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CELL
SIGNALING
dr. Rachmadina dr. Erla Nurani
NIM. 2310246499
Pembimbing : dr. Arfianti, M. Biomed, Msc, PhD
OUTLINE
INTRODUCTION
SIGNALING MOLECULES AND THEIR RECEPTORS
G PROTEIN COUPLED RECEPTOR AND CYCLIC AMP
TYROSINE KINASE
SIGNALING PATHWAY and REGULATION OF GENE EXPRESSION
SIGNALING DYNAMIC AND NETWORK
INTRODUCTION
• All cells → receive and respond to signal from environment
• The behavior of cell in multicellular organism → carefully regulated → meet the needs of
the organism as a whole → acclomplished by variety signaling molecules
(secreted/expressed) on the surface of one cell → bind to receptor expressed by other
cell.
• Signaling molecules + receptors → intracellular reaction → regulate cell behavior (inc.
metabolism, movement, proliferation, survival, and differentiation).
• Fact : breakdown in signaling pathway → result many cancers.
Modes of cell-cell signaling
• Direct cell-cell (or cell-matrix) signaling
→ intergrin and cadherins function not only as cell adhesion molecules but also as signaling
molecules → regulate cell proliferation and survival response
• Signaling by secreted molecules :
→ Endocrine
→ Paracrine
→ Autocrine
SIGNALING MOLECULES AND THEIR
RECEPTORS
SIGNALING MOLECULES OR LIGANDS
• HYDROPHOBIC
→ can’t freely float extracellular → need carrier protein to go to target cell
→ can diffuse across the cell membrane → bind to receptor protein inside target
cell
→ ex : steroid hormone, thyroid hormone, Vit. D3, retinoic acid
• HYDROPHILIC
→ freely float in extracellular → reach target cell
→ unable across the cell membrane → bind to the receptors on the cell surface
→ receptor : extracellular ends bind to the ligand
intracellular ends : trigger a signaling pathway inside cell
Steroid Hormones and The Nuclear Receptor
Superfamily
• Steroid hormones : classic example of hydrophobic signaling
molecules (receptor inside the target cell)
• Intracellular receptor → called “Nuclear Receptor Superfamily”
• Nuclear Receptor (NR) Superfamily are Transcription Factor that
contain related domains for ligand binding, DNA binding, and
transcriptional activation.
• Ligand binding regulated their function as activators or repressors of
their target genes → steroid hormones regulates gene expression.
Signaling by Nitric Oxide (NO)
→ small molecule
→ able to diffuse directly across the plasma membrane of its target cells.
→ paracrine signaling molecules in nervous, immune, and circulatory
systems.
→ alters the activity of the intracellular target enzyme guanylyl cyclase →
stimulating synthesis of cyclic GMP inside cell
• Dilatation of blood vessel by NO action
→first, the release of neurotransmitter (acetylcholince from the nerve cells
in blood vessel wall) → act on endhotelial cell → stimulate NO synthesis →
NO diffuse to neighboring smooth muscle cells → activates guanylyl cyclase
→ synthesis of cyclic GMP → induces muscle cell relaxation and blood vessel
dilatation → use in treatment of heart disease
Receptor on The Cell Surface
I. G-Protein Coupled Receptors
II. Enzyme-Linked Receptors
a. Receptor Tyrosine Kinases
b. Nonreceptor Tyrosine Kinases
c. Receptor serine/threonine kinases
I. Ion channel Receptor
Signaling by Neurotransmitter
→ small hydrophilic molecules (inc. acetylcholine & GABA) → unable to
cross the target cell plasma membrane
→ many neurotransmitter act by binding to cell surface receptors →
ligand-gated ion channels (ex : acetylcholine receptor)
→ carry signal between neurons or form neurons to other type of
target cells.
→ neurotransmitter binding to receptor → induce a conformational
change that open ion channels → resulting in changes in ion flux in the
target cell.
Other neurotransmitter receptors → G-coupled receptor
Signaling by Neurotransmitter
Signaling by Peptides Hormones and Growth
Factor
Peptides hormones, neuropeptides, and growth factors are unabale to cross
the plasma membrane → act by binding to cell surface receptors
• Peptide hormones :
→ insuline : receptor tyrosine kinases
→ hormone produced by the pituitary gland (growth hormone, follicle-
stimulating hormone, prolactin, etc) → G-Protein Coupled Receptors
• Nueropeptide : activity as natural analgesics that decrease pain response in
the central nervous system.
→ enkephalins
→ endorphins
Signaling by Peptides Hormones and Growth
Factor
• Polypeptide growth factors :
Receptor Tyrosine Kinases
→ nerve growth factor (NGF) : regulate the development and survival of neurons
→ epidermal growth factor (EGF) : stimulate cell proliferation
→ platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) : stored in blood platelets and released during blood
clotting at the site of a wound → stimulate proliferation and movement of fibrioblast → regrowth
the damaged tissue.
Nonreceptor Tyrosine Kinases
→ cytokines : regulate the development and differentiation of blood cells and control the activity of
lymphocytes during the immune response.
Membrane-anchored growth factor : functioning as signaling molecules during direct cell-cell
interactions.
G PROTEIN-COUPLED RECEPTOR
• G protein-coupled
receptor : activates
intracellular protein
called guanine
nucleotide-binding
proteins (G PROTEIN).
