The document discusses various construction materials used in building projects including cement, sand, aggregate, bricks, blocks and steel. It provides details on the types and properties of these materials. Training and skills attained are also highlighted, covering various tests performed on aggregates, concrete, soil and cement, as well as methodology, loads, foundation work, tools used, and implementation and safety precautions.

1. COMPANY CERTIFICATE

2. i
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
First and foremost I would like to thank ALLAH Almighty the Most Gracious, The Most
Bountiful the Omnipotent and The Omnipresent, The master of world for giving us the strength
ability for successful completion of our project.
I would like to express our gratitude to all those who give the possibility to complete
this project. I am thankful to the Building Sub Division Sahiwal, for giving such a golden
opportunity to commence this project in the first instance. I have furthermore too thankful to
all the teacher who taught me, we encouraged and guide me for our project. I am also thankful
to the entire civil engineering technology department at GCUF Sahiwal Campus for their
stimulating support. I am very Thankful to Head of Department of Civil Engineering
Technology in GCUF Sahiwal Campus. I am very Thankful to Dr. Muhammad Ashraf and
Dr. Engr. Hafiz Asim Saeed for the way he trained me for future, his constant help. Giddiness
and attention though out the project. He was kind, understanding and sympathetic towards us.
Indeed, working with him, he was a blessing for me.
I wish to express our sincere than to Building Sub Division Sahiwal, for providing me
with all the necessary facilities for research.
Finally, thanks to Engr. Muazzam Rehman who have support me to complete the
project work.
At the end acknowledgements will remain incomplete, until the encouraging role of my
Parents. Siblings are not greatly recognized and ultimately appreciated.
Signature of Student
Sajid Masood (5630)

3. TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page No.
Acknowledgement i
Table of Content i i
List of Tables v
List of Figures vi
List of Abbreviations vii

4. ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1- INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Introduction to Women’s College 1
1.1.1 Departments and faculty 1
1.1.2 Programs 2
1.2 Project Detail 2
1.3 Feasibility Studies on BS block 2
1.3.1 Team selection 2
1.3.2 Benchmarking 2
1.3.3 Site design 2
1.3.4 Recreational and sports spaces 3
1.3.5 Visual access to indoor and outdoor spaces 3
1.3.6 Shared-use functions 3
1.3.7 Legal issues 3
1.4 General Abstract of Cost 4
CHAPTER 2- TRAINING WORK 5
2.1 Construction Materials 5
1.4.1 2.1.1 Cement 5
2.1.2 Sand 6
2.1.3 Aggregate 7
2.1.4 Bricks 8
2.1.5 Blocks 10
2.1.6 Steel 11
CHAPTER 3 - SKILL ATTAINED 14
3.1 Test Performed on Aggregates 14
3.1.1 Sieve Analysis Test 14
3.1.2 Water Absorption Test 14
3.2 Test Performed on Concrete 14
3.2.1 Rebound Hammer Test 14
3.2.2 Compression Test 15
3.3 Test Performed on Soil 15
3.3.1 Water Content 15

5. iii
3.3.2 Liquid Limit 16
3.3.3 Plastic Limit 16
3.3.4 Maximum Dry Density And Optimum Moisture Content 17
3.4 Test Performed on Cement 18
3.4.1 Fineness Test 18
3.4.2 Consistency Test 18
3.4.3 Soundness Test 18
3.4.4 Initial & Final Setting Time 19
3.5 Methodology 19
3.5.1 Concrete Frame Structures 19
3.6 These Loads Include 20
3.6.1 Dead Loads 20
3.6.2 Live Loads 20
3.6.3 Dynamic Loads 21
3.6.4 Wind Loads 21
3.6.5 Earthquake Loads 21
3.7 Sub Structure 21
3.7.1 Layout 21
3.7.2 Excavation 22
3.7.3 Foundation 22
3.8 Back Fill 25
3.9 Water Stopper 25
3.10 Waterproofing 26
3.11 Pile Foundation 26
3.11.1 Classification of Pile Foundation 26
3.12 Walls in concrete frame buildings 26
3.13 Use Raft Foundation 27
3.14 Footings 27
3.14.1 Benefits of Footing Foundation 28
3.15 Tools & Plants 28
3.15.1 Safety Equipment 28
3.15.2 Hand Tools 28
3.15.3 Trucks 29

6. iv
3.15.4 Air Compressor 29
3.15.5 Compactor 29
3.15.6 Excavator 29
3.15.7 Concrete Mixer 30
3.16 Implementation Plan 31
3.16.1 Basic Issues of Internship Implementation 31
3.16.2 The Consultative Committee 31
3.16.3 Implementation System in Sahiwal 31
3.16.4 Procurement Management Agent 31
3.16.5 Detailed Design and Work Supervision Consultant 32
3.16.6 Contractors and Furniture Suppliers 32
3.17 Precautions in Construction and Procurement 32
3.17.1 Labor Conditions 32
3.17.2 Transportation Conditions 32
3.17.3 Financial Capability of Contractors 33
3.17.4 Delay in Construction 33
3.17.5 Tax Exemption Procedure 33
3.17.6 Contract and Dispute Settlement 33
3.18 Detailed Design/Work Supervision Plan 34
3.18.1 Detailed design Stage 34
3.18.2 Work Supervision Stage 35
CHAPTER 4- FEEDBACK & RECOMMENDATION 35
4.1 Feed Back 35
4.2 Conclusions 35
4.3 Recommendation 36
REFERENCES 36

7. ii
LIST OF TABLE
Table Title Page
1.2 Project Detail.........................................................................................................................2
1.4 General Abstract of Cost.......................................................................................................4
2.1.6 Weight of Different Steel Bars.........................................................................................13

8. iii
LIST OF FIGURE
Figure Title Pages
Fig 2.1 Port Land Cement .......................................................................................................5
Fig 2.2 Ravi Sand.....................................................................................................................6
Fig 2.3 Coarse Aggregate 1.....................................................................................................7
Fig 2.4 Coarse Aggregate 2....................................................................................................8
Fig 2.5 2nd Class Bricks...........................................................................................................9
Fig 2.6 Blocks.........................................................................................................................11
Fig 2.7 Mild Steel...................................................................................................................11
Fig 3.1 Layout of Building……………………………………………………………….....21
Fig 3.2 Excavation..................................................................................................................22
Fig 3.3 Foundation 1..............................................................................................................22
Fig 3.4 Foundation 2..............................................................................................................23
Fig 3.5 Strip Foundation........................................................................................................24
Fig 3.6 Back Fill 1 .................................................................................................................25
Fig 3.7 Back Fill 2..................................................................................................................25
Fig 3.8 Footing 1....................................................................................................................27
Fig 3.9 Footing 2....................................................................................................................28
Fig 3.10 Compacter ...............................................................................................................29
Fig 3.11 Excavator.................................................................................................................29
Fig 3.12 Concrete Mixer 1.....................................................................................................30
Fig 3.13 Concrete Mixer 2.....................................................................................................31

9. iv
ABBREVIATION
RCC Reinforced Cement Concrete
PCC Plain Cement Concrete
DPC Damp Proof Course
CC Cement Concrete
CP Cement Plaster
IS International Standard
BM Bench Mark

10. 1
Chapter 1- Introduction
1.1 Introduction to Women’s College
Government Postgraduate College Sahiwal is a college in Sahiwal, Punjab, Pakistan. It is
situated next to Canal Colony, beside women’s college road, an upscale planned residential
area of Sahiwal.
Govt. Postgraduate College Sahiwal Motto Courage to Unite Type Education and Research
Established 1942
Principal Prof. Armaghana
Academic staff 128
Students 3000
Location Sahiwal
Province Punjab
County Pakistan
Website: www.gpgwcs.edu.pk
College faculties include Physics, Computer, Science, Zoology, Botany, Chemistry,
Mathematics, English, Urdu, Islamic Studies, Pakistan Studies, History, Persian
and Philosophy. Students from all over the district and from neighboring districts come to
study at the college.
The college is situated on lands of 100 acres (0.40 km2). Buildings include the main college
building (divided into Intermediate and Bachelors section), two library buildings (Malik Anwar
Library and Majeed Amjad Library), a cafeteria, a recreational building with a swimming pool,
two mosques, three hostel buildings (Jinnah Hall, Iqbal Hall and Fatima Hall), a building for
Directorate of Education Colleges, Sahiwal Division, Sahiwal and a building for Board of
Intermediate and Secondary Education (BISE) Sahiwal .
1.1.1 Departments and faculty
Government Postgraduate College sahiwal has 20 Departments
Department of Botany & Biology
Department of Chemistry
Department of Computer Science
Department of Education
Department of English
Department of Economics
Department of Geography
Department of Health & Physical Education
Department of History Department of Islamiat
Department of Mass Communication
Department of Mathematics
Department of Philosophy
Department of Persian
Department of Physics
Department of Political Science
Department of Punjabi
Department of Sociology
Department of Statistics
Department of Urdu

