The document summarizes two case studies: the Edinburgh tram project and the Volkswagen emissions scandal. The Edinburgh tram project went over budget by £375 million and took twice as long to complete as anticipated due to delays, changes to design and scope, and reduced funding. The final cost of £1 billion for a 14km tram line was over 300% more than average costs for similar projects. The Volkswagen scandal involved installing "defeat device" software in 11 million diesel vehicles worldwide to cheat emissions tests and emit up to 40 times the legal limit of toxic nitrogen oxides. Volkswagen has faced billions in fines and lost market value due to damage to its reputation and consumer trust.