividend Theories
• There are three main categories advanced:
1. Dividend relevance theories
2. Dividend irrelevance theories
3. Dividend & uncertainty

7. DIVIDEND RELEVANCE THEORIES
• These are theories whose propagators argue that
the dividend policy of a firm affects the value of
the firm. There are two main theorists:
– James E. Walter (Walter’s model)
– Myron Gordon (Gordon’s model)

8. Walter’s Model
• Shows relationship between a firm’s rate of return r and its cost of
capital k. it is based on the following assumptions:
1. Internal financing – the firm finances all its investments through
retained earnings; debt or new equity is not issued.
2. Constant return and cost of capital – the firm’s rate of return, r,
and its cost of capital k are constant
3. 100% payout or retention – all earnings are either distributed as
dividends or reinvested internally immediately.
4. Constant EPS and DPS – beginning earnings and dividends never
change. The values of the EPS and DPS may be changed in the
model to determine results but are assumed to remain unchanged
in determining a given value.
5. Infinite time – the firm has a very long or infinite life

9. • Walter’s formula for determining MPS is as
follows:
P = (DPS/k) + [r (EPS – DPS)/k]/k
Where:
• P = market price per share
• DPS = dividend per share
• EPS = earnings per share
• r = firm’s average rate of return
• k = firm’s cost of capital

10. • the market value is determined as the present
value of two sources of income:
1. PV of constant stream of dividend (DPS/k)
2. PV of infinite stream of capital gains:
r(EPS-DPS)/k
Hence the formula can be rewritten as
P = DPS + (r/k) (EPS – DPS)
k

11. • Given three types of firms or scenarios of firms
the model can be summarized as follows:
1. Growth firm: there are several investment
opportunities (r > k) and the firm can reinvest
earnings at a higher rate r than that which is
expected by shareholders k. thus they will
maximize value per share if they reinvest all
earnings.
2. Normal firm: there aren’t any investments
available for the firm that are yielding higher
rates of return (r = k) thus the dividend policy
has no effect on market price.

12. 3. Declining firm: there aren’t any profitable
investments for the firm to reinvest its earnings, i.e.
any investments would earn the firm a rate less than
its cost of capital (r < k). The firm will therefore
maximize its value per share if it pays out all its
earnings as dividend.
Criticisms of Walter’s model
• Model assumes investment decisions of the firm are
financed by retained earnings alone
• Model assumes a constant rate of return and
constant cost of capital, i.e. disregards the firm’s risk
which changes over time hence the discount rate will
change over time in proportion.

13. Gordon’s Model
• Assumptions:
1. The firm is an all equity firm, i.e. no debt
2. No external financing is available; consequently
retained earnings would be used to finance any
expansion of the firm. Similar argument as Walter’s for
the dividend and investment policies.
3. Constant return which ignores diminishing marginal
efficiency of investment.
4. Constant cost of capital; model also ignores the risk-
effect as did Walter’s

14. 5. Perpetual stream of earnings for the firm
6. Corporate taxes do not exist
7. Constant retention ratio b, i.e. once decided
upon stays as such forever. The growth rate g =
br stays constant in that case.
8. Cost of capital greater than the growth rate (k >
br = g); otherwise it is not possible to obtain a
meaningful value for the share.
• According to Gordon’s model dividend per share
is expected to grow when earnings are retained.

15. • The dividend per share is equal to the payout ratio
multiplied by earnings [EPS X (1-b)]. To determine the
value of the firm therefore based on the dividend growth
model the value of the firm will be:
• P0 = EPS (1 – b)
k – g
• Where:
• (1 – b) = the retention ratio of the firm given b as the
payout ratio.
• g = the growth rate determined as br
• g is always less than k

16. • The conclusions of Gordon’s model are similar to Walter’s
model due to the fact that their sets of assumptions are
similar.
1. The market value of P0 increases with retention ratio b,
for firms with growth opportunities, i.e. when r > k.
2. The market value of the share P0 increases with payout
ratio (1 – b), for declining firms with r < k
3. The market value is not affected by the dividend policy
where r = k

17. Dividends Irrelevance
• The propagators of this school of thought were France
Modigliani and Merton Miller (1961).
• They state that the dividend policy employed by a firm
does not affect the value of the firm.
• They argue that the value of the firm is dependent on the
firm’s earnings which result from its investment policy,
such that when the policy is given the dividend policy is
of no consequence.