11. 2
1.1.2 Programs
Govt. Post Graduate Women’s College Sahiwal is offering following list of programs.
M.Sc (Physics, Chemistry, Botany, Mathematics and Statistics) (2 years)
MA (English, Urdu and Economics) (2 years)
BS (Honors) degree Programs (4 years)
F.Sc (Pre-Engineering, Pre-Medical)
FA (Arts, General Science)
ICS (Computer Science)
Short Courses
1.2 Project Detail
Table No 1.1 (Project Detail)
Project Name BS Block
Consultant AZ Associates
Contractor’s Name Building Department
Structure New
Stories 1 Story
Starting & Estimated Completion Period Dec 2019 to March 2022
Estimated Cost 0.11 billions
Covered Area 2000.sft
1.3 Feasibility Studies on BS block
1.3.1 Team selection
First commission a planning expert with experience in BS block design to help develop the
internship planning team. Other members should include representatives of the college's
facilities department, college of education, as well as university’s administrators, teachers and
board members, and city planning and building officials.
1.3.2 Benchmarking
The planning team should consider benchmarking other BS block facilities on collegiate
campuses. Querying a “list serve” of educators can provide locations of similar institutions that
have information regarding site planning, building design, operational requirements and
staff/student counts.
1.3.3 Site design
Site location and design are fundamental aspects of successful BS block design. A BS block
designed to support 3000 BS students could require 12 acres in order to accommodate required
site elements such as parking, bus drop-off, sports and recreational fields, playground
equipment, the school footprint (one or two stories) and landscaping. A site near the edge of

12. 3
college will facilitate easy access by buses, delivery vehicles, staff and parents, and eliminate
unnecessary through- college traffic. Bus traffic, service vehicles, automobiles and pedestrian
traffic must be segregated carefully to maximize student safety.
1.3.4 Recreational and sports spaces
Playgrounds and athletic spaces should be adjacent to the BS block and will require separation
from other college facilities in most cases. If fields are not adjacent to BS block, then a safe
means of transport must be developed. Although students are supervised while outdoors,
access to these spaces must be limited.
1.3.5 Visual access to indoor and outdoor spaces
Administrative and classroom spaces should have visual access to outdoor functions. Views
from one area to another should be unimpeded — especially corridors from administrative
areas. Low-rise construction based on radial architecture will promote casual observation for
safety and operational effectiveness.
1.3.6 Shared-use functions
Opportunities for shared use could include recreation and athletic spaces, cafeteria and food
service, computer resources and media functions, as well as general parking and service areas.
In addition, if the campus contains multiple performance spaces, shared use of these facilities
could be considered. The BS block could use central college utilities such as water, electricity,
sewer, water and telecommunications systems.
1.3.7 Legal issues
Consult with legal consul to resolve issues such as lease or ownership agreements, shared use
of spaces and future expansion issues. In addition, the use of common utilities and maintenance
staff will require a clear financial agreement.

13. 4
1.4 General Abstract of Cost
Table No 1.2 (Main building BS block)
1 Ground Floor 101,928,434
3 Mumty 5,293,094
4 Internal Electrification 6,120,175
5 Public Health 1,288,686
6 Sui Gas 116,220
7 Power Wiring 1,458,000
8
Provision Of Cable For Internet Telephone And
Computer Networking
109,100
Total 116,313,709

14. 5
Chapter 2- Training Work
2.1 Construction Materials
1.4.1 2.1.1 Cement
Cement is a cover material which makes a bond between aggregates and reinforcing materials.
Over the years. In the construction industry, there are different types of cement. The
differences between each type of cement are its properties, uses and composition materials
used during the manufacturing process.In the most general sense of the word, cement is a
binder, a substance that sets and hardens independently, and can bind other materials together.
The word "cement" traces to the Romans, who used the term opus caementicious to describe
masonry resembling modern concrete that was made from crushed rock with burnt lime as
binder. The volcanic ash and pulverized brick additives that were added to the burnt lime to
obtain a hydraulic binder were later referred to as cemented, cimentum, cement, and cement.
Cements used in construction can be characterized as being either hydraulic or non-hydraulic.
Hydraulic cements (e.g., Portland cement) harden because of hydration, a chemical reaction
between the anhydrous cement powder and water. Thus, they can harden underwater or when
constantly exposed to wet weather. The chemical reaction results in hydrates that are not very
water-soluble and so are quite durable in water. Non-hydraulic cements do not harden
underwater, slaked limes harden by reaction with atmospheric carbon dioxide. The most
important uses of cement are as an ingredient in the production of mortar in masonry, and of
concrete, a combination of cement and an aggregate to form a strong building material [1] .
Fig 2.1Port Land Cement
1.4.1.1 Physical properties
i. Fineness of cement
ii. Soundness
iii. Consistency

15. 6
iv. Strength
v. Setting time
vi. Heat of hydration
vii. Loss of ignition
viii. Bulk density
ix. Specific gravity
2.1.2.1 Port land cement
Cement manufactured from chalk and clay which hardens under water and when hard
resembles Portland stone in colour. Portland cement is the most common type of cement in
general use around the world as a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar, stucco, and non-
specialty grout. It was developed from other types of hydraulic lime in England in the early
19th century by Joseph Aspdin, and usually originates from limestone. It is a fine powder,
produced by heating limestone and clay minerals in a kiln to form clinker, grinding the clinker,
and adding 2 to 3 percent of gypsum. Several types of Portland cement are available. The most
common, called ordinary Portland cement (OPC), is grey, but white Portland cement is also
available. Its name is derived from its resemblance to Portland stone which was quarried on
the Isle of Portland in Dorset, England. It was named by Joseph Aspdin who obtained a patent
for it in 1824. However, his son William Aspdin is regarded as the inventor of "modern"
Portland cement due to his developments in the 1840s[2].
2.1.2 Sand
Sand is a granular material composed of finely divided rock and mineral particles. It is defined
by size, being finer than gravel and coarser than silt. Sand can also refer to a textural class of
soil or soil type i.e., a soil containing more than 85 percent sand-sized particles by mass. The
composition of sand is highly variable, depending on the local rock sources and conditions, but
the most common constituent of sand in inland continental settings and non-tropical coastal
settings is silica (silicon dioxide, or SiO2), usually in the form of quartz.
The second most common form of sand is calcium carbonate, for example aragonite, which has
mostly been created, over the past half billion years, by various forms of life, like coral and
shellfish. It is, for example, the primary form of sand apparent in areas where reefs have
dominated the ecosystem for millions of years like the Caribbean [3].
Fig 2.2 Ravi Sand

16. 7
2.1.2.1 Composition
In terms of particle size as used by geologists, sand particles range in diameter from 0.0625
mm (or 1⁄16 mm) to 2 mm. An individual particle in this range size is termed a sand grain.
Sand grains are between gravel (with particles ranging from 2 mm up to 64 mm) and silt
(particles smaller than 0.0625 mm down to 0.004 mm). The size specification between sand
and gravel has remained constant for more than a century, but particle diameters as small as
0.02 mm were considered sand under the Albert Atterberg standard in use during the early 20th
century. A 1953 engineering standard published by the American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials set the minimum sand size at 0.074 mm. 1938
specification of the United States Department of Agriculture was 0.05 mm. Sand feels gritty
when rubbed between the fingers (silt, by comparison, feels like flour).
The most common constituent of sand, in inland continental settings and non-tropical coastal
settings, is silica (silicon dioxide, or SiO2), usually in the form of quartz, which, because of its
chemical inertness and considerable hardness, is the most common mineral resistant to
weathering[4].
2.1.3 Aggregate
Construction aggregate are simply aggregate is a broad category of coarse Particulate material
used in construction including sand, gravel, crush, stone etc. Course aggregate; Coarse
aggregates are particles greater than 4.75mm, but generally range between 9.5mm to 37.5mm
in diameter. They can either be from Primary, Secondary or Recycled sources. Primary, or
'virgin', aggregates are either Land- or Marine-Won. Gravel is a coarse marine-won aggregate;
land-won coarse aggregates include gravel and crushed rock. Gravels constitute the majority
of coarse aggregate used in concrete with crushed stone making up most of the remainder.
Secondary aggregates are materials which are the byproducts of extractive operations and are
derived from a very wide range of materials.
Fig 2.3 Coarse Aggregate

17. 8
2.1.3.1 Coarse Aggregate
Coarse aggregates are larger size filler materials in construction. Coarse aggregates are the
particles that retain on 4.75 mm sieve. The surface area of coarse aggregate is less than fine
aggregates. Coarse aggregate acts as inert filler material for concrete. Coarse aggregates are
mainly used in concrete, railway track ballast, etc.
Fig 2.4 Coarse Aggregate
2.1.3.2 Fine aggregate
Fine aggregates are small size filler materials in construction. Fine aggregates are the particles
that pass through 4.75 mm sieve and retain on 0.075 mm sieve. The surface area of fine
aggregates is higher. The voids between the coarse aggregate are filled up by fine aggregate.
Fine aggregates are used in mortar, plaster, concrete, filling of road pavement layers, etc[5].
2.1.4 Bricks
Bricks are blocks of clay that have been hardened through being fired in a kiln or dried in the
sun. Over time, kiln-fired bricks have grown more popular than sun dried bricks, although both
are still found world widen the past, bricks came in many different shapes and sizes, but
today’s modern bricks tend to be a standard size or around 9'' × 4.5'' ×3''.