• G protein subunit :
- Alpha
- Beta
- Gamma
G PROTEIN-COUPLED RECEPTOR
Key Experiment
• Linda Buck & Richard Axel → identified a large family of G Protein-
coupled receptors → responsible for odor detection and recognition
• Isolated cilia from rat olfactory neuron → exposed to different
odorants → stimulation of adenylyl cyclase and elevation cAMP →
dependent on the present of GTP
• ↑ cAMP → open Na+ channels in the plasma membrane of the
olfactory neurons → initiating a nerve impulse
• Buck and Axel → isolate molecular clones of the gene encoding
odorant receptor
G PROTEIN-COUPLED RECEPTOR
G PROTEIN-COUPLED RECEPTOR
3 types of G Protein
1. Gs : α subunit stimulates adenylys cyclase (ex : epinefrin receptors)
2. Gi : α and βγ subunits act to inhibit adenylyl cyclase → negative feedback
3. Gq : activates enzyme phospholipase C in cell membrane
cAMP Pathway : second messanger and protein
phosporilation
• Role of cAMP discovered during studies of the hormone EPINEPHRINS
• Action of epinephrins → mediated by ↑ intracellular cons. of cAMP
→ leading to the concept that cAMP is a second messenger in
hormonal signaling
• cAMP → formed from ATP → by the action of adenylyl cyclase
• cAMP → degraded to AMP by cAMP phosphodiesterase.
Enzyme Linked-Receptor
• Receptor tyrosine kinases : phosphorylate their substrate proteins on tyrosine residues
• Nonreceptor tyrosine kinases : act by stimulating intracellular tyrosine kinases with
which they are noncovalently associated
• Receptor serine/threonine kinases
RECEPTOR TYROSINE KINASES
• Enzyme linked receptors :
→ domain intracellular → directly linked to intracellular enzymes.
Ex :
• Receptor tyrosine Kinases
→ phosphorylate their substrate protein in tyrosine residues
→ key elements of signaling pathways involved in the control of animal cell growth and
differentiation
→ receptors for EGF, NGF, PDGF, Insulin, and many other growth factor
RECEPTOR TYROSINE KINASES and CANCER CELL
• Development of tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) as targeted therapy
• Commonly used TKIs :
- Epidermal Growth Factor Receptro (EGFR) tyrosine kinase inhibitors → against non-small
cell lung cancer (NSCLC)
Nonreceptor Tyrosine Kinases
• Act by stimulating intracellular tyrosine kinase with which they are noncovalently
associated.
• Include cytokine receptor superfamily : encompass the receptor for most cytokines (e.g :
erythropoieting and interleukin-2) and for some polypeptide hormones (ex : growth
hormone)
• Contain :
1. N-terminal extracellular ligang-binding domain
2. Single transmembrane α helicase
3. C-terminal cytosolic domain
JAK/STAT pathway
The kinases associated with cytokine
receptors include members of the
Janus kinase (or JAK) family, which
consists of four related nonreceptor
tyrosine kinases.
The key targets of the JAK kinases
are the STAT proteins, which were
originally identified in studies of
cytokine receptor signaling
STAT (signal transducers and
activators of transcription)
JAK (Janus Kinase )
RAS Kinase
• The initial step in MAP kinase signaling from growth factor receptors is
activation of the GTP- binding protein Ras.
• Ras activates the Raf protein kinase, which in turn activates MEK and
ERK.
MAP KINASE (mitogen-activated protein)
IGF-1 (Insulin-
like growth
factor 1)
PI 3- KINASE
(Phosphatidylinositol 3-
kinases)
• PI 3-kinase phosphorylates PIP2
to yield the second messenger
PIP3, which leads to activation of
Akt.
• Akt phosphorylates a number of
proteins that regulate cell
proliferation and survival.
mTOR (mammalian target of rapamycin)
• mTOR regulates protein synthesis and autophagy in
response to Akt signaling and the availability of energy and
amino acids.
• Rapamycin, an antibiotic produced by a bacterium, is a
specific inhibitor of the mTORC1 complex and is used as
an immunosuppressive drug in organ transplants.
TGF B (Transforming Growth Factor-β)
• TGF-β receptors are serine/ threonine
kinases that phosphorylate Smad
transcription factors.
• TGF-β is the prototype of a family of
polypeptide growth factors that control
proliferation and differentiation of a variety of cell
types.
NF-KB (nuclear
factor-
kappaB)
• The NF-κB family consists of
five transcription factors
response to a variety of
stimuli, including cytokines,
growth factors, bacterial and
viral infections, and DNA
damage.
SIGNALING DYNAMIC AND NETWORKS
Signaling within cell is complicated:
→ the activities of individual pathways are regulated by feedback loops
that control the extent and duration of signaling activity.
→ signaling pathways do not operate in isolation → frequent crosstalk
between different pathways → intracellular signal transduction is an
integrated network of connected pathways
Feedback Loops and Signaling Dynamics
• The extent and duration of NF-κB activity → determine
the transcriptional response of the cell.
• Ex : some target genes are induced by transient NF-κB
activity, persisting for only 30–60 minutes → the
induction of other genes requires several hours of
sustained NF-κB signaling
Networks and Crosstalk
THANK YOU

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CELL SIGNALING biokimia dan biologi .pptx

  • 1. CELL SIGNALING dr. Rachmadina dr. Erla Nurani NIM. 2310246499 Pembimbing : dr. Arfianti, M. Biomed, Msc, PhD
  • 2. OUTLINE INTRODUCTION SIGNALING MOLECULES AND THEIR RECEPTORS G PROTEIN COUPLED RECEPTOR AND CYCLIC AMP TYROSINE KINASE SIGNALING PATHWAY and REGULATION OF GENE EXPRESSION SIGNALING DYNAMIC AND NETWORK
  • 3. INTRODUCTION • All cells → receive and respond to signal from environment • The behavior of cell in multicellular organism → carefully regulated → meet the needs of the organism as a whole → acclomplished by variety signaling molecules (secreted/expressed) on the surface of one cell → bind to receptor expressed by other cell. • Signaling molecules + receptors → intracellular reaction → regulate cell behavior (inc. metabolism, movement, proliferation, survival, and differentiation). • Fact : breakdown in signaling pathway → result many cancers.
