The document describes procedures for using a bomb calorimeter to determine the heat of combustion of organic compounds. A bomb calorimeter consists of a combustion bomb surrounded by a water bucket and thermometer. Samples are burned in the bomb, warming the surrounding water. The temperature change is used to calculate the heat released from the sample. Fat has the highest energy per gram, providing over twice as much heat as carbohydrates and proteins when burned.
Hukum pertama termodinamika membahas prinsip konservasi energi dalam sistem tertutup, di mana energi tidak dapat diciptakan atau dimusnahkan melainkan hanya dapat berubah bentuk. Energi dapat berpindah dalam bentuk panas atau kerja, dan jumlah energi yang masuk ke sistem harus sama dengan yang keluar.
Design of Shell & tube Heat Exchanger.pptxAathiraS10
The document describes the design of a shell and tube heat exchanger to cool benzene from 60°C to 35°C using cooling water available at 20°C.
The key steps are: 1) determining the tube and shell side fluids as benzene and water respectively, 2) performing a heat balance calculation to determine the water flow rate, 3) calculating the log mean temperature difference, 4) sizing the minimum number of tubes needed, 5) determining the number of tube passes and total tubes, 6) sizing the shell inside diameter, 7) calculating heat transfer coefficients, 8) determining the overall heat transfer coefficient, 9) sizing the heat transfer area, and 10) checking pressure drops to validate the
Hukum pertama termodinamika membahas prinsip konservasi energi dalam sistem tertutup, di mana energi tidak dapat diciptakan atau dimusnahkan melainkan hanya dapat berubah bentuk. Energi dapat berpindah dalam bentuk panas atau kerja, dan jumlah energi yang masuk ke sistem harus sama dengan yang keluar.
Design of Shell & tube Heat Exchanger.pptxAathiraS10
The document describes the design of a shell and tube heat exchanger to cool benzene from 60°C to 35°C using cooling water available at 20°C.
The key steps are: 1) determining the tube and shell side fluids as benzene and water respectively, 2) performing a heat balance calculation to determine the water flow rate, 3) calculating the log mean temperature difference, 4) sizing the minimum number of tubes needed, 5) determining the number of tube passes and total tubes, 6) sizing the shell inside diameter, 7) calculating heat transfer coefficients, 8) determining the overall heat transfer coefficient, 9) sizing the heat transfer area, and 10) checking pressure drops to validate the
Buku ini memberikan contoh soal penyelesaian alat penukar kalor (heat exchanger) untuk pipa ganda dan shell dan tube, meliputi teori dasar tentang koefisien perpindahan kalor, perbedaan temperatur rata-rata logaritma, dan metode efektivitas-NTU."
Dokumen tersebut merangkum laporan praktikum modul plate heat exchanger yang dilakukan oleh kelompok mahasiswa. Praktikum ini bertujuan untuk menghitung koefisien pindah panas keseluruhan pada pelat dengan variasi laju alir fluida panas dan dingin."
Dokumen tersebut membahas mengenai alat penukar panas (heat exchanger) yang berfungsi untuk memindahkan panas antara dua fluida. Jenis-jenis alat penukar panas dijelaskan seperti penukar panas pipa rangkap, penukar panas cangkang dan buluh, serta penukar panas pelat dan bingkai. Faktor yang mempengaruhi efektivitas alat penukar panas juga dibahas.
Dokumen tersebut membahas tentang persamaan untuk menghitung head loss akibat gesekan dalam aliran cairan melalui pipa, termasuk persamaan Darcy, Hagen-Poiseuille, dan berbagai persamaan empiris untuk menentukan faktor gesekan pada aliran laminer dan turbulen.
The document is a table providing thermodynamic properties of saturated steam including temperature, pressure, specific volume, internal energy, enthalpy, and entropy at different temperature and pressure values. It contains data for saturated liquid, saturated steam, and the heat of vaporization. The table includes properties for temperatures ranging from 0 to 374 degrees C and pressures from 0.001 to 1013 kPa.
Batch reactor merupakan reaktor kimia yang digunakan untuk produksi berkapasitas kecil seperti pelarutan padatan, pencampuran produk, dan reaksi kimia. Reaktor ini memiliki harga konstruksi yang rendah dan fleksibel digunakan, namun skala produksinya kecil dan biaya buruhnya tinggi.
Turbin uap memanfaatkan energi fluida berupa entalpi uap dengan tekanan dan temperatur tinggi sesuai siklus Rankine. Siklus ini terdiri atas proses kompresi cairan, pemanasan uap pada tekanan tetap, ekspansi uap, dan pendinginan uap pada tekanan tetap. Efisiensi siklus ditentukan oleh hubungan antara kalor masuk dan keluar.