18. 9
Fig 2.5 2nd Class Bricks
2.1.4.1 Brick Components
Modern clay bricks are formed in one of three processes soft mud, dry press, or extruded.
Normally, brick contains the following ingredient.
Silica (sand) – 50% to 60% by weight
Alumina (clay) – 20% to 30% by weight
Lime – 2 to 5% by weight
Iron oxide – ≤ 7% by weight
Magnesia – less than 1% by weight
2.1.4.2 Classification of Bricks
2.1.4.2.1 First Class Bricks
They should be of good color. They should be of regular shape with square edges and parallel
faces. These bricks are free from flaws, cracks, chips, stones, etc. They should give a ringing
sound when two bricks are struck together. Its compressive strength shall not be less than 140
kg/cm2. And they shall not absorb more than 20% of water when immersed in water for 24
hours.
Use: Excellent for all types of construction in the exterior walls. They are also suitable for
flooring.
2.1.4.2.2 Second Class Bricks
Second class bricks are also fully burnt and give a clear ringing sound when struck together.
Slightly irregularities in shape, size or color are accepted.Its compressive strength shall not be
less than 70 kg/cm2, and absorption value should not be greater than 22 percent when soaked
for 24 hours in water.
Use: For exterior work when plastering is to be done. And can also be used for interior works
but they may not be used for flooring.

19. 10
2.1.4.2.3 Third Class Bricks
These are not burnt so fully as in previous two cases but are generally of uniform reddish
yellow color. Its compressive strength lies between 35 – 70 kg/cm2 and absorption between 22
– 25 percent.
Use: They are used mostly in the ordinary type of construction and in dry situations.
2.1.4.2.4 Fourth Class Bricks
These types of bricks are irregular in shape and dark in color which is due to over burning.
They are quite strong in compressive strength, generally above 150 kg/cm2 and low in porosity
and absorption.
Use: They are, however, very commonly used in a broken form, in road construction,
foundations and floors as a coarse aggregate material[6].
2.1.4.3 Advantages of Bricks
i.The use of material such as bricks can increase the thermal mass of a building.
ii.Most types of masonry typically will not require painting and so can provide a structure with
reduced life-cycle costs.
iii.Masonry is very heat resistant and thus provides good fire protection.
iv.Masonry walls are more resistant to internshipiles, such as debris from hurricanes or
tornadoes.
v.Masonry structures built in compression preferably with lime mortar can have a useful life of
more than 500 years as compared to 30 to 100 for structures of steel or reinforced concrete.
2.1.4.4 Disadvantages of Bricks
i. Extreme weather causes degradation of masonry wall surfaces due to frost damage.
ii. This type of damage is common with certain types of brick, though rare with concrete.
2.1.5 Blocks
i. Masonry tends to be heavy and must be built upon a strong foundation, such as reinforced
concrete, to avoid settling and cracking.
ii. Save for concrete, masonry construction does not lend itself well to mechanization, and
requires more skilled labor than stick-framing.

20. 11
Fig 2.6 Blocks
2.1.6 Steel
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon that is widely used in construction and other applications
because of its hardness and tensile strength. Carbon, other elements, and inclusions within iron
act as hardening agents that prevent the movement of dislocations that naturally exists in the
iron atom crystal lattices. The carbon in typical steel alloys may contribute up to2.1% of its
weight. Mughal Steel is used in Capital Icon Shopping construction.
Fig 2.7 Mild Steel

21. 12
2.1.6.1 Types of steel bars:
i. Mild steel bars
ii. Deformed steel bars
2.1.6.2 Mild steel bars
Mild steel bars are used for tensile stress of RCC (Reinforced cement concrete) slab beams etc.
in reinforced cement concrete work. These steel bars are plain in surface and are round sections
of diameter from 6 to 50 mm. These rods are manufactured in long lengths and can be cut
quickly and be bent easily without damage.
2.1.6.3 Deformed steel bars
As deformed bars are rods of steels provided with lugs, ribs or deformation on the surface of
bar, these bars minimize slippage in concrete and increases the bond between the two
materials. Deformed bars have more tensile stresses than that of mild steel plain bars. These
bars can be used without end hooks. The deformation should be spaced along the bar at
substantially uniform distances.
2.1.6.4 Physical properties of steel
The properties of steel are closely linked to its composition. For example, there is a big
difference in hardness between the steel in a drinks can and the steel that is use to make a pair
of scissors. The metal in the scissors contains nearly twenty times as much carbon and is many
times harder. Changing the carbon content changes the properties of the steel and the way that
it is used.
(i) Strength
(ii) Toughness
(iii) Ductility
(iv) Weld ability
(v) Durability
Procedure:
i) Place the mould on a glass sheet and fill it with the cement paste formed by gauging cement
with 0.78 times the water required to give a paste of standard consistency (see Para 1.2).
ii) Cover the mould with another piece of glass sheet, place a small weight on this covering
glass sheet and immediately submerge the whole assembly in water at a temperature of 27 ±
2oC and keep it there for 24hrs.
iii) Measure the distance separating the indicator points to the nearest 0.5mm (say dl)
iv) Submerge the mould again in water at the temperature prescribed above. Bring the water to
boiling point in 25 to 30 minutes and keep it boiling for 3hrs.
v) Remove the mould from the water, allow it to cool and measure the distance between the
indicator points (say d 2). vi) (d 2 – d l ) represents the expansion of cement.

22. 13
Weight of Different Steel Bar
Table No 2.1 (Weight of Steel Bar)
Sr No. Dia. of steel bar
Weight per meter
Round Bar Square Bar
1 6mm 0.22 kg 0.28 kg
2 8mm 0.39 kg 0.50 kg
3 10mm 0.62 kg 0.78 kg
4 12mm 0.89 kg 1.13 kg
5 16mm 1.58 kg 2.01 kg
6 20mm 2.46 kg 3.14 kg
7 25mm 3.85 kg 4.91 kg
8 28mm 4.83 kg 6.15 kg
9 32mm 6.31 kg 8.04 kg
10 36mm 7.99 kg 10.17 kg
11 40mm 9.86 kg 12.56 kg
12 45mm 12.49 kg 15.90 kg
13 50mm 15.41 kg 19.62 kg

23. 14
Chapter 3 - Skill Attained
3.1 Test Performed on Aggregates
3.1.1 Sieve Analysis Test
To determine the particle size distribution of fine and coarse aggregates by sieving as per IS:
2386 (Part I) - 1963.By passing the sample downward through a series of standard sieves, each
of decreasing size openings, the aggregates are separated into several groups, each of which
contains aggregates in a particular size range. A set of IS Sieves of sizes - 80mm, 63mm,
50mm, 40mm, 31.5mm, 25mm, 20mm, 16mm, 12.5mm, 10mm, 6.3mm, 4.75mm, 3.35mm,
2.36mm, 1.18mm, 600µm, 300µm, 150µm and 75µm . Balance or scale with an accuracy to
measure 0.1 percent of the weight of the test sample.
The test sample is dried to a constant weight at a temperature of 110+5 o C and weighed. The
sample is sieved by using a set of IS Sieves. On completion of sieving, the material on each
sieve is weighed. Cumulative weight passing through each sieve is calculated as a percentage
of the total sample weight. Fineness modulus is obtained by adding cumulative percentage of
aggregates retained on each sieve and dividing the sum by 100 [7].
3.1.2 Water Absorption Test
To determine the water absorption of coarse aggregates as per IS: 2386 (Part III) - 1963.Wire
basket - perforated, electroplated or plastic coated with wire hangers for suspending it from the
balance. Water-tight container for suspending the basket. Dry soft absorbent cloth - 75cm x
45cm (2 nos.).Shallow tray of minimum 650 sq.cm area. Air-tight container of a capacity
similar to the basket. Oven. A sample not less than 2000g should be used.
The sample should be thoroughly washed to remove finer particles and dust, drained and then
placed in the wire basket and immersed in distilled water at a temperature between 22 and 32
o C. After immersion, the entrapped air should be removed by lifting the basket and allowing it
to drop 25 times in 25 seconds. The basket and sample should remain immersed for a period of
24 + ½ hrs. afterwards. The basket and aggregates should then be removed from the water,
allowed to drain for a few minutes, after which the aggregates should be gently emptied from
the basket on to one of the dry clothes and gently surface-dried with the cloth, transferring it to
a second dry cloth when the first would remove no further moisture. The aggregates should be
spread on the second cloth and exposed to the atmosphere away from direct sunlight till it
appears to be completely surface-dry. The aggregates should be weighed (Weight 'A'). The
aggregates should then be placed in an oven at a temperature of 100 to 110 o C for 24hrs. It
should then be removed from the oven, cooled and weighed (Weight 'B').
3.2 Test Performed on Concrete
3.2.1 Rebound Hammer Test
To assess the likely compressive strength of concrete by using rebound hammer as per IS:
13311 (Part 2) - 1992. The rebound of an elastic mass depends on the hardness of the surface
against which its mass strikes. When the plunger of the rebound hammer is pressed against the
surface of the concrete, the spring-controlled mass rebounds and the extent of such a rebound
depends upon the surface hardness of the concrete. The surface hardness and therefore the
rebound is taken to be related to the compressive strength of the concrete. The rebound value is