  • 4. Modes of cell-cell signaling • Direct cell-cell (or cell-matrix) signaling → intergrin and cadherins function not only as cell adhesion molecules but also as signaling molecules → regulate cell proliferation and survival response • Signaling by secreted molecules : → Endocrine → Paracrine → Autocrine
  • 5. SIGNALING MOLECULES AND THEIR RECEPTORS
  • 6. SIGNALING MOLECULES OR LIGANDS • HYDROPHOBIC → can’t freely float extracellular → need carrier protein to go to target cell → can diffuse across the cell membrane → bind to receptor protein inside target cell → ex : steroid hormone, thyroid hormone, Vit. D3, retinoic acid • HYDROPHILIC → freely float in extracellular → reach target cell → unable across the cell membrane → bind to the receptors on the cell surface → receptor : extracellular ends bind to the ligand intracellular ends : trigger a signaling pathway inside cell
  • 7. Steroid Hormones and The Nuclear Receptor Superfamily • Steroid hormones : classic example of hydrophobic signaling molecules (receptor inside the target cell) • Intracellular receptor → called “Nuclear Receptor Superfamily” • Nuclear Receptor (NR) Superfamily are Transcription Factor that contain related domains for ligand binding, DNA binding, and transcriptional activation. • Ligand binding regulated their function as activators or repressors of their target genes → steroid hormones regulates gene expression.
  • 8.
  • 9.
  • 10. Signaling by Nitric Oxide (NO) → small molecule → able to diffuse directly across the plasma membrane of its target cells. → paracrine signaling molecules in nervous, immune, and circulatory systems. → alters the activity of the intracellular target enzyme guanylyl cyclase → stimulating synthesis of cyclic GMP inside cell • Dilatation of blood vessel by NO action →first, the release of neurotransmitter (acetylcholince from the nerve cells in blood vessel wall) → act on endhotelial cell → stimulate NO synthesis → NO diffuse to neighboring smooth muscle cells → activates guanylyl cyclase → synthesis of cyclic GMP → induces muscle cell relaxation and blood vessel dilatation → use in treatment of heart disease
  • 11. Receptor on The Cell Surface I. G-Protein Coupled Receptors II. Enzyme-Linked Receptors a. Receptor Tyrosine Kinases b. Nonreceptor Tyrosine Kinases c. Receptor serine/threonine kinases I. Ion channel Receptor
  • 12. Signaling by Neurotransmitter → small hydrophilic molecules (inc. acetylcholine & GABA) → unable to cross the target cell plasma membrane → many neurotransmitter act by binding to cell surface receptors → ligand-gated ion channels (ex : acetylcholine receptor) → carry signal between neurons or form neurons to other type of target cells. → neurotransmitter binding to receptor → induce a conformational change that open ion channels → resulting in changes in ion flux in the target cell. Other neurotransmitter receptors → G-coupled receptor
  • 14. Signaling by Peptides Hormones and Growth Factor Peptides hormones, neuropeptides, and growth factors are unabale to cross the plasma membrane → act by binding to cell surface receptors • Peptide hormones : → insuline : receptor tyrosine kinases → hormone produced by the pituitary gland (growth hormone, follicle- stimulating hormone, prolactin, etc) → G-Protein Coupled Receptors • Nueropeptide : activity as natural analgesics that decrease pain response in the central nervous system. → enkephalins → endorphins
  • 15. Signaling by Peptides Hormones and Growth Factor • Polypeptide growth factors : Receptor Tyrosine Kinases → nerve growth factor (NGF) : regulate the development and survival of neurons → epidermal growth factor (EGF) : stimulate cell proliferation → platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) : stored in blood platelets and released during blood clotting at the site of a wound → stimulate proliferation and movement of fibrioblast → regrowth the damaged tissue. Nonreceptor Tyrosine Kinases → cytokines : regulate the development and differentiation of blood cells and control the activity of lymphocytes during the immune response. Membrane-anchored growth factor : functioning as signaling molecules during direct cell-cell interactions.
  • 16. G PROTEIN-COUPLED RECEPTOR • G protein-coupled receptor : activates intracellular protein called guanine nucleotide-binding proteins (G PROTEIN). • G protein subunit : - Alpha - Beta - Gamma
  • 17. G PROTEIN-COUPLED RECEPTOR Key Experiment • Linda Buck & Richard Axel → identified a large family of G Protein- coupled receptors → responsible for odor detection and recognition • Isolated cilia from rat olfactory neuron → exposed to different odorants → stimulation of adenylyl cyclase and elevation cAMP → dependent on the present of GTP • ↑ cAMP → open Na+ channels in the plasma membrane of the olfactory neurons → initiating a nerve impulse • Buck and Axel → isolate molecular clones of the gene encoding odorant receptor
  • 19. G PROTEIN-COUPLED RECEPTOR 3 types of G Protein 1. Gs : α subunit stimulates adenylys cyclase (ex : epinefrin receptors) 2. Gi : α and βγ subunits act to inhibit adenylyl cyclase → negative feedback 3. Gq : activates enzyme phospholipase C in cell membrane
  • 20. cAMP Pathway : second messanger and protein phosporilation • Role of cAMP discovered during studies of the hormone EPINEPHRINS • Action of epinephrins → mediated by ↑ intracellular cons. of cAMP → leading to the concept that cAMP is a second messenger in hormonal signaling • cAMP → formed from ATP → by the action of adenylyl cyclase • cAMP → degraded to AMP by cAMP phosphodiesterase.