Dokumen tersebut membahas pengaruh kadar air agregat terhadap beton. Kadar air agregat mempengaruhi jumlah air yang dibutuhkan dalam campuran beton dan semakin besar kadar air agregat, semakin besar pula jumlah air dalam campuran. Penurunan kadar air agregat akan mengakibatkan penurunan nilai slump dari beton yang dihasilkan. Tujuan perancangan campuran beton adalah memperoleh beton yang memiliki kualitas sepert
This document describes the design of a plant for cryogenic distillation of air into oxygen and nitrogen. It includes an introduction to air separation and the cryogenic process. Process equipment like compressors, heat exchangers, and distillation columns are designed. Mass and energy balances are performed. The distillation columns and condenser are designed and specifications are provided. An economic analysis includes capital costs, production costs, profitability metrics, payback period and safety considerations. References for design methods are also listed.
1. Dokumen tersebut membahas tentang kinetika reaksi kimia dan katalisis, termasuk mekanisme reaksi katalitik heterogen dan homogen, sifat fisik katalis, dan penentuan persamaan laju reaksi untuk sistem katalitik.
Dokumen tersebut merupakan laporan praktikum tentang beban pendinginan ruangan dengan variasi jumlah dan aktivitas orang di dalam ruangan. Laporan ini menjelaskan tujuan, alat-alat, langkah percobaan, data hasil ukuran, dan analisis grafik dari berbagai aktivitas orang di dalam ruangan.
Dokumen tersebut membahas tentang konversi satuan suhu antara Celcius, Fahrenheit, Rankine, dan Kelvin. Juga membahas tentang fase padat, cair, dan gas, serta suhu kritis beberapa gas seperti oksigen, nitrogen, dan hidrogen. Terdapat pula penjelasan mengenai tabel uap, uap jenuh, dan uap super panas.
Teks tersebut membahas tentang sistem kriogenik yang digunakan untuk mendinginkan bahan hingga suhu rendah menggunakan gas seperti nitrogen cair dan karbon dioksida cair. Sistem ini terdiri dari heat exchanger, kompresor, dan expander yang bekerja untuk mencairkan dan memisahkan gas-gas kriogenik serta menyimpan cairan-cairannya pada suhu rendah.
Proses pembakaran melibatkan reaksi oksidasi antara bahan bakar dan oksigen. Untuk pembakaran sempurna, diperlukan pasokan oksigen yang cukup berdasarkan komposisi kimia bahan bakar. Kadar udara yang diperlukan dapat dihitung dari kebutuhan oksigen teoritis ditambah udara berlebih untuk mencapai pembakaran yang baik.
The document discusses cyclone technology for removing dust particles from air streams. It provides background on cyclone design parameters like pressure drop and collection efficiency. The optimal dimensions of cyclones are discussed, with the 2D2D design being most efficient for particles larger than 20 microns. While models can predict trends, testing is still needed due to complex flow patterns and many influencing factors. The document also reviews classical cyclone design procedures and limitations of models in accurately predicting performance metrics like number of turns and cut-point diameter.
This document provides an overview of Kern's method for designing shell-and-tube heat exchangers. It begins with objectives and an introduction to Kern's method. It then outlines the design procedure algorithm and provides an example application. The example involves designing an exchanger to sub-cool methanol condensate using brackish water as the coolant. The document walks through each step of the Kern's method design process for this example, including calculating properties, determining duties, selecting tube/shell parameters, and estimating heat transfer coefficients.
BC Chemistry 162 Laboratory Manual Experiment 6 Vapor Press.docxrosemaryralphs52525
BC Chemistry 162 Laboratory Manual
Experiment 6: Vapor Pressure of Liquids
- 1 -
Experiment 6: Vapor Pressure of Liquids
Background
Liquids contain molecules that have different kinetic energies (due to different velocities). Some of the
faster liquid molecules have enough kinetic energy to vaporize. At the same time, some of the slower
vapor molecules condense into liquid. In an open container, the rate of vaporization will be greater than
the rate of condensation—hence, the liquid will eventually evaporate. In a sealed flask, however, there
will be a point in which equilibrium is reached between the rate of vaporization and the rate of
condensation. To the eye, it seems that the liquid doesn’t change at equilibrium. But at the microscopic
level a vapor molecule enters the liquid phase for every liquid molecule that enters the gas phase.
The total pressure in the sealed flask is due to the vaporized liquid plus air molecules present in the flask:
Ptotal = Pvapor + Pair (1)
In this experiment, you will investigate the relationship between
the vapor pressure of a liquid and its temperature. Pressure and
temperature data will be collected using a gas pressure sensor and
a temperature probe (Figure 1). Vapor pressures will be
determined by subtracting atmospheric pressure from the total
pressure.
The flask will be placed in water baths of different temperatures to
determine the effect of temperature on vapor pressure. You will
measure the vapor pressure of methanol and ethanol and
determine the enthalpy (heat) of vaporization for each liquid.
Objectives
In this experiment, you will
Investigate the relationship between the vapor pressure of a liquid and its temperature.
Compare the vapor pressure of two different liquids at the same temperature.