24. 15
read from a graduated scale and is designated as the rebound number or rebound index. The
compressive strength can be read directly from the graph provided on the body of the hammer.
Before commencement of a test, the rebound hammer should be tested against the test anvil, to
get reliable results, for which the manufacturer of the rebound hammer indicates the range of
readings on the anvil suitable for different types of rebound hammer. Apply light pressure on
the plunger - it will release it from the locked position and allow it to extend to the ready
position for the test. Press the plunger against the surface of the concrete, keeping the
instrument perpendicular to the test surface. Apply a gradual increase in pressure until the
hammer impacts. (Do not touch the button while depressing the plunger. Press the button after
impact, in case it is not convenient to note the rebound reading in that position. Take the
average of about 15 reading.
3.2.2 Compression Test
To determine the compressive strength of concrete specimens as per IS: 516 - 1959.
Compression Testing Machine. Compression testing machine conforming to IS: 516 – 1959
Tests should be done at recognized ages of the test specimens, usually being 7 and 28 days.
The ages should be calculated from the time of the addition of water to the drying of
ingredients. At least three specimens, preferably from different batches, should be taken for
testing at each selected age.
The specimens, prepared according to IS: 516 - 1959 and stored in water, should be tested
immediately on removal from the water and while still in wet condition. Specimens when
received dry should be kept in water for 24hrs. Before they are taken for testing. The
dimensions of the specimens, to the nearest 0.2mm and their weight should be noted before
testing. The bearing surfaces of the compression testing machine should be wiped clean and
any loose sand or other material removed from the surfaces of the specimen, which would be in
contact with the compression platens. In the case a of cubical specimen, the specimen should
be placed in the machine in such a manner that the load could be applied to the opposite sides
of the cubes, not to the top and the bottom. The axis of the specimen should be carefully
aligned with the center of thrust of the spherically seated platen. No packing should be used
between the faces of the test specimen and the steel platen of the testing machine. As the
spherically seated block is brought to rest on the specimen, the movable portion should be
rotated gently by hand so that uniform seating is obtained. The load should be applied without
shock and increased continuously at a rate of approximately 140kg/sq.cm/minute until the
resistance of the specimen to the increasing load breaks down and no greater load can be
sustained. The maximum load applied to the specimen should then be recorded and the
appearance of the concrete and any unusual features in the type of failure should be noted.
3.3 Test Performed on Soil
3.3.1 Water Content
3.3.1.1 Oven Drying Method
To determine the water content in soil by oven drying method as per IS: 2720 (Part II) - 1973.
The water content (w) of a soil sample is equal to the mass of water divided by the mass of
solids. Thermostatically controlled oven maintained at a temperature of 110 ± 5oC. Weighing
balance, with an accuracy of 0.04% of the weight of the soil taken. Air-tight container made of
non-corrodible material with lid. Tongs

25. 16
Clean the container, dry it and weigh it with the lid (Weight 'W1'). Take the required quantity
of the wet soil specimen in the container and weigh it with the lid (Weight 'W2'). Place the
container, with its lid removed, in the oven till its weight becomes constant (Normally for
24hrs.). When the soil has dried, remove the container from the oven, using tongs. Find the
weight 'W3' of the container with the lid and the dry soil sample.
3.3.2 Liquid Limit
To determine the liquid limit of soil as per IS: 2720 (Part 5) - 1985. The liquid limit of fine-
grained soil is the water content at which soil behaves practically like a liquid, but has small
shear strength. Its flow closes the groove in just 25 blows in Casagrande’s liquid limit device.
Casagrande’s liquid limit device. Grooving tools of both standard and ASTM types, Oven,
Evaporating dish, Spatula, IS Sieve of size 425 µm, Weighing balance, with 0.01g accuracy,
Wash bottle, Air-tight and non-corrodible container for determination of moisture content
Place a portion of the paste in the cup of the liquid limit device. Level the mix so as to have a
maximum depth of 1cm. Draw the grooving tool through the sample along the symmetrical
axis of the cup, holding the tool perpendicular to the cup. For normal fine grained soil: The
Casagrande's tool is used to cut a groove 2mm wide at the bottom, 11mm wide at the top and
8mm deep. For sandy soil: The ASTM tool is used to cut a groove 2mm wide at the bottom,
13.6mm wide at the top and 10mm deep. After the soil pat has been cut by a proper grooving
tool, the handle is rotated at the rate of about 2 revolutions per second and the no. of blows
counted, till the two parts of the soil sample come into contact for about 10mm length. Take
about 10g of soil near the closed groove and determine its water content (see Para 5.1). The
soil of the cup is transferred to the dish containing the soil paste and mixed thoroughly after
adding a little more water. Repeat the test. By altering the water content of the soil and
repeating the foregoing operations, obtain at least 5 readings in the range of 15 to 35 blows.
Don’t mix dry soil to change its consistency. Liquid limit is determined by plotting a ‘flow
curve’ on a semi-log graph, with no. of blows as abscissa (log scale) and the water content as
ordinate and drawing the best straight line through the plotted points. Water content
corresponding to 25 blows, is the value of the liquid limit.
3.3.3 Plastic Limit
To determine the plastic limit of soil as per IS: 2720 (Part 5) - 1985. The plastic limit of fine-
grained soil is the water content of the soil below which it ceases to be plastic. It begins to
crumble when rolled into threads of 3mm dia.Porcelain evaporating dish about 120mm dia.
Spatula, Container to determine moisture content, Balance, with an accuracy of 0.01g, Oven,
Ground glass plate - 20cm x 15cm, Rod - 3mm dia. and about 10cm long
Take about 8g of the soil and roll it with fingers on a glass plate. The rate of rolling should be
between 80 to 90 strokes per minute to form a 3mm dia. If the dia. of the threads can be
reduced to less than 3mm, without any cracks appearing, it means that the water content is
more than its plastic limit. Knead the soil to reduce the water content and roll it into a thread
again. Repeat the process of alternate rolling and kneading until the thread crumbles. Collect
and keep the pieces of crumbled soil thread in the container used to determine the moisture
content. Repeat the process at least twice more with fresh samples of plastic soil each time.