18. • Conditions that face a firm operating in a perfect capital
market, either;
1. The firm has sufficient funds to pay dividend
2. The firm does not have sufficient funds to pay dividend.
Therefore it issues stocks in order to finance payment of
dividends
3. The firm does not pay dividends but the shareholders
need cash.

19. Assumptions of M-M hypothesis
• Perfect capital markets, i.e. investors behave rationally,
information is freely available to all investors, transaction
and floatation costs do not exist, no investor is large
enough to influence the price of a share.
• Taxes do not exist; or there is no difference in the tax rates
applicable to both dividends and capital gains.
• The firm has a fixed investment policy
• The risk of uncertainty does not exist, i.e. all investors are
able to forecast future prices and dividends with certainty
and one discount rate is appropriate for all securities over
all time periods.

20. • Under the assumptions the rate of return, r, will be equal
to the discount rate, k.
• As a result the price of each share must adjust so that the
rate of return, which is composed of the rate of dividends
and capital gains on every share, will be equal to the
discount rate and be identical for all shares.
• The return is computed as follows:
r = Dividends + Capital gains (loss)
Share price
r = DIV1 + (P1 – P0)
P0

21. • As hypothesised, r should be equal for all the
shares otherwise the lower yielding securities will
be traded for the higher yielding ones thus
reducing the price of the low yielding ones and
increasing the price of the high yielding ones.
• This arbitraging or switching continues until the
differentials in rates of return are eliminated.

22. Conclusions of the model
• A firm which pays dividends will have to raise funds externally in
order to finance its investment plans. When a firm pays dividend
therefore, its advantage is offset by external financing.
• This means that the terminal value of the share declines when
dividends are paid. Thus the wealth of the shareholders –
dividends plus the terminal share price – remains unchanged.
• Consequently, the present value per share after dividends and
external financing is equal to the present value per share before
the payment of dividends.
• Thus the shareholders are indifferent between the payment of
dividends and retention of earnings.

23. Criticisms?
• Presence of Market Imperfections:
• Tax differentials (low-payout clientele)
• Floatation costs
• Transaction and agency costs
• Information asymmetry
• Diversification
• Uncertainty (high-payout clientele)
• Desire for steady income
• No or low taxes on dividends

24. The Bird-in-the-hand theory
• Relaxing of Gordon’s simplifying assumptions to conform
slightly to reality, he concludes that even when r = k, the
dividend policy does affect the value of the share based
on the view that:
under conditions of uncertainty, investors tend to
discount distant dividends (capital gains) at a higher
rate than they discount near dividends.
• Investors behave rationally, are risk-averse and therefore
have a preference for near dividends to future dividends.

25. • Put forth by Kirshman (1969) in the following terms:
“Of two stocks with identical earnings record and prospects but the
one paying higher dividend than the other, the former will
undoubtedly command higher dividend than the latter merely
because stockholders prefer present to future values….
stockholders normally act on the premise that a bird in
the hand is worth two in the bush and
for this reason are willing to pay a premium price for the
stock with the higher dividend rate just as they discount
the one with the lower rate”.

26. • Uncertainty of dividends increases with futurity, i.e. the
further one looks the more uncertain dividends become.
• When dividend is considered with respect to uncertainty
the discount rate cannot be held constant, it increase
with uncertainty.
• Investors prefer to avoid uncertainty and would be willing
to pay a higher price for the share that pays the higher
current dividend, all things held constant.
• The appropriate discount rate would thus increase with
the retention ratio.