  • 21.
  • 22.
  • 23.
  • 24. Enzyme Linked-Receptor • Receptor tyrosine kinases : phosphorylate their substrate proteins on tyrosine residues • Nonreceptor tyrosine kinases : act by stimulating intracellular tyrosine kinases with which they are noncovalently associated • Receptor serine/threonine kinases
  • 25. RECEPTOR TYROSINE KINASES • Enzyme linked receptors : → domain intracellular → directly linked to intracellular enzymes. Ex : • Receptor tyrosine Kinases → phosphorylate their substrate protein in tyrosine residues → key elements of signaling pathways involved in the control of animal cell growth and differentiation → receptors for EGF, NGF, PDGF, Insulin, and many other growth factor
  • 26.
  • 27.
  • 28. RECEPTOR TYROSINE KINASES and CANCER CELL • Development of tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) as targeted therapy • Commonly used TKIs : - Epidermal Growth Factor Receptro (EGFR) tyrosine kinase inhibitors → against non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC)
  • 29. Nonreceptor Tyrosine Kinases • Act by stimulating intracellular tyrosine kinase with which they are noncovalently associated. • Include cytokine receptor superfamily : encompass the receptor for most cytokines (e.g : erythropoieting and interleukin-2) and for some polypeptide hormones (ex : growth hormone) • Contain : 1. N-terminal extracellular ligang-binding domain 2. Single transmembrane α helicase 3. C-terminal cytosolic domain
  • 30.
  • 31. JAK/STAT pathway The kinases associated with cytokine receptors include members of the Janus kinase (or JAK) family, which consists of four related nonreceptor tyrosine kinases. The key targets of the JAK kinases are the STAT proteins, which were originally identified in studies of cytokine receptor signaling STAT (signal transducers and activators of transcription) JAK (Janus Kinase )
  • 32. RAS Kinase • The initial step in MAP kinase signaling from growth factor receptors is activation of the GTP- binding protein Ras. • Ras activates the Raf protein kinase, which in turn activates MEK and ERK.
  • 33.
  • 36. PI 3- KINASE (Phosphatidylinositol 3- kinases) • PI 3-kinase phosphorylates PIP2 to yield the second messenger PIP3, which leads to activation of Akt. • Akt phosphorylates a number of proteins that regulate cell proliferation and survival.
  • 37. mTOR (mammalian target of rapamycin) • mTOR regulates protein synthesis and autophagy in response to Akt signaling and the availability of energy and amino acids. • Rapamycin, an antibiotic produced by a bacterium, is a specific inhibitor of the mTORC1 complex and is used as an immunosuppressive drug in organ transplants.
  • 38. TGF B (Transforming Growth Factor-β) • TGF-β receptors are serine/ threonine kinases that phosphorylate Smad transcription factors. • TGF-β is the prototype of a family of polypeptide growth factors that control proliferation and differentiation of a variety of cell types.
  • 39. NF-KB (nuclear factor- kappaB) • The NF-κB family consists of five transcription factors response to a variety of stimuli, including cytokines, growth factors, bacterial and viral infections, and DNA damage.
  • 40. SIGNALING DYNAMIC AND NETWORKS Signaling within cell is complicated: → the activities of individual pathways are regulated by feedback loops that control the extent and duration of signaling activity. → signaling pathways do not operate in isolation → frequent crosstalk between different pathways → intracellular signal transduction is an integrated network of connected pathways
  • 41. Feedback Loops and Signaling Dynamics • The extent and duration of NF-κB activity → determine the transcriptional response of the cell. • Ex : some target genes are induced by transient NF-κB activity, persisting for only 30–60 minutes → the induction of other genes requires several hours of sustained NF-κB signaling

Editor's Notes

  1. Semua sel → menerima dan merespons sinyal dari lingkungan Perilaku sel dalam organisme multiseluler → diatur dengan cermat → memenuhi kebutuhan organisme secara keseluruhan → dilakukan oleh berbagai molekul sinyal (disekresikan/diekspresikan) pada permukaan satu sel → berikatan dengan reseptor yang diekspresikan oleh sel lain. Molekul sinyal + reseptor → reaksi intraseluler → mengatur perilaku sel (termasuk metabolisme, pergerakan, proliferasi, kelangsungan hidup, dan diferensiasi). Fakta : kerusakan pada jalur sinyal → mengakibatkan banyak kanker.
  2. Pensinyalan sel-sel langsung (atau matriks sel) → intergrin dan cadherin berfungsi tidak hanya sebagai molekul adhesi sel tetapi juga sebagai molekul pensinyalan → mengatur proliferasi sel dan respons kelangsungan hidup Pensinyalan oleh molekul yang disekresikan: → Endokrin → Parakrin → Autokrin
  3. Pensinyalan sel dapat terjadi baik melalui (A) kontak sel-sel langsung atau (B) aksi sinyal yang disekresikan molekul. Dalam pensinyalan endokrin, hormon dibawa melalui peredaran darah sistem untuk bekerja pada sel target yang jauh. Dalam pensinyalan parakrin, sebuah molekul dilepaskan dari satu sel bertindak secara lokal untuk mempengaruhi sel target terdekat. Dalam pensinyalan autokrin, sebuah sel menghasilkan molekul pensinyalan yang juga merespons.