Use pressure‐temperature data and the Clausius‐Clapeyron equation to determine the heat of
vaporization for each liquid.
Caution!
The alcohols used in this experiment are flammable and poisonous. Avoid inhaling their vapors. Avoid
contacting them with your skin or clothing. Be sure there are no open flames in the lab during this
experiment. Notify your teacher immediately if an accident occurs.
Procedure
1. Wear goggles! You will work in pairs for this lab, but you may share water baths with your table.
2. Prepare four water baths: 20 to 25°C (use room temperature water), 30 to 35°C, 40 to 45°C, and 50 to
55°C. You should also have some hot water on a hot plate on reserve.
3. Obtain a temperature probe and gas pressure sensor. The sensor comes with a
rubber‐stopper assembly (Figure 2). The stopper has three holes, one of which
is closed. Make sure your tubing and valve are not inserted in the closed hole.
Insert the rubber‐stopper assembly into a 125 mL Erlenmeyer flask.
Important: Twist the stopper into the neck of the flask to ensure a tight
fit.
Figure 1
Figure 2
BC Ch.
1) Bomb calorimetry is used to determine the heat of combustion and enthalpy of formation of substances by completely combusting samples in a sealed bomb surrounded by water and measuring the temperature change.
2) Standards like benzoic acid are combusted to determine the calorimeter constant, then samples like sucrose are combusted to calculate their enthalpies of formation.
3) Food products are also combusted to determine their energy content in kJ/gram, which can be compared to labeled calorie contents.
Buku ini memberikan contoh soal penyelesaian alat penukar kalor (heat exchanger) untuk pipa ganda dan shell dan tube, meliputi teori dasar tentang koefisien perpindahan kalor, perbedaan temperatur rata-rata logaritma, dan metode efektivitas-NTU."
Dokumen tersebut merangkum laporan praktikum modul plate heat exchanger yang dilakukan oleh kelompok mahasiswa. Praktikum ini bertujuan untuk menghitung koefisien pindah panas keseluruhan pada pelat dengan variasi laju alir fluida panas dan dingin."
Dokumen tersebut membahas mengenai alat penukar panas (heat exchanger) yang berfungsi untuk memindahkan panas antara dua fluida. Jenis-jenis alat penukar panas dijelaskan seperti penukar panas pipa rangkap, penukar panas cangkang dan buluh, serta penukar panas pelat dan bingkai. Faktor yang mempengaruhi efektivitas alat penukar panas juga dibahas.
Dokumen tersebut membahas tentang persamaan untuk menghitung head loss akibat gesekan dalam aliran cairan melalui pipa, termasuk persamaan Darcy, Hagen-Poiseuille, dan berbagai persamaan empiris untuk menentukan faktor gesekan pada aliran laminer dan turbulen.
The document is a table providing thermodynamic properties of saturated steam including temperature, pressure, specific volume, internal energy, enthalpy, and entropy at different temperature and pressure values. It contains data for saturated liquid, saturated steam, and the heat of vaporization. The table includes properties for temperatures ranging from 0 to 374 degrees C and pressures from 0.001 to 1013 kPa.
Batch reactor merupakan reaktor kimia yang digunakan untuk produksi berkapasitas kecil seperti pelarutan padatan, pencampuran produk, dan reaksi kimia. Reaktor ini memiliki harga konstruksi yang rendah dan fleksibel digunakan, namun skala produksinya kecil dan biaya buruhnya tinggi.
Turbin uap memanfaatkan energi fluida berupa entalpi uap dengan tekanan dan temperatur tinggi sesuai siklus Rankine. Siklus ini terdiri atas proses kompresi cairan, pemanasan uap pada tekanan tetap, ekspansi uap, dan pendinginan uap pada tekanan tetap. Efisiensi siklus ditentukan oleh hubungan antara kalor masuk dan keluar.
Dokumen tersebut membahas pengaruh kadar air agregat terhadap beton. Kadar air agregat mempengaruhi jumlah air yang dibutuhkan dalam campuran beton dan semakin besar kadar air agregat, semakin besar pula jumlah air dalam campuran. Penurunan kadar air agregat akan mengakibatkan penurunan nilai slump dari beton yang dihasilkan. Tujuan perancangan campuran beton adalah memperoleh beton yang memiliki kualitas sepert
This document describes the design of a plant for cryogenic distillation of air into oxygen and nitrogen. It includes an introduction to air separation and the cryogenic process. Process equipment like compressors, heat exchangers, and distillation columns are designed. Mass and energy balances are performed. The distillation columns and condenser are designed and specifications are provided. An economic analysis includes capital costs, production costs, profitability metrics, payback period and safety considerations. References for design methods are also listed.
1. Dokumen tersebut membahas tentang kinetika reaksi kimia dan katalisis, termasuk mekanisme reaksi katalitik heterogen dan homogen, sifat fisik katalis, dan penentuan persamaan laju reaksi untuk sistem katalitik.