26. 17
3.3.4 Maximum Dry Density And Optimum Moisture Content
To determine the maximum dry density and the optimum moisture content of soil using heavy
compaction as per IS: 2720 (Part 8) - 1983. Cylindrical Metal Mould. Cylindrical metal mould
it should be either of 100mm dia. and 1000cc volume or 150mm dia. and 2250cc volume and
should conform to IS: 10074 – 1982, Balances - one of 10kg capacity, sensitive to 1g and the
other of 200g capacity, sensitive to 0.01g, Oven thermostatically controlled with an interior of
non-corroding material to maintain temperature between 105 and 110 o C, Steel straightedge
30cm long, IS Sieves of sizes - 4.75mm, 19mm and 37.5mm, A representative portion of
airdried soil material, large enough to provide about 6kg of material passing through a 19mm
IS Sieve (for soils not susceptible to crushing during compaction) or about 15kg of material
passing through a 19mm IS Sieve (for soils susceptible to crushing during compaction), should
be taken. This portion should be sieved through a 19mm IS Sieve and the coarse fraction
rejected after its proportion of the total sample has been recorded. Aggregations of particles
should be broken down so that if the sample was sieved through a 4.75 mm IS Sieve, only
separated individual particles would be retained.
Soil not susceptible to crushing during compaction . A 5kg sample of air-dried soil passing
through the 19mm IS Sieve should be taken. The sample should be mixed thoroughly with a
suitable amount of water depending on the soil type (for sandy and gravelly soil - 3 to 5% and
for cohesive soil - 12 to 16% below the plastic limit). The soil sample should be stored in a
sealed container for a minimum period of 16hrs. The mould of 1000cc capacity with base plate
attached should be weighed to the nearest 1g (W1). The mould should be placed on a solid
base, such as a concrete floor or plinth and the moist soil should be compacted into the mould,
with the extension attached, in five layers of approximately equal mass, each layer being given
25 blows from the 4.9kg rammer dropped from a height of 450mm above the soil. The blows
should be distributed uniformly over the surface of each layer. The amount of soil used should
be sufficient to fill the mould, leaving not more than about 6mm to be struck off when the
extension is removed. The extension should be removed and the compacted soil should be
levelled off carefully to the top of the mould by means of the straight edge. The mould and soil
should then be weighed to the nearest gram (W2). The compacted soil specimen should be
removed from the mould and placed onto the mixing tray. The water content (w) of a
representative sample of the specimen should be determined as in Para 5.1.
The remaining soil specimen should be broken up, rubbed through 19mm IS Sieve and then
mixed with the remaining original sample. Suitable increments of water should be added
successively and mixed into the sample, and the above operations i.e. Para ii) to iv) should be
repeated for each increment of water added. The total number of determinations made should
be at least five and the moisture contents should be such that the optimum moisture content, at
which the maximum dry density occurs, lies within that range. Soil susceptible to crushing
during compaction – Five or more 2.5kg samples of air-dried soil passing through the 19mm IS
Sieve, should be taken. The samples should each be mixed thoroughly with different amounts
of water and stored in a sealed container as mentioned in Para i), above. Follow the operations
given in para A) ii) to IV), above. Compaction in large size mould – For compacting soil
containing coarse material up to 37.5 mm sizes, the 2250cc mould should be used. A sample
weighing about 30kg and passing through the 37.5mm IS Sieve is used for the test. Soil is
compacted in five layers, each layer being given 55 blows of the 4.9kg rammer. Fill the Viccat
mould, resting on a glass plate, with the cement paste gauged as above. Fill the mould
completely and smooth off the surface of the paste making it level with the top of the mould.
The cement block thus prepared is called test block.

27. 18
3.4 Test Performed on Cement
3.4.1 Fineness Test
To determine the fineness of cement by dry sieving as per IS: 4031 (Part 1) - 1996. The
fineness of cement is measured by sieving it through a standard sieve. The proportion of
cement the grain sizes of which, is larger than the specified mesh size is thus determined.
90µm IS Sieve, Balance capable of weighing 10g to the nearest 10mg, A nylon or pure bristle
brush, preferably with 25 to 40mm bristle, for cleaning the sieve
Weigh approximately 10g of cement to the nearest 0.01g and place it on the sieve. Agitate the
sieve by swirling, planetary and linear movements, until no more fine material passes through
it. Weigh the residue and express its mass as a percentage R1, of the quantity first placed on
the sieve to the nearest 0.1 percent. Gently brush all the fine material off the base of the sieve.
Repeat the whole procedure using a fresh 10g sample to obtain R2. Then calculate R as the
mean of R1 and R2 as a percentage, expressed to the nearest 0.1 percent. When the results
differ by more than 1 percent absolute, carry out a third sieving and calculate the mean of the
three values.
3.4.2 Consistency Test
To determine the quantity of water required to produce a cement paste of standard
Consistency as per IS: 4031 (Part 4) - 1988. The standard consistency of a cement paste is
defined as that consistency which will permit the Viccat plunger to penetrate to a point 5 to
7mm from the bottom of the Viccat mould. Vacate apparatus conforming to IS: 5513 – 1976,
Balance, whose permissible variation at a load of 1000g should be +1.0g, Gauging trowel
conforming to IS: 10086 – 1982
Weigh approximately 400g of cement and mix it with a weighed quantity of water. The time of
gauging should be between 3 to 5 minutes. Fill the Viccat mould with paste and level it with a
trowel. Lower the plunger gently till it touches the cement surface. Release the plunger
allowing it to sink into the paste. Note the reading on the gauge. Repeat the above procedure
taking fresh samples of cement and different quantities of water until the reading on the gauge
is 5 to 7mm.
3.4.3 Soundness Test
To determine the soundness of cement by Le-Chatelier method as per IS: 4031 (Part 3) - 1988.
Le-Chatelier’s Test Apparatus, The apparatus for conducting the Le-Chatelier test should
conform to IS: 5514 – 1969, Balance, whose permissible variation at a load of 1000g should be
+1.0g, Water bath, The concrete frame rests on foundations, which transfer the forces - from
the building and on the building - to the ground.
Some other important components of concrete frame structures are shear walls are important
structural elements in high-rise buildings. Shear walls are essentially very large columns they
could easily measure 400mm thick by 3m long - making them appear like walls rather than
columns. Their function in a building is to help take care of horizontal forces on buildings like
wind and earthquake loads. Normally, buildings are subject to vertical loads gravity. Shear
walls also carry vertical loads. It is important to understand that they only work for horizontal
loads in one direction - the axis of the long dimension of the wall. These are usually not
required in low-rise structures.

28. 19
Elevator Shafts are vertical boxes in which the elevators move up and down normally each
elevator is enclosed in its own concrete box. These shafts are also very good structural
elements, helping to resist horizontal loads, and also carrying vertical loads.
3.4.4 Initial & Final Setting Time
1. Initial Setting Time
Place the test block confined in the mould and resting on the non-porous plate, under the rod
bearing the needle. Lower the needle gently until it comes in contact with the surface of test
block and quick release, allowing it to penetrate into the test block. In the beginning the needle
completely pierces the test block. Repeat this procedure i.e. quickly releasing the needle after
every 2 minutes till the needle fails to pierce the block for about 5 mm measured from the
bottom of the mould. Note this time (t2).
2. Final Setting Time
For determining the final setting time, replace the needle of the Vicat’s apparatus by the
needle with an annular attachment. The cement is considered finally set when upon applying
the final setting needle gently to the surface of the test block; the needle makes an impression
thereon, while the attachment fails to do so. Record this time (t3).
i. Initial setting time=t2-t1
ii. Final setting time=t3-t1,
Where,
t1=Time at which water is first added to cement
t2=Time when needle fails to penetrate 5 mm to 7 mm from bottom of the mould
t3=Time when the needle makes an impression but the attachment fails to do so.
Release the initial and final setting time needles gently. The experiment should be performed
away from vibration and other disturbances. Needle should be cleaned every time it is used.
Position of the mould should be shifted slightly after each penetration to avoid penetration at
the same place. Test should be performed at the specified environmental conditions.
3.5 Methodology
3.5.1 Concrete Frame Structures
Concrete frame structures are a very common - or perhaps the most common- type of modern
building internationally. As the name suggests, this type of building consists of a frame or
skeleton of concrete. Horizontal members of this frame are called beams, and vertical members
are called columns. Humans walk on flat planes of concrete called slabs (see figure 2 at the
bottom of the page for an illustration of each of the major parts of a frame structure). Of these,
the column is the most important, as it is the primary load-carrying element of the building. If
you damage a beam or slab in a building, this will affect only one floor, but damage to a
column could bring down the entire building.
When we say concrete in the building trade, we actually mean reinforced concrete. Its full
name is reinforced cement concrete, or RCC. RCC is concrete that contains steel bars, called
reinforcement bars, or rebar’s. This combination works very well, as concrete is very strong in
compression, easy to produce at site, and inexpensive and steel is very very strong in
tension. To make reinforced concrete, one first makes a mould, called formwork that will