  4. HIDROPHOBIK → tidak dapat bebas di luar sel → membutuhkan protein pembawa untuk menuju sel target → dapat berdifusi melintasi membran sel → berikatan dengan protein reseptor di dalam sel target → Contoh: hormon steroid, hormon tiroid, vitamin D3, asam retinoat HIDROPHILIK → bebas mengapung di ekstraseluler → mencapai sel target → tidak dapat melintasi membran sel → berikatan dengan reseptor pada permukaan sel → reseptor: ujung ekstraseluler berikatan dengan ligan akhir intraseluler: memicu jalur sinyal di dalam sel
  5. Hormon steroid: contoh klasik dari molekul pensinyalan hidrofobik (reseptor di dalam sel target) Reseptor intraseluler → disebut "Superfamili Reseptor Nuklir" Superfamili Reseptor Nuklir (NR) adalah Faktor Transkripsi yang mengandung domain terkait untuk pengikatan ligan, pengikatan DNA, dan aktivasi transkripsi. Pengikatan ligan mengatur fungsi mereka sebagai aktivator atau represor gen target mereka → hormon steroid mengatur ekspresi gen.
  6. Glukokortikoid berdifusi melintasi membran plasma dan berikatan dengan reseptor glukokortikoid. Dengan tidak adanya ligan, reseptor terikat pada Hsp90 di dalam sitoplasma. Pengikatan glukokortikoid menggeser reseptor dari Hsp90 dan memungkinkan pembentukan dimer reseptor. Reseptor yang diaktifkan berpindah ke nukleus, mengikat DNA, dan berasosiasi dengan koaktivator dengan aktivitas (HAT) untuk merangsang transkripsi gen target mereka
  7. Regulasi gen oleh reseptor hormon tiroid Tiroid reseptor hormon tiroid mengikat DNA baik ada atau tidak adanya hormon. Namun, pengikatan hormon mengubah reseptor dari repressor menjadi aktivator transkripsi gen target. Dalam tidak adanya hormon, reseptor berasosiasi dengan korepresor dengan aktivitas histone deacetylase (HDAC). Di dalam adanya hormon, reseptor berasosiasi dengan koaktivator dengan histone aktivitas asetiltransferase (HAT).
  8. → molekul kecil → mampu berdifusi secara langsung melintasi membran plasma sel targetnya. → molekul pensinyalan parakrin dalam sistem saraf, kekebalan tubuh, dan peredaran darah. → mengubah aktivitas enzim target intraseluler guanylyl cyclase → merangsang sintesis GMP siklik di dalam sel Dilatasi pembuluh darah tanpa tindakan →Pertama, pelepasan neurotransmitter (asetilkolin dari sel saraf di dinding pembuluh darah) → bekerja pada sel endhotelial → merangsang sintesis NO → NO berdifusi ke sel otot polos di sekitarnya → mengaktifkan guanylyl cyclase → sintesis GMP siklik → menginduksi relaksasi sel otot dan dilatasi pembuluh darah → digunakan dalam pengobatan penyakit jantung
  9. Reseptor Berpasangan G-Protein Reseptor yang Terkait dengan Enzim a. Reseptor Kinase Tirosin Reseptor b. Kinase Tirosin Non-reseptor c. Kinase serin / treonin reseptor Reseptor saluran ion
  10. → molekul hidrofilik kecil (termasuk asetilkolin & GABA) → tidak dapat melintasi membran plasma sel target → banyak neurotransmitter bekerja dengan mengikat reseptor permukaan sel → saluran ion berpagar ligan (contoh: reseptor asetilkolin) → membawa sinyal antar neuron atau membentuk neuron ke jenis sel target lainnya. → ikatan neurotransmitter dengan reseptor → menginduksi perubahan konformasi yang membuka saluran ion → menghasilkan perubahan fluks ion dalam sel target. Reseptor neurotransmitter lainnya → Reseptor berpasangan G
  11. Pemberian sinyal oleh pelepasan neurotransmitter di sinapsis Kedatangan impuls saraf di ujung neuron menandakan fusi vesikel sinapsis dengan membran plasma, yang menghasilkan pelepasan neurotransmitter dari sel presinapsis ke celah sinapsis. Neurotransmitter berikatan dengan reseptor dan membuka saluran ion berpagar ligan di membran plasma sel target.
  12. Hormon peptida, neuropeptida, dan faktor pertumbuhan tidak dapat melintasi membran plasma → bekerja dengan mengikat reseptor permukaan sel Hormon peptida: → insulin: reseptor tirosin kinase → hormon yang diproduksi oleh kelenjar hipofisis (hormon pertumbuhan, hormon perangsang folikel, prolaktin, dll) → Reseptor berpasangan G-Protein Nueropeptida : aktivitas sebagai analgesik alami yang mengurangi respons nyeri pada sistem saraf pusat. → enkephalin → endorfin
  13. Faktor pertumbuhan polipeptida: Reseptor Tirosin Kinase → Faktor pertumbuhan saraf (NGF): mengatur perkembangan dan kelangsungan hidup neuron → faktor pertumbuhan epidermal (EGF): merangsang proliferasi sel → faktor pertumbuhan trombosit (PDGF): disimpan dalam trombosit darah dan dilepaskan selama pembekuan darah di lokasi luka → merangsang proliferasi dan pergerakan fibrioblas → menumbuhkan kembali jaringan yang rusak. Kinase Tirosin Non-reseptor → sitokin: mengatur perkembangan dan diferensiasi sel darah dan mengontrol aktivitas limfosit selama respons imun. Faktor pertumbuhan yang diikat membran: berfungsi sebagai molekul pemberi sinyal selama interaksi sel-sel secara langsung.