Dokumen tersebut merupakan laporan praktikum tentang beban pendinginan ruangan dengan variasi jumlah dan aktivitas orang di dalam ruangan. Laporan ini menjelaskan tujuan, alat-alat, langkah percobaan, data hasil ukuran, dan analisis grafik dari berbagai aktivitas orang di dalam ruangan.
Dokumen tersebut membahas tentang konversi satuan suhu antara Celcius, Fahrenheit, Rankine, dan Kelvin. Juga membahas tentang fase padat, cair, dan gas, serta suhu kritis beberapa gas seperti oksigen, nitrogen, dan hidrogen. Terdapat pula penjelasan mengenai tabel uap, uap jenuh, dan uap super panas.
Teks tersebut membahas tentang sistem kriogenik yang digunakan untuk mendinginkan bahan hingga suhu rendah menggunakan gas seperti nitrogen cair dan karbon dioksida cair. Sistem ini terdiri dari heat exchanger, kompresor, dan expander yang bekerja untuk mencairkan dan memisahkan gas-gas kriogenik serta menyimpan cairan-cairannya pada suhu rendah.
Proses pembakaran melibatkan reaksi oksidasi antara bahan bakar dan oksigen. Untuk pembakaran sempurna, diperlukan pasokan oksigen yang cukup berdasarkan komposisi kimia bahan bakar. Kadar udara yang diperlukan dapat dihitung dari kebutuhan oksigen teoritis ditambah udara berlebih untuk mencapai pembakaran yang baik.
The document discusses cyclone technology for removing dust particles from air streams. It provides background on cyclone design parameters like pressure drop and collection efficiency. The optimal dimensions of cyclones are discussed, with the 2D2D design being most efficient for particles larger than 20 microns. While models can predict trends, testing is still needed due to complex flow patterns and many influencing factors. The document also reviews classical cyclone design procedures and limitations of models in accurately predicting performance metrics like number of turns and cut-point diameter.
This document provides an overview of Kern's method for designing shell-and-tube heat exchangers. It begins with objectives and an introduction to Kern's method. It then outlines the design procedure algorithm and provides an example application. The example involves designing an exchanger to sub-cool methanol condensate using brackish water as the coolant. The document walks through each step of the Kern's method design process for this example, including calculating properties, determining duties, selecting tube/shell parameters, and estimating heat transfer coefficients.
BC Chemistry 162 Laboratory Manual Experiment 6 Vapor Press.docxrosemaryralphs52525
BC Chemistry 162 Laboratory Manual
Experiment 6: Vapor Pressure of Liquids
- 1 -
Experiment 6: Vapor Pressure of Liquids
Background
Liquids contain molecules that have different kinetic energies (due to different velocities). Some of the
faster liquid molecules have enough kinetic energy to vaporize. At the same time, some of the slower
vapor molecules condense into liquid. In an open container, the rate of vaporization will be greater than
the rate of condensation—hence, the liquid will eventually evaporate. In a sealed flask, however, there
will be a point in which equilibrium is reached between the rate of vaporization and the rate of
condensation. To the eye, it seems that the liquid doesn’t change at equilibrium. But at the microscopic
level a vapor molecule enters the liquid phase for every liquid molecule that enters the gas phase.
The total pressure in the sealed flask is due to the vaporized liquid plus air molecules present in the flask:
Ptotal = Pvapor + Pair (1)
In this experiment, you will investigate the relationship between
the vapor pressure of a liquid and its temperature. Pressure and
temperature data will be collected using a gas pressure sensor and
a temperature probe (Figure 1). Vapor pressures will be
determined by subtracting atmospheric pressure from the total
pressure.
The flask will be placed in water baths of different temperatures to
determine the effect of temperature on vapor pressure. You will
measure the vapor pressure of methanol and ethanol and
determine the enthalpy (heat) of vaporization for each liquid.
Objectives
In this experiment, you will
Investigate the relationship between the vapor pressure of a liquid and its temperature.
Compare the vapor pressure of two different liquids at the same temperature.
Use pressure‐temperature data and the Clausius‐Clapeyron equation to determine the heat of
vaporization for each liquid.
Caution!
The alcohols used in this experiment are flammable and poisonous. Avoid inhaling their vapors. Avoid
contacting them with your skin or clothing. Be sure there are no open flames in the lab during this
experiment. Notify your teacher immediately if an accident occurs.
Procedure
1. Wear goggles! You will work in pairs for this lab, but you may share water baths with your table.
2. Prepare four water baths: 20 to 25°C (use room temperature water), 30 to 35°C, 40 to 45°C, and 50 to
55°C. You should also have some hot water on a hot plate on reserve.
3. Obtain a temperature probe and gas pressure sensor. The sensor comes with a
rubber‐stopper assembly (Figure 2). The stopper has three holes, one of which
is closed. Make sure your tubing and valve are not inserted in the closed hole.
