helps a lot in study

1. Chap 1: Abnormal Psychology:
Overview and Research Approaches
Iram Sohail

2. Introduction to Abnormal Psychology
•Abnormal Psychology encompasses the scientific study of atypical or unusual patterns of
behavior, thought, and emotion that may cause significant distress, impair daily functioning, or
deviate from societal norms. These patterns are considered abnormal based on several criteria,
including statistical rarity, violation of social norms, maladaptive behavior, personal distress, and
dysfunction.
•Abnormal psychology seeks to understand the causes, classifications, diagnoses, and treatments
of psychological disorders, ranging from mild emotional disturbances to severe mental illnesses.
It also takes into account the cultural, societal, and contextual factors that shape the
understanding of what is considered "normal" and "abnormal."Scientific Study: It is based on
empirical research and uses diagnostic frameworks (e.g., DSM-5, ICD-11).

3. Abnormal psychology
• Patterns of Behavior, Thought, Emotion: It examines cognitive,
emotional, and behavioral patterns that are unusual or problematic.
• Distress or Dysfunction: Focuses on behaviors or emotions that cause
significant personal suffering or interfere with one's ability to function.
• Deviation from Social Norms: What is considered abnormal often
depends on cultural and social standards.
• Focus on Mental Disorders: The study includes conditions such as anxiety
disorders, mood disorders, psychotic disorders, personality disorders, etc.
• Abnormal psychology bridges research, clinical practice, and theory to
enhance understanding and treatment of mental health issues.

4. Indicators of Abnormality

5. Statistical Deviance
•Definition: Behaviors, thoughts, or feelings that are statistically rare or
unusual in a given population.
•Example:
•Having an IQ of 160 is statistically rare and might be considered
abnormal, even if it’s positively valued.
•On the other hand, experiencing hallucinations (e.g., hearing voices) is
statistically rare and often linked to psychological disorders like
schizophrenia.
•Key Point: Statistical deviance alone does not indicate if the behavior is
good or bad; it just means it is rare.

6. Violation of Social Norms
• Behaviors that go against societal norms or expectations are often considered
abnormal.
• Example:
• Walking around naked in public would violate societal norms and could be seen as a sign
of abnormality, potentially indicating disorders such as exhibitionism.
• Cultural Context: What is considered a violation of norms can vary across cultures (e.g.,
certain body modifications or rituals).
• Key Point: Abnormality is sometimes context-specific, depending on cultural
and social standards.

7. Personal Distress
•Experiencing significant distress or discomfort due to one’s thoughts, emotions, or behaviors.
•Example:
•Someone suffering from chronic anxiety or depression may feel overwhelming sadness or worry,
which causes significant distress in daily functioning.
•Key Point: Personal distress can be an indicator of disorders, but not all abnormal behaviors cause
distress (e.g., someone with antisocial personality disorder may not feel distress).

8. Maladaptive Behavior
•Behaviors that interfere with an individual’s ability to function effectively in everyday life.
•Example:
•Substance abuse: A person dependent on drugs or alcohol may struggle to hold a job or maintain
relationships, which indicates maladaptive behavior.
•Other Examples: Self-harm, refusal to leave the house (agoraphobia).
•Key Point: Maladaptive behaviors are detrimental to the individual’s ability to thrive or achieve
personal goals.

9. Irrationality and Incomprehensibility
• Behaviors or thoughts that are irrational or incomprehensible to others may
be seen as abnormal.
• Example:
• Believing that aliens control one's thoughts, as seen in some cases of psychotic disorders
(e.g., schizophrenia), is irrational and hard to understand for others.
• Other Example: Engaging in bizarre rituals for hours each day (Obsessive-Compulsive
Disorder).
• Key Point: When behavior does not make sense to others, it is often
considered abnormal.

10. Dangerousness
•Behaviors that pose a threat to the safety of the individual or others.
•Example:
•Suicidal thoughts and behaviors indicate a serious level of abnormality as the person may harm
themselves.
•Violent outbursts toward others, as seen in some individuals with personality disorders (e.g.,
borderline personality disorder).
•Key Point: While dangerousness is a strong indicator of abnormality, not all individuals with mental
illness are dangerous.

11. Dysfunction in Functioning
•When an individual’s behavior leads to impairment in personal, social, or occupational functioning.
•Example:
•A person with severe depression may be unable to maintain a job, take care of personal hygiene, or
fulfill social obligations.
•Other Example: A student with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) might struggle
academically and socially.
•Key Point: Dysfunction indicates that the person is not able to perform key tasks required for daily
life.