  14. Reseptor berpasangan protein G : mengaktifkan protein intraseluler yang disebut protein pengikat nukleotida guanin (G PROTEIN). Subunit protein G : - Alfa - Beta - Gamma
  15. Eksperimen Utama Linda Buck & Richard Axel → mengidentifikasi keluarga besar reseptor berpasangan G Protein → bertanggung jawab atas deteksi dan pengenalan bau Silia yang terisolasi dari neuron penciuman tikus → terpapar pada berbagai bau → stimulasi adenylyl cyclase dan peningkatan cAMP → tergantung pada keberadaan GTP ↑ cAMP → membuka saluran Na+ di membran plasma neuron penciuman → memulai impuls saraf Buck dan Axel → mengisolasi klon molekuler dari gen yang mengkode reseptor bau
  16. 3 jenis Protein G Gs: subunit α merangsang adenylys cyclase (contoh: reseptor epinefrin) Gi : subunit α dan βγ bertindak untuk menghambat adenylyl cyclase → umpan balik negatif Gq : mengaktifkan enzim fosfolipase C dalam membran sel
  17. Peran cAMP ditemukan selama studi tentang hormon EPINEPHRIN Aksi epinefrin → dimediasi oleh ↑ kontra intraseluler. cAMP → mengarah pada konsep bahwa cAMP adalah pembawa pesan kedua dalam pensinyalan hormonal cAMP → dibentuk dari ATP → oleh aksi adenylyl cyclase cAMP → terdegradasi menjadi AMP oleh cAMP fosfodiesterase.
  18. Regulasi metabolisme glikogen oleh epinefrin Stimulasi reseptor oleh epinefrin menyebabkan aktivasi yang diperantarai protein G dari adenylyl cyclase. cAMP mengaktifkan protein kinase A, yang terdiri dari dua subunit regulator (R) dan dua subunit katalitik (C) dalam bentuknya yang tidak aktif. Pengikatan cAMP ke subunit pengatur menginduksi perubahan konformasi yang mengarah pada disosiasi subunit katalitik, yang yang kemudian aktif secara enzimatik. Protein kinase A mengaktifkan fosforilase kinase dan fosforilase kinase mengaktifkan glikogen fosforilase, yang mengkatalisis pemecahan glikogen menjadi glukosa1fosfat.
  19. Dapat diinduksi AMP siklik Stimulasi reseptor menyebabkan aktivasi protein G yang dimediasi oleh adenylyl cyclase, sintesis cAMP, dan aktivasi protein kinase A. Subunit katalitik bebas dari protein kinase A ditranslokasi ke nukleus dan memfosforilasi transkripsi faktor CREB (protein pengikat CRE), yang mengarah pada perekrutan koaktivator dan ekspresi cAMP yang dapat diinduksi gen.
  20. Regulasi protein fosforilasi oleh protein kinase A dan protein fosfatase 1 fosforilasi protein target oleh protein kinase A dibalik oleh aksi protein fosfatase 1.
  21. Kinase tirosin reseptor: memfosforilasi protein substratnya pada residu tirosin Kinase tirosin nonreseptor: bekerja dengan merangsang kinase tirosin intraseluler yang berhubungan secara nonkovalen Kinase serin / treonin reseptor
  22. Reseptor yang terhubung dengan enzim: → domain intraseluler → terkait langsung dengan enzim intraseluler. Contoh: Reseptor tirosin Kinase → memfosforilasi protein substrat mereka dalam residu tirosin → elemen kunci dari jalur pensinyalan yang terlibat dalam kontrol pertumbuhan dan diferensiasi sel hewan Reseptor → reseptor untuk EGF, NGF, PDGF, Insulin, dan banyak faktor pertumbuhan lainnya
  23. Reseptor tirosin kinase Setiap reseptor terdiri dari domain pengikatan ligan ekstraseluler Nterminal, heliks α transmembran tunggal, dan a domain Cterminal sitosolik dengan aktivitas tirosin kinase. Pengikatan faktor pertumbuhan menginduksi dimerisasi reseptor, yang menghasilkan autofosforilasi reseptor sebagai dua rantai polipeptida saling memfosforilasi satu sama lain.
  24. Asosiasi molekul pensinyalan hilir dengan reseptor tirosin kinase SH2 domain berikatan dengan peptida yang mengandung fosfotyrosin spesifik dari yang diaktifkan reseptor.
  25. Pengembangan inhibitor tirosin kinase (TKI) sebagai terapi yang ditargetkan TKI yang umum digunakan: - Penghambat tirosin kinase Epidermal Growth Factor Receptro (EGFR) → melawan kanker paru sel non-kecil (NSCLC)
  26. Bertindak dengan menstimulasi tirosin kinase intraseluler yang berhubungan secara nonkovalen. Termasuk superfamili reseptor sitokin: mencakup reseptor untuk sebagian besar sitokin (misalnya: eritropoieting dan interleukin-2) dan untuk beberapa hormon polipeptida (mis: hormon pertumbuhan) Mengandung: Domain pengikat ligang ekstraseluler terminal-N Helikase α transmembran tunggal Domain sitosol terminal-C
  27. Aktivasi kinase tirosin nonreseptor Pengikatan ligan menginduksi dimerisasi reseptor dan menyebabkan aktivasi kinase tirosin nonreseptor yang terkait sebagai hasil dari fosforilasi silang. Kinase yang diaktifkan kemudian memfosforilasi residu tirosin dari reseptor, menciptakan pengikatan fosfotyrosin situs untuk molekul pensinyalan hilir.