Insert the rubber‐stopper assembly into a 125 mL Erlenmeyer flask.
Important: Twist the stopper into the neck of the flask to ensure a tight
fit.
Figure 1
Figure 2
BC Ch.
1) Bomb calorimetry is used to determine the heat of combustion and enthalpy of formation of substances by completely combusting samples in a sealed bomb surrounded by water and measuring the temperature change.
2) Standards like benzoic acid are combusted to determine the calorimeter constant, then samples like sucrose are combusted to calculate their enthalpies of formation.
3) Food products are also combusted to determine their energy content in kJ/gram, which can be compared to labeled calorie contents.
This is the instruction sheet for my MYP year 4 chemistry unit on thermal energy. It's a Vernier lab, which means it requires proprietary probes from the Vernier company. I have adapted the company's original document to highlight key steps for my students.
boyle's law thermodynamics lab Boyle’s law, also called Mariotte’s law, a relation concerning the compression and expansion of a gas at constant temperature. This empirical relation, formulated by the physicist Robert Boyle in 1662, states that the pressure (p) of a given quantity of gas varies inversely with its volume (v) at constant temperature; i.e., in equation form, pv = k, a constant. The relationship was also discovered by the French physicist Edme Mariotte (1676). ake a large piston or sealed syringe and stand it on end, then place an increasing number of objects on top. As the pressure grows, the volume of the air inside will decrease—these quantities are inversely proportional. However, the standard international unit for pressure is the Pascal. The English scientist Robert Boyle performed a series of experiments involving pressure and, in 1662, arrived at a general law—that the volume of a gas varies inversely with pressure.
This document discusses several examples of converting between different units of pressure (atm, torr, kPa) using dimensional analysis and appropriate conversion factors. It provides the calculations for converting specific pressure values between these units. Additionally, it discusses using a manometer to measure gas pressure and calculating gas properties using the ideal gas law.
The document provides examples of calculations involving the ideal gas law and conversions between different units of pressure. It gives step-by-step solutions for converting between atmospheres, torr, and kPa, as well as calculating gas properties using the ideal gas law and given values for pressure, volume, temperature and amount of gas. Examples include calculating gas pressure or volume when temperature and/or pressure change, determining the density of a gas, and relating the amount of gas produced to the amount of substance reacted.
1. The document describes an experiment to determine the heat capacity of aluminum, iron, and brass using a Cobra3 device. Metallic samples are boiled in water and then placed in a calorimeter filled with water at room temperature. The temperature increase of the calorimeter water is measured.
2. The specific heat capacities of the metals are calculated based on the temperature changes and the energy balance equation. The measured heat capacity values for aluminum, iron, and brass agree well with literature values.
3. The molar heat capacities determined from the experiment also agree with the theoretical Dulong-Petit value of 24.94 J/(mol·K), verifying Dulong-Petit's law.
The document describes an experiment using a bomb calorimeter to determine heats of combustion. Students measured the heat of combustion of naphthalene and used benzoic acid as a known standard. The sample was fused to a wire and suspended in the bomb, which was filled with oxygen and ignited. Temperature changes before and after combustion were measured and used to calculate the energy released and heat of combustion based on the apparatus' specific heat, determined from benzoic acid trials. Results are presented in tables and graphs.
LabQuest 7 Chemistry with Vernier 7 - 1 Pressure.docxMARRY7
LabQuest
7
Chemistry with Vernier 7 - 1
Pressure - Temperature
Relationship in Gases
Gases are made up of molecules that are in constant motion and exert pressure when they collide
with the walls of their container. The velocity and the number of collisions of these molecules are
affected when the temperature of the gas increases or decreases. In this experiment, you will
study the relationship between the temperature of a gas sample and the pressure it exerts. Using
the apparatus shown in Figure 1, you will place an Erlenmeyer flask containing an air sample in
four water baths of varying temperature. Pressure will be monitored with a Pressure Sensor and
temperature will be monitored using a Temperature Probe. The volume of the gas sample and the
number of molecules it contains will be kept constant. Pressure and temperature data pairs will
be collected during the experiment and then analyzed. From the data and graph, you will
determine what kind of mathematical relationship exists between the pressure and absolute
temperature of a confined gas. You may also do the extension exercise and use your data to find a
value for absolute zero on the Celsius temperature scale.
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment, you will
Study the relationship between the temperature of a gas sample and the pressure it exerts.
Determine from the data and graph, the mathematical relationship between pressure and
absolute temperature of a confined gas.
Find a value for absolute zero on the Celsius temperature scale.