12. Unpredictability and Loss of Control
• Behavior that is erratic and unpredictable, with the individual appearing to
lose control.
• Example:
• Sudden outbursts of anger or emotional breakdowns without a clear trigger, often seen
in mood disorders (e.g., bipolar disorder).
• Other Example: Self-destructive behaviors such as binge eating or excessive gambling.
• Key Point: A lack of control over behavior often signals a mental health issue.

13. Conclusion: Defining Abnormality
• No single indicator is sufficient to define abnormality.
• Abnormality is typically identified by a combination of factors, such as
deviance, distress, and dysfunction.
• Importance of considering the cultural context and the individual's subjective
experience.
• Final Thought: Abnormality is complex and multidimensional, requiring a
nuanced understanding of each indicator.

14. DSM-5

15. DSM-5(Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders)
• The DSM-5 is the 5th edition of the manual used by clinicians and
researchers to diagnose and classify mental disorders.
• Published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA) in 2013.
• Provides standardized criteria for diagnosing mental disorders based on
symptom clusters, duration, and severity.
• Used globally in various mental health and medical fields.

16. Purpose of DSM-5
•Standardization: Ensures uniformity in diagnosing across clinicians and institutions.
•Communication: Provides a common language for mental health professionals.
•Research: Establishes criteria for research into mental health conditions and treatments.
•Insurance: Often used for defining conditions eligible for treatment coverage.
•Example:
•A psychologist diagnosing a patient with Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) will refer to DSM-5
criteria such as persistent sadness, loss of interest in activities, and duration (at least two weeks).

17. Definition of Mental Disorder (According to
DSM-5)
•Mental Disorder: A syndrome (a group of symptoms which consistently occur together) characterized by clinically
significant disturbances in cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior.
•Disturbances reflect dysfunction in psychological, biological, or developmental processes.
•Key Criteria:
1.Significant distress or disability in social, occupational, or other important activities.
2.Behavior that is not a typical response to common stressors or culturally approved reactions.
•Example:
•Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD): Excessive worry that causes distress and impairs
functioning, with symptoms lasting for at least six months.

18. Distinguishing Mental Disorders from
Expected Responses
• Normal responses to stress (e.g., grief after the loss of a loved one) should
not be considered a mental disorder unless they exceed normal boundaries
or persist excessively.
• Example:
• Bereavement vs. Major Depressive Disorder: While grief is normal, if it involves
prolonged, debilitating symptoms like self-hatred or inability to function in daily life, it
might be classified as Major Depressive Disorder.

19. The 4 D’s of Abnormality
• The 4 D’s (Deviance, Distress, Dysfunction, Danger) are key criteria that help
clinicians determine whether behavior qualifies as abnormal and requires
intervention.
• 1. Deviance: Behavior that significantly deviates from societal or cultural norms.
• Example:
• A person who consistently talks to themselves in public without any visible external trigger
may be seen as deviating from societal norms of expected behavior.
• Note: Deviance alone is not enough to indicate a mental disorder unless it also leads to
distress or dysfunction.
2.Distress: The individual experiences significant emotional pain or suffering.
Example:
A person with Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) may experience persistent feelings of sadness,
worthlessness, and hopelessness, causing them emotional distress that severely impacts their quality of life.

20. The 4 D’s of Abnormality cont.
3.Dysfunction: The behavior interferes with daily functioning, such as in
work, relationships, or self-care.
Example:
3.Someone with Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) might engage in repetitive rituals
like hand-washing to the point where it prevents them from leaving the house or
fulfilling daily responsibilities.
• Danger: The behavior poses a risk to the individual or others.
• Example:
• A person with Substance Use Disorder may engage in reckless behaviors such
as driving under the influence, putting their life and the lives of others in
danger.

21. Mental Disorders Are Not Culturally
Sanctioned
•Behavior that is culturally sanctioned or part of a religious tradition is not considered a mental
disorder.
•Example:
•Certain cultural practices like fasting, or religious rituals like chanting or meditation, may seem
unusual but are not considered abnormal in the cultural context.
•Exception: If these behaviors cause harm or distress beyond cultural norms, they may be
viewed differently.

22. Common Categories of Mental Disorders in
DSM-5
•Anxiety Disorders: Characterized by excessive fear or anxiety (e.g., panic disorder, phobias).
•Mood Disorders: Involve disturbances in mood (e.g., depression, bipolar disorder).
•Neurodevelopmental Disorders: Begin early in development (e.g., autism, ADHD).
•Psychotic Disorders: Involve a disconnection from reality (e.g., schizophrenia).
•Example:
•A student experiencing Panic Attacks (part of Panic Disorder) might avoid exams or social
situations, which severely impacts their academic and social life.