  28. Kinase yang terkait dengan reseptor sitokin termasuk anggota keluarga Janus kinase (atau JAK), yang terdiri dari empat kinase tirosin nonreseptor terkait (JAK1,2,3,TYK2). Target utama kinase JAK adalah protein STAT, yang pada awalnya diidentifikasi dalam studi pensinyalan reseptor sitokin Ikatan reseptor ligan akan menyebabkan autofosforilasi JAK -> Kemudian JAK yang sudah aktif -> Selanjutnya fosforilasi protein STAT -> STAT yang tefosforilasi akan menjadi sebuah dimer -> dimer akan masuk ke nucleus dan berfungsi sebagai faktor transkripsi SH2 domain : Src homology region 2 suatu jenis kelompok protein yang dapat mengenal tirosin yang terfosforilasi JAK/STAT Protein STAT adalah faktor transkripsi dengan domain SH2 yang memediasi pengikatannya pada urutan yang mengandung fosfotirosin. Pada sel yang tidak terstimulasi, protein STAT tidak aktif di dalam sitosol. Stimulasi reseptor sitokin menyebabkan pengikatan protein STAT ke tempat pengikatan fosfotosin pada reseptor, di mana mereka terfosforilasi oleh kinase tirosin JAK yang terkait dengan reseptor. Protein STAT terfosforilasi kemudian berdimerisasi dan berpindah ke nukleus, di mana mereka mengaktifkan transkripsi gen target. Setelah Reseptor yang diaktifkan, protein STAT difosforilasi oleh JAK Family. Tyrosine phosporilation mendorong dimerisasi protein STAT, yang kemudian berpindah ke nukleus di mana mereka merangsang transkripsi gen target. Dengan demikian, faktor transkripsi STAT berfungsi sebagai penghubung langsung antara reseptor sitokin di permukaan sel dan regulasi ekspresi gen di dalam nukleus.
  29. Langkah awal dalam MAP kinase Signaling dari reseptor Growth factor adalah aktivasi dari GTP- mengikat protein Ras Ras mengaktifkan protein kinase Raf, yang pada gilirannya mengaktifkan MEK dan ERK. Aktivasi Ras dimediasi oleh Guanin nucleotide exchange factor (GEFs) yang merangsang pelepasan GDP terikat dan menukarnya dengan GTP. Aktivitas dari Ras-GTP kompleks kemudian diakhiri oleh hidrolisis GTP, yang dirangsang oleh interaksi Ras-GTP dengan GAP. Untuk diketahui bahwa mutasi gen ras di kanker manusia memiliki efek menghambat hidrolisis GTP oleh Ras protein. Oleh karena itu, protein Ras yang bermutasi ini tetap berada dalam bentuk terikat GTP aktif, tujuannya untuk mendorong proliferasi sel kanker yang tidak diatur bahkan tanpa adanya stimulasi Growth faktor. Ras dalam keadaan terikat GTP aktif melalui pertukaran GTP dengan GDP terikat, yang distimulasi oleh faktor pertukaran nukleotida guanin (GEF). Aktivitas ras kemudian diakhiri oleh hidrolisis GTP, yang distimulasi oleh protein pengaktif GTPase (GAP).
  30. Aktivasi Ras, Raf, dan ERK di bagian downstream dari reseptor growth factor mengikat reseptor tyrosine kinase mengarah ke autofosforilasi dan pembentukan situs pengikatan untuk domain SH2 dari guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF). Interaksi ini merekrut GEF ke plasma membran, di mana ia dapat merangsang pertukaran Ras GDP/GTP. Ras-GTP yang diaktifkan kemudian mengaktifkan protein kinase Raf. Raf memfosforilasi dan mengaktifkan MEK, protein kinase spesifisitas ganda yang mengaktifkan ERK dengan fosforilasi pada kedua residu treonin dan tirosin (Thr183 dan Tyr185). ERK kemudian memfosforilasi berbagai variasi dari nuklear dan cytoplasmic proteins.
  31. MAP aktivasi kinase pada sel mamalia Selain ERK, sel mamalia mengandung JNK dan p38 MAP kinase. Aktivasi JNK dan p38 dimediasi oleh anggota Rho subfamili protein pengikat GTP kecil (Rac, Rho, dan Cdc42), yang merangsang kaskade protein kinase paralel yang bertanggung jawab untuk aktivasi ERK. Kaskade protein kinase mengarah ke Aktivasi JNK dan p38 diaktifkan oleh inflammatory cytokines or cellular stres dan umumnya menyebabkan peradangan dan kematian sel.   ERK, JNK dan p38 MAP kinase dapat berpindah ke nukleus dan memfosforilasi faktor transkripsi yang mengatur ekspresi gen. Dengan demikian, beberapa jalur MAP kinase berfungsi di semua jenis sel eukariotik untuk mengontrol respons seluler terhadap sinyal lingkungan yang beragam.