27. ESTABLISHING THE DIVIDEND POLICY IN PRACTICE
1. Residual Dividend Approach
• It is a dividend policy under which a firm pays
dividends only after meeting its investment needs
while maintaining a desired debt-equity ratio.
• With a residual dividend policy, the firm’s
objective is to meet its investment needs and
maintain its desired debt-equity ratio before
paying dividends.

28. • Investors prefer to have the firm retain and
reinvest earnings if they can earn a higher risk
adjusted return than the investor can.
– Residual Dividend Policy suggests that dividends
should be that part of earnings which cannot be
invested at a rate at least equal to the WACC.
• Residual Dividend Policy Steps:
1 Determine the optimal capital budget.
2 Determine the retained earnings that can be used to
finance the capital budget.
3 Use retained earnings to supply as much of the equity
investment in the capital budget as necessary.
4 Pay dividends only if there are left-over earnings.

29. 2. Dividend Stability
• Stable dividend policy is dividends are a constant
proportion of earnings over an earnings cycle.
Cyclical dividend policy is dividends are a constant
proportion of earnings at each pay date.
• Due to the possibility of a negative signal to
investors, many CFOs have set the policy of never
reducing their dividends.
– Dividends are only increased if management is certain
future earnings will support such a high dividend.

30. – A variation of this policy is one in which dividends
exhibit a stable, predictable growth rate.
– In that instance the company has to set the policy in
such a way that the growth rate can be sustained for
the foreseeable future.
• Stable Dividend Policy Steps:
1 Pay a predictable dividend every year.
2 Base optimal capital budget on residual retained
earnings (after dividend).

31. 3. A Compromise Dividend Policy
• In practice, many firms appear to follow what
amounts to compromise dividend policy.
Such a policy is based on goals.
• Under the compromise approach, the debt-equity
ratio is viewed as a long range goal. It is allowed
to vary in short run if necessary to avoid a
dividend cut or the need to sell new equity. In
addition, financial manager has to think divided
payment as target payout ratio, a firm’s long
term desired dividend to earning ratio.

32. • Goals, ranked in order of importance:
– Avoid cutting back on positive NPV projects to pay a
dividend
– Avoid dividend cuts
– Avoid the need to issue equity
– Maintain a target debt/equity ratio
– Maintain a target dividend payout ratio
• Companies want to accept positive NPV projects
while avoiding negative signals

33. Factors influencing dividend policy
Factors that affect the dividend policy may be
grouped into the following categories :
A. General and legal constraints
1. Bond Covenants
2. Impairment of capital rule
3. Penalty tax on improperly accumulated
earnings
4. Availability of cash (Liquidity)

34. B. Investment opportunities
1. Capital budgeting opportunities
2. Possibility of accelerating or delaying projects
C. Alternative Sources of Capital
1. Ability to substitute debt for equity
2. Maintenance of Control of the firm
3. Interest Payment Obligations
4. Access to Capital Markets

35. Bond indentures (agreements): debt contracts
often limit dividends payment to earnings
generated after the loan was granted.
Preferred stock restrictions: typically, common
dividends cannot be paid if the company has
omitted its preferred dividend.
Impairment of capital rule: Dividend payments
cannot exceed the balance sheet item “retained
earnings”.

36. Availability of cash: cash dividends can be paid only
with cash. Thus, a shortage of cash in the bank can
restrict dividend payments; however, the availability
to borrow can offset this factor.
Possibility of accelerating or delaying projects: the
ability to accelerate or to postpone projects will
permit a firm to adhere more closely to a stable
dividend policy.
Cost of selling new stock: If a firm needs to finance a
given level of investment, it can obtain equity by
retaining earnings or by issuing new common stock

37. Ability to substitute debt for equity: A firm can
finance a given level of investment with either
debt or equity. If the firm can adjust its debt ratio
without raising costs sharply, it can pay the
expected dividend, even if earnings fluctuate, by
using a variable debt ratio.
Control: If management is concerned about
maintaining control, it may be reluctant to sell
new stock; hence the company may retain more
earnings than it otherwise would.