Figure 1
MATERIALS
LabQuest plastic tubing with two connectors
LabQuest App 125 mL Erlenmeyer flask
Vernier Gas Pressure Sensor rubber stopper assembly
Temperature Probe ring stand and utility clamp
ice two 600 mL beakers
hot plate glove or cloth
beaker tongs
LabQuest 7
7 - 2 Chemistry with Vernier
PROCEDURE
1. Obtain and wear goggles.
2. Prepare a hot-water bath. Put about 400 mL of hot tap water into a 600 mL beaker and place
it on a hot plate. Turn the hot plate to a high setting. NOTE: Submerge Erlenmeyer flask to
neck to ensure that the water does not overflow. See Figure 3.
3. Prepare an ice-water bath. Fill a second 600 mL beaker with ice, ~ 1/3 full. Add cold tap
water to fill to the 400 mL mark.
4. Prepare the Temperature Probe and Gas Pressure Sensor for data collection.
a. Connect the Gas Pressure Sensor to Channel 1 of LabQuest and the
Temperature Probe to Channel 2. Choose New from the File menu.
If you have older sensors that do not auto-ID, manually set up the
sensors.
b. Obtain a rubber-stopper assembly with a piece of heavy-wall plastic
tubing connected to one of its two valves. Attach the connector at
the free end of the plastic tubing to the open stem of the Gas
Pressure Sensor with a clockwise turn. Leave its two-way valve on
the rubber stopper open (lined up with the valve stem as shown in Figure 2) until Step 4d.
c. Insert the rubber-stopper assembly ...
This lab experiment investigated the relationship between temperature and pressure of a fixed quantity of air. The independent variable was temperature, the dependent variable was pressure, and the quantity of air was kept constant. Temperature and pressure data were collected as the flask of air was heated. The results showed a linear relationship, as expected, but the x-intercept representing absolute zero was much higher than expected. Sources of error included old equipment that may have been inaccurate and an experimental setup where the flask was not fully submerged for even heating.
Bellevue College Chemistry 162 1 Empirical Gas La.docxtaitcandie
Bellevue College | Chemistry 162
1
Empirical Gas Laws (Parts 1 and 2)
Pressure-volume and pressure-temperature relationships in gases
Some of the earliest experiments in chemistry and physics involved the study of gases. The invention
of the barometer and improved thermometers in the 17th century permitted the measurement of
macroscopic properties such as temperature, pressure, and volume. Scientific laws were developed to
describe the relationships between these properties. These laws allowed the prediction of how gases
behave under certain conditions, but an explanation or model of how gases operate on a microscopic
level was yet to be discovered.
After Dalton’s atomic theory was proposed in the early 1800’s (that matter was composed of atoms) a
framework for visualizing the motion of these particles followed. The kinetic molecular theory,
developed by Maxwell and Boltzmann in the mid 19th century, describes gas molecules in constant
random motion. Molecules collide resulting in changes in their velocities. These collisions exert
pressure against the container walls. The frequency of collisions and the speed distribution of these
molecules depend on the temperature and volume of the container. Hence, the pressure of a gas is
affected by changes in temperature and volume.
You may already think that the relationships between pressure, volume, temperature, and number of
gas molecules are intuitive, based on your ability to visualize molecular motion and a basic
understanding of the kinetic theory. The simple experiments that follow will allow you the
opportunity to confirm these relationships empirically, in a qualitative and quantitative manner. In
essence, you will play the role of a 17th century scientist (with some 21st century tools!) and discover
the laws for yourself—laws and constants that are still in use today.
In this experiment, you will:
Determine the relationship between the volume of a gas and its pressure (Part 1).
Determine the relationship between the temperature of a gas and its pressure (Part 2).
Figure 1.
The Kinetic Theory considers
gas molecules as particles that
collide in random motion.
Bellevue College | Chemistry 162
2
Note: If you are doing Part 3 to determine the value of
the Universal Gas Constant, R in the same period as Parts 1
and 2, you should get Part 3 started first.
Part 1: Pressure-Volume Relationship of Gases
In Part 1 you will use a gas pressure sensor and a gas syringe to measure the pressure of an air sample
at several different volumes to determine the relationship between the pressure and volume of air at
constant temperature.
Figure 2
Procedure
1. a. Plug the gas pressure sensor into channel 1 of the computer interface.
b. With the 20 mL syringe disconnected from the gas pressure sensor, move the piston of the
syringe until the front edge of the inside black ring (indic.
This document summarizes an experiment conducted using a Marcet boiler to determine the relationship between the pressure and temperature of saturated steam. The experiment measured pressure and temperature values over a range of approximately 0-14 bars. These measured values were then compared to theoretical values from steam tables. The results showed that pressure and temperature were directly proportional, though some measured values differed slightly from predicted values, possibly due to experimental errors. The document also lists the objectives, equipment used, calculations made, and discusses sources of error in the experiment.
This document provides an overview of differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). DSC is a thermal analysis technique that measures the heat absorbed or released by a sample as it is heated, cooled, or held at constant temperature. It can be used to analyze properties such as glass transition temperatures, melting points, heat capacity, and more. The summary discusses:
1) DSC works by heating a sample and reference simultaneously while measuring the heat differential between the two. This allows it to detect endothermic and exothermic reactions in the sample.