29. 20
contain the liquid concrete and give it the form and shape we need. Then one looks at the
structural engineer's drawings and places in the steel reinforcement bars, and ties them in place
using wire. The tied steel is called a reinforcement cage, because it is shaped like one.
Once the steel is in place, one can start to prepare the concrete, by mixing cement, sand, stone
chips in a range of sizes, and water in a cement mixer, and pouring in the liquid concrete into
the formwork tilll exactly the right level is reached. The concrete will become hard in a matter
of hours, but takes a month to reach its full strength. Therefore it is usually propped up until
that period. During this time the concrete must be cured, or supplied with water on its surface,
which it needs for the chemical reactions within to proceed properly.
Working out the exact 'recipe', or proportions of each ingredient is a science in itself. It is
called concrete mix design. A good mix designer will start with the properties that are desired
in the mix, then take many factors into account, and work out a detailed mix design. A site
engineer will often order a different type of mix for a different purpose. For example, if he is
casting a thin concrete wall in a hard-to-reach area, he will ask for a mix that is more flow
able than stiff. This will allow the liquid concrete to flow by gravity into every corner of the
formwork. For most construction applications, however, a standard mix is used.
Common examples of standard mixes are M20, M30, M40 concrete, where the number refers
to the strength of the concrete in n/mm2 or newton per square millimeter. Therefore M30
concrete will have a compressive strength of 30 n/mm2. A standard mix may also specify the
maximum aggregate size. Aggregates are the stone chips used in concrete. If an engineer
specifies M30 / 20 concrete, he wants M30 concrete with a maximum aggregate size of 20mm.
He does NOT want concrete with strength of between 20-30 n/mm2, which is a common
misinterpretation in some parts of the world.
So the structure is actually a connected frame of members, each of which are firmly connected
to each other. In engineering parlance, these connections are called moment connections,
which mean that the two members are firmly connected to each other. There are other types of
connections, including hinged connections, which are used in steel structures, but concrete
frame structures have moment connections in 99.9% of cases. This frame becomes very strong,
and must resist the various loads that act on a building during its life.
3.6 These Loads Include
3.6.1 Dead Loads
The downwards force on the building coming from the weight of the building itself, including
the structural elements, walls, facades, and the like.
3.6.2 Live Loads
The downwards force on the building coming from the expected weight of the occupants and
their possessions, including furniture, books, and so on. Normally these loads are specified in
building codes and structural engineers must design buildings to carry these or greater loads.
These loads will vary with the use of the space, for example, whether it is residential, office,
industrial to name a few. It is common for codes to require live loads for residential to be a
minimum of about 200 kg/m2, offices to be 250 kg/m2, and industrial to be 1000 kg/m2, which
is the same as 1T/m2. These live loads are sometimes called imposed loads.

30. 21
3.6.3 Dynamic Loads
These occur commonly in bridges and similar infrastructure, and are the loads created by
traffic, including braking and accelerating loads.
3.6.4 Wind Loads
This is a very important design factor, especially for tall buildings, or buildings with large
surface area. Buildings are designed not to resist the everyday wind conditions, but extreme
conditions that may occur once every 100 years or so. These are called design windspeeds, and
are specified in building codes. A building can commonly be required to resist a wind force of
150 kg/m2, which can be a very significant force when multiplied by the surface area of the
building.
3.6.5 Earthquake Loads
In an earthquake, the ground vigorously shakes the building both horizontally and vertically,
rather like a bucking horse shakes a rider in the sport of rodeo. This can cause the building to
fall apart. The heavier the building the greater the force on it. It’s important to note that both
wind and earthquake impose horizontal forces on the building, unlike the gravity forces it
normally resists, which are vertical in direction.
3.7 Sub Structure
A Substructure is an underlying or supporting structure to superstructure. It is below ground
level. Foundation is part of substructure. Substructure is the lower portion of the building
which transmits the dead load, live loads and other loads to the underneath sub soil.
3.7.1 Layout
Layout of a building or a structure shows the plan the plan of its foundation on the ground
surface according to its drawings.
Fig 3.1 Layout of Building

31. 22
3.7.2 Excavation
Excavation means any operation in which earth rock or other material on or below the ground
is removed our internship use.
Fig 3.2 Excavation
3.7.3 Foundation
The foundation of building transfer the weight of the building to the ground. While foundation
is a general word normally every building has a number of individual foundations commonly
called footings.
Fig 3.3 Foundation (Pic 1)

32. 23
Fig 3.4 Foundation (Pic 2)
3.7.3.1 Types of foundation
Foundation of building as the name implies is the starting of a building construction on site
really. Types of building, nature of soil and environmental conditions are the major
determinant of type of foundation you will use for your building.[8].
i. Strip foundation
ii. Pad foundation
iii. Raft foundation
iv. Pile foundation
3.7.3.1.1 Strip foundation
This is the most common type, it is mainly used where you have strong soil base and non-
waterlogged areas. Most small buildings of just a floor are constructed with this type of
foundation. Depends on the structural engineers recommendation, the depth of your foundation
could be from 600mm to 1200mm mostly for small scale buildings. When the soil is
excavated, a level at which the concrete will settle evenly is established, then concrete is
poured this may be from 150mm(6”) thick to 450mm(18”) thick depending also on building
after that block is set round the trenches at the center of foundation ,the foundation usually
follows the block lines. The blocks are then laid to D.P.C level before another concrete is
poured on top, this is the German or over site concrete. This type seems to be the cheapest.

33. 24
Fig 3.5 Strip Foundation
3.7.3.1.2 Pad foundation
This is where isolated columns (pillars) are casted from the foundation to carry a slab at the top
of the ground. This is mostly used when you want to make use of the under of building as
parking space or when the other space is not conducive to have foundation. Imagine you are
planning to build a house across a flowing stream and you want a situation where you can use
your boat to pass under the building because the stream is under. Then you may not need to dig
foundation that will cut across the river but just by applying columns (pillars) at the edge of the
river like a bridge, this columns are thus isolated and there foundations are referred to as pad.
3.7.3.1.3 Raft foundation
This is where you have concrete spread around your building from the base of foundation all
through to the German floor / over site concrete/ground floor slab. It is mainly used in areas
where the soil are sandy and loose, you spend more on this than the other previous two most of
the time. It is also recommended in waterlogged areas but with buildings of fewer store’s. It
has a ground beam which shuts out from the foundation base and is also attached to the ground
floor slab to form a network of concrete embedded round the building space. The ground beam
is usually from 600mm to 1200mm for low buildings.
3.7.3.1.4 Pile foundation
The most expensive and the strongest type of foundation, this requires specialist engineering
to do. The soil are bored deep down the earth and filled with concrete to be able to support
loads of multi-story building on top. Most skyscrapers are constructed with this foundation
type; a waterlogged area of high building may also require this. It is the costliest hence it is
used for high rise building mostly.

34. 25
3.8 Back Fill
To refill an excavation unit to restore the former ground surface and or to preserve the unit and
make it recognizable as have been excavated.
Fig 3.6 Back Fill (Pic 1)
Fig 3.7 Back Fill (Pic 2)
3.9 Water Stopper
Water Stops are flexible Plastic strips which provide a physical barrier to Water at concrete
joints, mostly in basements, Water retaining structures like Water tanks, Swimming pools,
structural foundations & other below ground level constructions. Water stops are also termed
as Water Bars, seals construction joints[9].

35. 26
3.10Waterproofing
Waterproofing protects structures against water infiltration which can cause expensive and
irreversible damage. Waterproofing is the process of making an object or structure waterproof
or water-resistant so that it remains relatively unaffected by water or resisting the ingress of
water under specified conditions. Such items may be used in wet environments or underwater
to specified depths.
Water resistant and waterproof often refer to penetration of water in its liquid state and
possibly under pressure, whereas damp proof refers to resistance to humidity or dampness.
Permeation of water vapor through a material or structure is reported as a moisture vapor [10].
3.11Pile Foundation
Pile is a slender member with small area of cross-section relative to its length. They can
transfer load either by friction or by bearing. Pile foundation are used when:
i.The load is to be transferred to stronger or less compressible stratum, preferably rock.
ii.The granular soils need to be compacted.
iii.The horizontal and the inclined forces need to be carried from the bridge abutments and
the retaining walls[11].
3.11.1 Classification of Pile Foundation
The pile foundation can be further classified into following types on various basis such as
function, material, and method of installation which are listed below.
3.11.1.1 Basedon Function
i.Bearing piles
ii.Friction piles
iii.Combined piles (Both bearing and friction)
3.11.1.2 Basedon Material
i.Timber piles
ii.Concrete piles
iii.Steel piles
3.11.1.3 Basedon Method of Installation
i.Large displacement piles
ii.Small displacement piles
iii.Non-displacement piles
3.12Walls in concrete frame buildings
Concrete frame structures are strong and economical. Hence almost any walling materials can
be used with them. The heavier options include masonry walls of brick, concrete block, or
stone. The lighter options include drywall partitions made of light steel or wood studs covered
with sheeting boards. The former are used when strong, secure, and sound-proof enclosures are
required, and the latter when quick, flexible lightweight partitions are needed.