  32. The insulin growth factor 1 (IGF-1) signaling pathway. Protein pengikat IGF (IGFBP) memodulasi IGF -1 bioavailability . IGF -1 berfungsi sebagai ligan untuk berinteraksi dengan reseptor IGF -1 (IGF -1R) di membran sel, yang mengarah pada autofosforilasi dan perekrutan protein adaptor IRS-1, IRS-2, dan Shc. Interaksi IRS-1 dan IRS-2 dengan IGF -1R menginduksi aktivasi kelas I phosphatidyl inositol 3 'kinase (PI3K). PI3K mengubah PIP2 menjadi pembawa pesan kedua lipid PIP3. AKT FAMILY dari kinase diaktifkan oleh PDK1 dan oleh kompleks mTOR yang mengandung mTORC2 yang menghasilkan fosforilasi pada Threonine 308 (Thr308) dan Serine 473 (Ser473). AKT yang diaktifkan kemudian mengatur molekul downstream signaling termasuk Tuberous sclerosis protein 1/2 (TSC1/2) yang menghambat kompleks mTORC1 dan mengatur fosforilasi S6K1/2 dan 4EB-P1, faktor transkripsi FOXO, GSK-3β, p27, BAD, dan BCL-2. Molekul-molekul downstream ini terlibat dalam beberapa proses seluler termasuk sintesis protein, metabolisme glukosa, dan kelangsungan hidup sel. Secara paralel, aktivasi Shc menginduksi aktivasi jalur RAS / MAP kinase, yang menghasilkan peningkatan proliferasi sel.
  33. PI 3-kinase memfosforilasi PIP2 untuk menghasilkan pembawa pesan kedua PIP3 , yang mengarah pada aktivasi Akt. Akt memfosforilasi sejumlah protein yang mengatur proliferasi dan kelangsungan hidup sel. Jalur PI 3-kinase / Akt PI 3kinase direkrut ke reseptor tirosin kinase reseptor yang diaktifkan melalui SH2 domain. PI 3kinase memfosforilasi, mengubah PIP2 menjadi PIP3. Akt direkrut ke membran plasma dengan mengikat PIP3 melalui pleckstrin homology (PH) domain. Kemudian diaktifkan sebagai hasil fosforilasi oleh dua protein kinase lain (PDK1 dan mTORC2) yang juga mengikat PIP3. Akt kemudian memfosforilasi sejumlah protein target, termasuk pengatur langsung kelangsungan hidup sel (Bad) beberapa faktor transkripsi, dan protein kinase lainnya, termasuk GSK3 (yang dihambat oleh fosforilasi Akt). GSK3 memfosforilasi enzim metabolisme, translation factor eIF2B, dan faktor transkripsi.
  34. mTOR mengatur sintesis protein dan autofagi sebagai respons terhadap sinyal Akt dan ketersediaan energi dan asam amino. Rapamycin, antibiotik yang diproduksi oleh bakteri, adalah penghambat spesifik kompleks mTORC1 dan digunakan sebagai obat imunosupresif dalam transplantasi organ. mTOR Akt menghambat TSC, Yang mengarah ke aktivasi dari protein pengikat GTP Rheb dan mTORC1 sebagai respons terhadap growth factor stimulasi. Sebaliknya, AMPK mengaktifkan TSC, yang mengarah ke penghambatan Rheb dan mTORC1 jika simpanan energi seluler habis. mTORC1 juga dihambat oleh kelaparan asam amino. Saat aktif, mTORC1 merangsang translation dengan memfosforilasi S6 kinase (lalu memfosforilasi protein ribosom S6) dan memfosforilasi protein pengikat eIF4E1 (4EBP1), menghilangkan penghambatan translation initiation factor eIF4E. Sebagai tambahan, mTORC1 menghambat autophagy
  35. Reseptor TGF-β adalah kinase serin / treonin yang memfosforilasi faktor transkripsi Smad. TGF-β adalah prototipe keluarga faktor pertumbuhan polipeptida yang mengontrol proliferasi dan diferensiasi berbagai jenis sel. Reseptor TGFβ adalah dimer dari polipeptida tipe I dan II. Reseptor tipe II memfosforilasi dan mengaktifkan tipe I, yang kemudian memfosforilasi protein Smad. Smad terfosforilasi membentuk kompleks dan berpindah ke nukleus untuk mengaktifkan transkripsi gen target.  
  36. Aktivasi reseptor TNF dan Toll-like menghasilkan perekrutan protein adaptor yang mengaktifkan IκB kinase, yang memfosforilasi IκB. Fosforilasi ini menargetkan IκB untuk ubiquitylation/tersebar dan degradasi oleh proteasome, membebaskan NF-κB untuk berpindah ke nukleus dan menginduksi ekspresi gen targetnya.
  37. Pensinyalan di dalam sel itu rumit: → aktivitas masing-masing jalur diatur oleh feedback loops yang mengontrol tingkat dan durasi aktivitas pensinyalan. → Jalur pensinyalan tidak beroperasi secara terpisah → sering terjadi crosstalk antara jalur yang berbeda → transduksi sinyal intraseluler adalah jaringan terintegrasi dari jalur yang terhubung
  38. Tingkat dan durasi aktivitas NF-κB → menentukan respons transkripsi sel. Contoh: beberapa gen target diinduksi oleh aktivitas NF-κB sementara, bertahan hanya selama 30-60 menit → induksi gen lain membutuhkan beberapa jam pensinyalan NF-κB yang berkelanjutan NFκB diaktifkan sebagai hasil dari fosforilasi dan degradasi IκB , yang memungkinkan NFκB untuk berpindah ke nukleus dan mengaktifkan transkripsi gen target. Salah satu gen yang diaktivasi oleh NFκB mengkode IκB, menghasilkan loop umpan balik yang menghambat aktivitas NFκB.
  39. Pembicaraan silang antara ERK dan Jalur pensinyalan PI 3-kinase Jalur Ras / Raf / MEK / ERK dan PI 3kinase / Akt / mTORC1 dihubungkan oleh pembicaraan silang positif dan negatif, termasuk aktivasi PI 3kinase oleh Ras, penghambatan Raf oleh Akt, penghambatan TSC oleh ERK, dan aktivasi mTORC1 oleh ERK.