23. Evolution of the DSM: DSM-I to DSM-5
• DSM-I (1952):Key Points:
• First edition, published by the APA.
• Contained 106 disorders.
• Based on psychoanalytic theory, with a focus on clinical judgment.
• Disorders were broadly described, with few specific diagnostic criteria.
• DSM-II (1968):Key Points:
• Added more disorders, totaling 182.
• Continued reliance on psychoanalytic concepts.
• Less scientific and focused more on clinician’s interpretations.
• Criticized for lack of reliability in diagnoses.

24. Evolution of the DSM: DSM-I to DSM-5 cont.
• DSM-III (1980):Key Points:
• Major overhaul with a shift towards a medical model.
• Introduction of specific diagnostic criteria and a multi-axial system.
• Total of 265 disorders.
• Increased emphasis on empirical research and reliability.
4.DSM-IV (1994):
4. Key Points:
4.Continued use of the multi-axial system.
5.Added 297 disorders.
6.Included cultural factors and cross-referencing with the ICD (International Classification of
Diseases).
7.Introduced a more developmental perspective on disorders.

25. Changes from DSM-IV to DSM-5
• Removal of the multi-axial system (Axes I-V).
• Merging of related diagnoses (e.g., the consolidation of autism-related
disorders into Autism Spectrum Disorder).
• Introduction of new disorders like Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder
(DMDD) and Hoarding Disorder.
• Example:
• Hoarding Disorder: Previously considered a subtype of OCD, it is now recognized as a
distinct condition, where individuals experience distress and difficulty discarding
possessions, leading to clutter and impairment in daily living.

26. Criticism of DSM-5
•Over-pathologizing: Critics argue that DSM-5 expands the definition of mental disorders,
potentially pathologizing normal behavior (e.g., diagnosing mild sadness as a disorder).
•Cultural Bias: Some argue that the DSM-5 reflects Western views of mental health, which may not
apply universally.
•Reliability and Validity: There is ongoing debate about whether all DSM-5 criteria are valid across
different populations.
•Example:
•Some critics worry that conditions like Social Anxiety Disorder could pathologize shyness,
especially in cultures where modesty and reserve are valued.

27. DSM-5-TR
•Release Date: The DSM-5-TR was published in March 2022.
•Purpose: The DSM-5-TR includes updated text and clarifications to some diagnostic criteria based
on recent research, but it does not introduce any major structural changes like new disorders or
categories.
•Key Updates:
•Prolonged Grief Disorder: Added as a new diagnosis in the section on trauma- and stressor-related
disorders.
•Cultural Considerations: Expanded content on cultural considerations in diagnosing mental
disorders.
•Revised Criteria: Some diagnostic criteria have been refined for clarity and accuracy based on the
latest research.
•Language Updates: The text has been updated to be more inclusive and culturally sensitive.

28. Research Approaches in
Abnormal Psychology

29. Descriptive Research
1. Purpose: To observe and describe behaviors without manipulating variables.
2. Methods:
1.Case Studies: In-depth study of one individual or small group.
2.Naturalistic Observation: Observing behaviors in their natural environment.
3.Surveys: Gathering data through questionnaires or interviews.
3. Example: A case study of an individual with dissociative identity disorder to
understand symptom presentation.

30. Correlational Research
• Purpose: To examine the relationship between two or more variables
without implying causality.
• Methods:
• Correlation Coefficients: Statistical measure that describes the strength and
direction of the relationship between variables.
• Example: Studying the correlation between childhood trauma and the
development of depression.
• Limitation: Correlation does not equal causation.

31. Experimental Research
3. Purpose: To establish cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating one or
more variables and observing the effects.
4. Methods:
3.Randomized Controlled Trials (RCTs): Participants are randomly assigned to either the
experimental group or the control group.
4.Independent and Dependent Variables: Manipulating the independent variable and
measuring its effect on the dependent variable.
5. Example: Testing the effectiveness of a new therapy for anxiety by randomly
assigning participants to a treatment group and a placebo group.

32. Longitudinal Research
• Purpose: To study the same individuals over an extended period to
observe changes and development.
• Methods:
• Tracking participants across multiple time points to assess how certain
variables (e.g., childhood neglect) impact future outcomes (e.g., adult mental
health).
• Example: Following individuals from childhood to adulthood to
examine how early life stress affects the development of anxiety
disorders.

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