38. Types of Dividend
• Dividend may be distributed among the
shareholders in the form of cash or stock. Hence,
Dividends are classified into:
A. Cash dividend
B. Stock dividend
C. Bond dividend
D. Property dividend

39. A. Cash Dividend
• If the dividend is paid in the form of cash to the
shareholders, it is called cash dividend. It is paid
periodically out the business concerns EAIT (Earnings
after interest and tax).
• Cash dividends are common and popular types followed
by majority of the business concerns.
• Relevant dates associated with dividends are as follows:
• Declaration date: This is the date on which the board of
directors declares the dividend. On this date, the payment
of the dividend becomes a legal liability of the firm.

40. • Date of record: This is the date upon which the
stockholder is entitled to receive the dividend.
• Ex-dividend date: The ex-dividend date is the date when
the right to the dividend leaves the shares. The right to a
dividend stays with the stock until 2 days before the date
of record.
• That is, on the second day prior to the record date, the
right to the dividend is no longer with the shares, and the
seller, not the buyer of that stock, is the one who will
receive the dividend.

41. • Example: Assume that the date of record is 11th
(Thursday):
Ex-dividend Record Date
• If you buy it on the ex-dividend date (9th
), you will not receive the
dividend because your name will not appear in the company’s
record books until Friday (12th
). If you want to buy the stock and
receive the dividend, you need to buy it on the 8th
. If you want to
sell the stock and still receive the dividend, you need to sell on the
9th
.
Mon Tues Wed Thurs Fri
8th
9th
10th
11th
12th

42. • Date of payment: This is the date when the company distributes its
dividend checks to its stockholders. Dividends are usually paid in
cash. A cash dividend is typically expressed in dollars and cents per
share. However, the dividend on preferred stock is sometimes
expressed as a percentage of par values.
• Example1: On November 15, 2022, a cash dividend of $1.50 per
share was declared on 10,000 shares of $10 par value common
stock. The amount of the dividend paid by the company is $15,000
(10,000 * $1.50).
• Example2: Jones Corporation has 20,000 shares of $10 par value,
12 percent preferred stock outstanding. On October 15, 2022, a cash
dividend was declared to holders of record as of November 15,
2022. The amount of dividend to be paid by Jones Corporation is
equal to:
20,000 shares * $10 par value = $200,000 * 12% = $24,000

43. • Some companies allow stockholders to automatically reinvest their
dividend in corporate shares instead of receiving cash. The
advantage to the stockholder is that he or she avoids the brokerage
fees associated with buying new shares. However, there is no tax
advantage since the stockholder must still pay ordinary income
taxes on the dividend received.
Stock Dividend
• Stock dividend is paid in the form of the company stock due to
raising of more finance. Under this type, cash is retained by the
business concern.
Bond Dividend
• Bond dividend is also known as script dividend. If the company
does not have sufficient funds to pay cash dividend, the company
promises to pay the shareholder at a future specific date with the
help of issue of bond or notes.

44. Property Dividend
• Property dividends are paid in the form of some assets other
than cash. It will distribute under the exceptional
circumstance.
Stock Dividends
• A stock dividend is the issuance of additional shares of stock
to stockholders.
• A stock dividend may be declared when the cash position of
the firm is
 inadequate and/or
 when the firm wishes to prompt more trading of its stock by reducing
its market price.
• With a stock dividend, retained earnings decrease but common
stock and paid-in capital on common stock increase by the
same total amount.

45.  A stock dividend, therefore, provides no change in
stockholders’ wealth.
 Stock dividends increase the shares held, but the proportion
of the company each stockholder owns remains the same.
 In other words, if a stockholder has a 2 percent interest in
the company before a stock dividend, he or she will continue
to have a 2 percent interest after the stock dividend.
• Example: Mr. James owns 200 shares of Newland
Corporation. There are 10,000 shares outstanding; therefore,
Mr. James holds a 2 percent interest in the company.
• The company issues a stock dividend of 10 percent. Mr.
James will then have 220 shares out of 11,000 shares issued.
His proportionate interest remains at 2 percent (220/11,000).