2) Key measurements include glass transition temperatures, crystallization/melting points, and heats of reaction.
3) A typical DSC curve will
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Cara menghitung bomb kalorimeter
1. Heat of Combustion
PURPOSE
The purposes of this experiment are to determine the heats of combustion of several
related substances using a bomb calorimeter and relate differences in heats of combustion
to structural differences.
DISCUSSION
A detailed procedure for operating a bomb calorimeter is found in the manual
accompanying the instrument. A cross section of a plain calorimeter is shown in Figure 6-
1. The essential features are thermometer (A), water bucket (B), and combustion bomb
(C), also shown in Figure 6-2. The bomb contains the sample, oxygen, and fuse wire to
ignite the sample.
As a sample is burned, the heat produced increases the temperature of the water in the
bucket. The temperature rise is indicated by a thermometer in the water, which is stirred to
insure even distribution of heat. A sample of known heat of combustion is burned to
determine the heat capacity of the system. This then is used to determine the heat of
combustion of the unknown sample.
Since the bomb is of constant volume, not constant pressure, the heat of combustion
calculated is ∆E (or ∆U ), not ∆H . However, ∆H can be calculated provided the
chemical equation is known.
∆H = ∆E + ∆ ( PV ) (6-1)
∆H = ∆E + ∆nRT (6-2)
Where ∆n is the change in the number of moles of gas (the number of moles of gas
products minus the number of moles of gas reactants in the balanced chemical equation)
EQUIPMENT AND CHEMICALS
Parr oxygen bomb calorimeter (or equivalent), pellet press, thermometer (0.01°C), fuse
wire.
Oxygen, benzoic acid (combustion standard), sucrose, glucose, ascorbic acid,
acetylsalicylic acid, naphthalene, or other combustible organic solid.
2. PROCEDURE
Carefully read the instruction manual for the calorimeter.
The following general operating instructions should be observed:
1. Form and weigh a pellet (not to exceed 1.1g) of sample and place it in cup.
2. Attach 10 cm fuse wire to electrodes with wire touching top of pellets (See Figure 6-2)
and place in bomb.
3. Fill the bomb with oxygen to pressure of 25 atmospheres. Release pressure and again
fill with oxygen. This removes most of the nitrogen and reduces the necessity for
correcting the nitric acid formed.
4. Place the bomb in the bucket containing two liters (volumetric flask) water at a
temperature two or three degrees below room temperature. Check to see that electrical
wiring is correct and that there is no short circuit.
5. Press firing button to ignite sample.
6. Determine the change in temperature.
7. Remove the bomb, release the pressure, open the bomb, and remove and measure the
length of the remaining fuse wire.
The following procedure should be observed when determining heat of combustion.
Determine the heat capacity of the system by igniting a pellet of benzoic acid. Take
temperature readings for several minutes before ignition and after ignition until the
temperature begins to decrease slightly. Plot a graph of temperature vs. time and
extrapolate to ignition time in order to determine the temperature change.
Release the pressure and dry the bomb. There should be no carbon deposits inside the
bomb. If there are, repeat with a smaller sample. Repeat the process using a pellet
formed from some of the dry sample. (Figure 6-3)
CALCULATIONS
The heat capacity of the calorimeter is the quantity of heat required to raise the
temperature one degree
Q
C= (6-3)
∆T
But there are two sources of heat, the burning sample and the burning wire.
3. Thus, the heat capacity is
C=
( g sample )( heat/g ) + ( cm wire burned )( heat/cm ) (6-4)
temperature change
A similar relation is used to determine the heat of combustion.
Q = C ⋅ ∆T (6-5)
Again the heat sources are sample and wire; so,
C ⋅ ∆T − ( cm wire burned )( heat/cm )
∆E = cal/g
g sample
Since combustion occurs at constant volume rather than constant pressure, the heat of
combustion is calculated as ∆E rather than ∆H . But, ∆H can be calculated by use of
Equations 6-2.
This experimental value may be compared with accepted values given in various
handbooks. The error in this experiment is normally small. Using the heat of combustion,
the heat of formation of the sample may be found.
∆H Rxn = ∆H formation − ∆H formation (6-6)
products reac tan ts
The heats of formation of several related compounds may be determined. The changes in
heat of formation can then be correlated to structural changes.
4. The Bomb Calorimeter
Brief Operating Instructions
For more details see Oxygen Bomb Calorimetry and Combustion Methods, Parr
Manual 130.
1. Cut a 10 cm length of fuse wire. Tie it securely to bomb electrodes. (See Fig. 6-2)
2. Weigh on an analytical balance one benzoic acid pellet. Benzoic acid produces 6318
cal/g and is used to “standardize” the instrument.
3. Place the metal combustion capsule in the electrode holder, and place the pellet in the
capsule. Adjust the fuse wires so that they touch the pellet. Avoid short circuits by not
letting the wire touch the sample pan.