36. 27
When brick or concrete blocks are used, it is common to plaster the entire surface - brick and
concrete - with a cement plaster to form a hard, long-lasting finish.
3.13 Use Raft Foundation
The advantages of raft foundation are as follows, Raft or mat foundation is economic due to
combination of foundation and floor slab. It requires little excavation. It can cope with mixed
or poor ground condition. It reduces differential settlement. A raft foundation, also called a
mat foundation, is essentially a continuous slab resting on the soil that extends over the entire
footprint of the building, thereby supporting the building and transferring its weight to the
ground.
3.14 Footings
A grade beam or grade beam footing is a component of a building's foundation. It consists of
a reinforced concrete beam that transmits the load from a bearing wall into spaced
foundations such as pile caps or caissons. It is used in conditions where the surface soil’s
load-bearing capacity is less than the anticipated design loads
Fig 3.8 Footing(sketch)

37. 28
Fig 3.9 Footing (Pic)
3.14.1 Benefits of Footing Foundation
i.They provide a level surface upon which to build the foundation.
ii.Also, they provide resistance to the upward-acting forces of the soil opposing the
downward-acting forces of the weight above.
iii.With widths greater than the foundation itself, footings serve to distribute the building load
to the soil.
iv.Footings add strength to the foundation system in weak or expanding soils. Shifting soils
push on foundation walls above the footing and laterally.
v.Footings can help absorb the pressure and shore up the foundation against unstable earth.
vi.Footings allow the foundation to be sunk far enough below grade to avoid frost depths where
heaving and thawing also cause uneven settlement.
In summary, footings help prevent foundations from sinking or buckling. They also help the
foundation remain perpendicular to the ground, and keep tall buildings upright. Of the many
possibilities for footings, reinforced concrete can underpin the foundation in two styles[12].
3.15 Tools & Plants
The tools that construction workers use
3.15.1 Safety Equipment
According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
3.15.2 Hand Tools
For simple jobs, construction workers will use hand tools such as a hammer.

38. 29
3.15.3 Trucks
To carry equipment and supplies from one place to another.
3.15.4 Air Compressor
A two-stage air compressor is often used at job sites for pneumatic tool
3.15.5 Compactor
Compactor is used to compact soft soil. It consist on simple vibrator and small petrol engine.
The function is vibrator to reduce air from soft soil for batter load bearing.
Fig 3.10 Compactor
3.15.6 Excavator
Excavators are heavy construction equipment consisting of a boom, dipper, bucket and cab on
a rotating platform known as the "house". The house sits atop an undercarriage with tracks or
wheels. They are a natural progression from the steam shovels and often mistakenly called
power shovels. All movement and functions of a hydraulic excavator are accomplished
through the use of hydraulic fluid, with hydraulic cylinders and hydraulic motors. Due to the
linear actuation of hydraulic cylinders, their[13].

39. 30
Fig 3.11 Excavator
3.15.7 Concrete Mixer
A concrete mixer is a device that homogeneously combines cement, aggregate such as sand or
gravel, and water to form concrete. A typical concrete mixer uses a revolving drum to mix the
components. For smaller volume works, portable concrete mixers are often used so that the
concrete can be made at the construction site, giving the workers ample time to use the
concrete before it hardens. An alternative to a machine is mixing concrete by hand[14].
Fig 3.12 Concrete Mixer (Pic 1)

40. 31
3.16 Implementation Plan
3.16.1 Basic Issues of Internship Implementation
The implementation of this Internship will require a cabinet approval by the Government of
Punjab, which will take place after examination by relevant organizations in Punjab based on
this Report. Thereafter, signing of the Exchange of Notes (E/N) will take place. Based on the
Agreed Minutes on Procedural Details (A/M), supplied as an attachment to the E/N, the
Government of Sahiwal and the procurement management agent in Punjab will sign an agent
agreement for entrusting the implementation of the Internship. The procurement management
agent, acting as the agent of the Government of Sahiwal, will procure local firms who will
execute the Internship (detailed design and work supervision consultant, contractors, and
specialized furniture suppliers).
3.16.2 The Consultative Committee
After the signing of the E/N, both countries will establish a consultative committee for the
purpose of discussion and coordination regarding the targets of assistance and the contents of
the Internship. The chair of the Consultative Committee will be the representative from the
Government of Sahiwal. In this Internship, the Consultative Committee will be organized by
Punjab Embassy in Pakistan and Sahiwal Ministry of Education, with participation of Sahiwal
National Planning Commission. From the Punjab side, representatives from JICA Sahiwal
Office and the procurement management agent will participate as advisors.
3.16.3 Implementation System in Sahiwal
The responsible and implementing organization for this Internship is Sahiwal Ministry of
Education. The Ministry, under the control of the Secretary, will direct the Department of
School Education (DSE) to take charge of the overall coordination and operation of the
Internship. DSE, in cooperation with relevant organizations such as Policy and Planning
Division (PPD) of the Ministry, National Planning Commission, and the target, will supervise
the execution of works to be done by the Sahiwal side, the issuance of necessary permission
and approvals, and the achievement of agreement of relevant organizations. Sahiwal Ministry
of Foreign Affairs is the competent authority regarding the signing of the E/N between the two
Governments related to the implementation of this Internship.
3.16.4 Procurement Management Agent
Based on the Agreed Minutes on Procedural Details (A/M), supplied as an attachment to the
E/N, the procurement management agent will sign an agent agreement with the Ministry of
Education, which is the implementing organization of the Internship. The agent, according to
this agreement, will select the detailed design and work supervision consultant, contractors,
and specialized furniture suppliers, and will conclude a contract with each of them. To execute
their services, the procurement management agent will establish the following organization in
Sahiwal. Person in Charge of Internship Management, Bid and Fund Management (Punjab)
Acting as the representative of the procurement management agent in charge of the Internship,
conducts overall management of the Internship, execution of bidding, and fund management
related to the payment according to contracts; Conducts the evaluation of bid and necessary
reporting to relevant organizations regarding the progress of work and other issues; and When

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a change in the scope of assistance or other alteration becomes necessary due to the condition
of fund expenditure, defines the details of alteration through discussion with the Consultative
Committee, coordinates activities and compiles alteration procedures.
Person in Charge of Technical Management (Punjab) Assists the Internship manager in the
selection of consultant, contractors, and suppliers, conducts technical checks of ordering
specifications and tender documents, and conducts technical evaluation of bids; Supervises
and guides the detailed design works by the consultant and confirms the products (drawings,
specifications, BQs, and bid documents) ; - Confirms the work supervision plan of the
consultant and provide necessary guidance and advice; - Check the execution of the
consultant's work supervision appropriately through periodical reports and site inspections and
provide necessary guidance, advice, and instruction for improvement; and - Inspects and
accepts the reports of the inspection of work progress, completion inspections, and defect
inspections performed by the consultant, and confirms the contents of the reports. In
implementing the Internship, the procurement management agent receives necessary support
from SPBD, the technical division of the Ministry of Education managing school construction,
regarding technical aspects such as technical evaluation related to the selection of consultant,
contractors, etc., legal examination of the contracts, review of the contents of detailed design.
3.16.5 Detailed Designand Work Supervision Consultant
Following the service agreement with the procurement management agent, the detailed design
and work supervision consultant compiles the detailed design and bid documents and assists
the procurement management agent in practical aspects of bidding. The consultant appoints
supervisors to be stationed full time at internship sites, and conducts work supervision during
works using these supervisors.
3.16.6 Contractors and Furniture Suppliers
Following the work and procurement contracts with the procurement management agent,
contractors and furniture suppliers execute construction works and procurement of furniture
according to the contract documents within the terms of execution.
3.17 Precautions in Construction and Procurement
3.17.1 Labor Conditions
Construction works in Sahiwal are mostly implemented by use of Pakistan workers as the
major workforce. In particular, the use of Pakistan skilled workers is indispensable for the
implementation of steel frame construction and steel sash construction that are not common in
the country. Since the number of foreign workers permitted to be employed is limited in
accordance with the contract amount and the permission of the Ministry of Labor and
Employment needs to be obtained, it is necessary to review the process scheduling of
contractors at the contracting stage of construction to ensure an appropriate labor procurement
plan has been prepared and that necessary procedures have been taken.
3.17.2 Transportation Conditions
Most of the highways are mountain roads that are frequently blocked due to landslides or rock
falls during the rainy season. Although most of the blocked roads will be opened to traffic
within one day, the construction period needs to be set with a sufficient period allowing for the
transportation of materials because there are no bypass routes. In particular, imported products,