46. Stock Split
• A stock split involves issuing a substantial amount of
additional shares and reducing the par value of the stock on a
proportional basis. A stock split is often prompted by a desire
to reduce the market price per share, which will make it easier
for small investors to purchase shares.
• Example: Smith Corporation has 1,000 shares of $20 par
value common stock outstanding. The total par value is
$20,000. A 4-for-1 stock split is issued.
• After the split 4,000 shares at $5 par value will be outstanding.
The total par value thus remains at $20,000. Theoretically, the
market price per share of the stock should also drop to one-
fourth of what it was before the split.

47. The differences between a stock dividend and a stock split
are as follows:
• With a stock dividend, retained earnings are reduced and
there is a pro rata distribution of shares to stockholders. A
stock split increases the shares outstanding but does not
lower retained earnings.
• The par value of stock remains the same with a stock
dividend but is proportionally reduced in a stock split.
The similarities between a stock dividend and a stock split
are:
• Cash is not paid.
• Shares outstanding increase.
• Stockholders’ equity remains the same.

48. Stock Repurchases
• Treasury stock is the name given to previously issued stock that has
been purchased by the company. Buying treasury stock is an
alternative to paying dividends.
• Since outstanding shares will be fewer after stock has been
repurchased, earnings per share will rise (assuming net income is
held constant). The increase in earnings per share may result in a
higher market price per share.
• Example: Travis Company earned $2.5 million in 2021. Of this
amount, it decided that 20 percent would be used to purchase
treasury stock. At present there are 400,000 shares outstanding.
Market price per share is $18. The company can use $500,000
(20% * 2.5 million) to buy 25,000 shares through a tender offer of
$20 per share.

49. • A current earnings per share is:
EPS= = = $6.25
• The current P/E multiple is:
= = =$2.88 times
• An earnings per share after treasury stock is
acquired becomes:
= = $6.67
• The expected market price, assuming the P/E ratio
remains the same, is:
• P/E multiple x new earnings per share = expected market
price
2.88 x $6.67 = $19.21

50. • To stockholders, the advantages arising from a stock
repurchase include the following:
• (1) If market price per share goes up as a result of the
repurchase, stockholders can take advantage of the capital
gain deduction. This assumes the stock is held more than
one year and is sold at a gain.
• (2) Stockholders have the option of selling or not selling
the stock, while if a dividend is paid, stockholders must
accept it and pay tax.

51. • To the company, the advantages from a stock
repurchase include the following:
If there is excess cash flow that is deemed
temporary, management may prefer to repurchase
stock than to pay a higher dividend that they feel
cannot be maintained.
Treasury stock can be used for future acquisitions
or used as a basis for stock options.
If management is holding stock, they would favour
a stock repurchase rather than a dividend because of
the favourable tax treatment.
Treasury stock can be resold in the market if
additional funds are needed.

52. • To stockholders, the disadvantages of treasury
stock acquisitions include the following:
– The market price of stock may benefit more from a
dividend than a stock repurchase.
– Treasury stock may be bought at an excessively high
price to the damage of the remaining stockholders.
– A higher price may occur when share activity is limited
or when a significant amount of shares are reacquired.

53. • To management, the disadvantages of treasury stock acquisition
include the following:
• If investors feel that the company is engaging in a repurchase plan
because its management does not have alternative good
investment opportunities, a drop in the market price of stock may
result.
• If the reacquisition of stock makes it appear that the company is
manipulating the price of its stock on the market, the company
will have problems with the Securities and Exchange Commission
(SEC).
• Further, if the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) concludes that the
repurchase is designed to avoid the payment of tax on dividends,
tax penalties may be imposed because of the improper
accumulation of earnings as specified in the tax code.

54. THE END
THANK YOU!!!