4. Place the sample holder in the bomb. Avoid rapid movement to make sure the wire
stays in contact with pellet.
5. Screw the top of the bomb as tightly as possible by hand.
6. Remove the screw at the top of the bomb and attach the oxygen hose by hand.
7. Make sure the small valve on the pressure regulator is off (clockwise). Then open the
main valve on the tank. The small gauge indicates the tank pressure.
8. Slowly open the small valve (counterclockwise) until the large gauge reads 25-30
atmospheres pressure. Then close the valve. The needle will slowly drop back toward
zero.
9. Release the pressure in the line by depressing the lever where the line is attached.
Disconnect the hose from the bomb.
10. Partially screw on the cap. Push it down to release the oxygen and air. Then refill the
bomb with oxygen (steps 6-9).
11. Place the bomb in the steel bucket. Attach the wire to connect the fuse wire to the
transformer. Make sure the wire connector does not touch the bomb anywhere except
the proper post.
12. Accurately measure 2.000 liters distilled water in a volumetric flask. Pour into the
bucket. Watch for bubbles, which indicate leaks.
13. Place the top on the apparatus. connect the stirrer wheel to the motor with the belt.
Turn on the motor.
14. Carefully place the rubber washer on the thermometer (between 22-23°C) Carefully
place the thermometer on the support rod. (This is a very expensive thermometer!!!!)
5. 15. Record the temperature for several minutes to make sure the temperature is constant.
16. Attach the transformer to the calorimeter with the wires provided.
17. Fire the bomb by depressing the black button on the transformer. Watch the red light.
The red light should go on and then off. If it stays on there is a short. If it does no go
on the circuit is open. In either case the apparatus should be dismantled to find the
cause.
18. Record the temperature rise for several minutes or until the maximum, is passed.
19. Dismantle the apparatus. Release the pressure inside the bomb. If there are carbon
deposits inside the bomb the results are invalid.
20. Measure the length of fuse wire remaining.
21. Clean and dry the apparatus.
22. Repeat with a sample of unknown heat of combustion.
23. Weigh approximately one gram of sample. Use no more than 1.1 gram.
24. Use the pellet press to make a pellet. Then accurately weigh the pellet on the analytical
balance. (Figure 6-3)
25. For volatile samples, see p. 26-27 of manual.
26. Repeat steps 1-21 with the sample.
6. Figure 6-1 Cross section of Parr plain calorimeter.
A. Thermometer D. Stirrer
B. Inner Jacket E. Stirring Motor
(bucket)
C. Bomb F. Wire to firing mechanism
7. Figure 6-2 Single valve bomb with enlarged view of sample holder and fuse
wire.
8. PELLET MAKING WITH A PARR PRESS
Set the die (33PR) over the receiving cup (43AS) with these parts resting
on the base of the press or on any flat surface with a square edge. Drop
the plug (21PR) into the die, then fill with the material to be compressed.
Transfer the die, cup and plug onto the anvil (32PR), holding one finger
against the bottom of the cup to keep it and the plug in place. Compress
the charge by pushing the lever down. Raise or lower the die by screwing
the anvil up or down until firm pressure is required to push the lever
through its full stroke.
Raise the lever, slide the die from the anvil and
remove the cup and plug. Pick up the plug and
drop it into the top of the die above the pellet:
then return the cup and die to their original
position on the anvil.
Bring the lever down gently to eject the pellet into the cup. Be careful not
to move the lever through a full stroke as this might crush the pellet.
Raise the lever and slide the parts from the anvil. The finished pellet now
lies in the cup. Remove the pellet with tweezers or forceps and repeat the
cycle if additional pellets are required.
Problem: Caloric Value of Foods
9. Which type of food produces the most heat per gram - Protein, fat or carbohydrate?
Directions:
Determine the heat of combustion for a protein (albumin, wheat, gluten, etc.), a fat
(tristearin, triolein, etc.), and a carbohydrate (sucrose, glucose, starch, etc.).
Determine which type of food is of the highest energy.
10. SAMPLE CALCULATIONS
Experiment: Bomb Calorimeter
Sample Data:
(a) m = 0.969 g
l = 6.2cm
∆t = 2.53°C
(b) m = 0.98 g
l = 4.7cm
∆t = 1.62°C
Calculations:
(a) Determining the calorimeter constant:
Q
C=
∆T
C=
( 0.969 g )( 6318cal/g ) + ( 6.2cm )( 2.3cal/cm )
2.53°C
C = 2425.45cal/°C
(b) Determining the heat of combustion of a food product:
∆E =
( 2425.45cal/°C )(1.62°C ) − ( 4.7cm )( 2.3cal/cm )
0.98 g
∆E = 4122.13cal/g
From the Skittles package, we calculate
∆E = 3983.73cal/g
(4122.13 − 2983.73)cal/g
%Error = = 3.47%
3983.73cal/g