42. 33
without domestic stock,, may be held up for a long time due to traffic situations in Pakistan,
Thus, special materials such as steel frames need to be flexibly procured with sufficient timing
buffer.
3.17.3 Financial Capability of Contractors
The financial strength of contractors involved in construction works in Sahiwal is far from
sufficient with both the capital and the annual sales being less than 3 million Nu
(approximately 100 million yen) even for A-rank registered contractors. It is necessary to
divide the contract into sufficiently small lots as well as subdivide the payment terms to ensure
smooth payment and prevent delay in procurement of material or labor due to lack of funds.
3.17.4 Delay in Construction
The construction schedule is delayed from the contracted period in most cases of construction
works in Sahiwal. Major factors for the delay include delay in procurement of materials due to
lack of funds or blockage of traffic difference in the quantities of site development works
between the plan and the actual work design change in the midst of construction, and limitation
on the number of foreign workers permitted. The progress control needs to be ensured to avoid
any delay, such as by making detailed designs to minimize the design change during the
construction, and by taking the above-mentioned measures against factors and . In addition, it
is imperative for permanent supervisors need to periodically grasp the progress to take
necessary measures at an appropriate timing and minimizing indiscriminate extension of the
construction schedule.
3.17.5 Tax Exemption Procedure
The customs duty and the Sahiwal sales tax will be refunded by applying for the refund to the
Revenue & Customs Office with a certificate of the procurement management agent obtained
from contractors. On the other hand, the contractor's tax, which corresponds to the corporate
income tax, is not exempted and needs to be paid in accordance with the amount paid. While it
is generally paid by the client to the tax authorities by withdrawing the tax deducted at source
from the amount paid, it is also possible for contractors to pay the tax under their responsibility
while the client (procurement management agent) submit only the detailed payment
information and the certificate. Treatment of tax exemption and Contractor's tax must be
described in contracts.
3.17.6 Contract and Dispute Settlement
In Sahiwal, the procedures for settling construction works disputes must be:
i. Settled by consultation between contract parties,
ii. Reconciled by an arbitrator, or
iii. Settled by the court. in this order.
Most of actual disputes are settled by consultation or conciliation and few cases are brought
into the court. In addition, there are few appropriate lawyers specialized in contracts or
lawsuits relating to construction. It would be appropriate to settle disputes, which cannot be
settled by consultation, through the arbitration of the Construction Arbitration Committee
established under the Construction Development Board as a dispute arbitration body for
construction works. Because the Construction Arbitration Committee includes representatives
from the SPBD of the Ministry of Education.

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3.18Detailed Design/Work Supervision Plan
The consultant firms, who will take charge of the detailed design and the work supervision for
this Internship, will conclude an agreement with the procurement management agent and
execute their services under the guidance of the Punjab engineers of the procurement
management agent. In executing the services, the consultant will develop the detailed design
and prepare required bid documents in close consultation with the implementation body,
Ministry of Education, as well as in due light of the points of this outline design. In addition,
the consultant firms will dispatch resident supervisors to each site to provide supervision and
guidance for the contractors and to implement various inspections at the stage of construction,
maintaining communication with relevant organizations including the Ministry of Education
and the Education Offices. The services and the implementation scheme of the consultant are
as follows.
3.18.1 Detailed design Stage
At detailed design stage, the consultant will carry out the following works with engineers
specialized in architectural, structural, and electrical design; draftsmen; and quantity surveyors
allocated under the management of the Internship manager. Consultation on the specifications
for the detailed design: At the start of the detailed design, the contents of the outline design
will be sufficiently understood and detailed specifications will be reviewed in consultation with
the Punjab base engineer of the procurement management agent and SPBD of the Ministry of
Education. Site inspection: Each site will be surveyed to reconfirm the details of the layout
plan in the outline design (topographic features, condition on infrastructures, etc.). In addition,
the soil condition will be visually observed and, if it is considered that there is a problem in
securing the design bearing capacity of soil (150kN/m2), geological survey (plate bearing test,
etc.) will be conducted. Preparation of detailed layout plan: Building layout plans, site
reclamation plans, and external work plans will be prepared at a detail level required for the
estimation and construction of the site development works and the external work in light of the
result of the site inspection.
Preparation of detailed design drawings: Design drawings (architectural, structural, sanitary
and electrical drawings) for the respective planned facilities will be prepared at a detail level
required for the estimation and construction in conformance with the standard design of the
Ministry of Education. In the preparation, efficient execution will be ensured by making the
maximum use of the outline design and the data of the standard design of the Ministry of
Education. Preparation of technical specifications: Complementary specifications particular to
this Internship will be prepared by using the standard specifications of the Ministry of Works
& Human Settlements and SPBD in principle. Preparation of bill of quantities. A bill of
quantities (BQ) will be prepared using the data of the outline design or the standard design of
the SPBD, reviewed based on the design documents prepared. Preparation of contract
documents: Contract documents consisting of the invitation for bids(including general
conditions), particular conditions, descriptions of works, forms of contract, and bid forms will
be prepared with reference to the draft contract conditions of the outline design. The contract
documents for each lot of construction works and for procurement of furniture will be required.
Assistance for bidding: Assistance will be provided on the practical aspect of the bidding
implemented by the procurement management agent.

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3.18.2 Work Supervision Stage
At the work supervision stage, the consultant firms will execute the following services with
full-time supervising engineers dispatched to each site under the management of the Internship
manager. Preparation of standard documents for work supervision: In order to implement the
work supervision at different sites in an integrated manner, a form of checklists, test reports
and inspection reports will be prepared with the focus points for work supervision. On-site
supervision: Supervising engineers will be based at the sites to engage in inspections for
quality assurance, observation of the progress of work, and security of construction work sand
to periodically report the results to the procurement management agent. Visiting supervision:
A roundup supervisor will be assigned to periodically travel to all the sites to manage the
progress of the entire internship and to provide instructions to the full-time supervisors to
ensure a uniform quality.
Engineers specialized in architectures, structures, and electric installations will be dispatched
on a spot basis in accordance with the progress of construction to instruct the full-time
supervisors and to conduct major inspections relating to their respective specialized fields.
Piece work inspection. A piecework inspection will be conducted with instructions obtained
from the procurement management agent in response to the request for payment from
contractors and the result will be reported to the procurement management agent. Completion
inspection: A completion inspection will be performed at the completion of the construction
and the result will be reported to the procurement management agent. Defect inspection. A
defect inspection will be performed at the expiration of the defect liability period and, if any
defects are detected by the inspection, repair works performed by the contractors will be
supervised. In addition, the inspection results will be reported to the procurement management
agent.
Chapter 4- Feedback & Recommendation
4.1 Feed Back
I have understand. The overall organization of the company and the work flow. The tasks of
the engineers and other employees. The challenges of the works that will face the engineers
and their solutions. Understand the office work of building survey and designing. Impressed
with high level of professionalism. Maintained the highest standards of quality, value,
professionalism, safety, and cleanliness. The performance by associates has been outstanding
in every regard.We have been very satisfied with the process. The team of employees was great
to work.
4.2 Conclusions
Internship is a good way to execute knowledge in field. To understand how different things in
field relate with your knowledge so it must be a part of degree program and internship period
must be increased. We get knowledge about the basic & advanced techniques construction as
well as observed the challenges which a civil engineer has to face during i.e. labor problems,
cost management, environmental challenges etc. We cleared our many doubts regarding
building construction. Internship training is a golden opportunity to learn that how engineering
knowledge obtained during study in classrooms is applied to the practical civil engineering
works. Internship training through working with civil engineering professionals opens up job
avenues for civil engineers for various institutions. The internees must take full benefit of
internship training program by remaining thoroughly involved in all aspects of training like

45. 36
technical work, data collection/analysis and technical documents preparation processes.The
training is an important course because it closes the gap between the scientific study and
practical study. Learning you how to deal with other. Finding that team work is the most
important element in every successful project. Learned you that the civil engineer is capable of
a lot of work such as supervision, implementation, the calculation of quantities and design
engineering apprentice engineer and in the future can work as a consultant and contractor.
Learning you how to control & manage the site and how behaves when their problems by take
a professional decision. Plans must be clear and easy to read for those who used. Successful
engineer will find the economic design and the project is implemented less time. The site
engineer responsibility to make sure that everything is right on schedule and every member is
doing on the right way.
4.3 Recommendation
Most works in the site needs careful attention and successive supervision of works but the in
some case the site works goes improperly due to different causes. This kind of carelessness is
not good for ether the consultant or the contractor. Therefore I suggest supervisors and site
engineers to take a care full look after the work executed on the site and the work that will be
executed. In the site there are works which is performed in the way that not to be performed.
Such works lids to safety problem, loose of human power if its degree is high and economy if it
is ordered to demolish it. Thus I recommend for the company the following. 1st of all level all
the constructed area according to the drawing level. Testing of material before it delivered to
the site and after it delivered and also when it is in use for construction. It is better to use steel
form work than wood (plywood) formwork as it is very repetitively used, stiff, and not
flammable easily and removed easily without damaging the concrete structure. A cover
material could be used for curing for any casted concrete structure until it attains its strength.
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