The document discusses the development of the branchial arches and palate. It begins by explaining that the development of the branchial arches is complex, involving contributions from ectoderm, endoderm, neural crest cells, and mesoderm. It then describes how the neural crest cells migrate and contribute to craniofacial development, guided by various signaling molecules and transcription factors. The branchial arches form as protrusions that eventually fuse to form structures like the jaw and inner ear bones. The palate then forms through the fusion of the palatal processes in the primary and secondary palates.

1. BRANCHIAL ARCH AND
DEVELPOMENT OF THE PALATE
BY
AHMED REDA ABDEL-HAMEED

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Table of Contents
Table of Contents................................................................................. 1
List of figures ...................................................................................... 2
Abstract............................................................................................... 3
Introduction......................................................................................... 3
NEURAL CREST CELLS AND HEAD FORMATION........................ 5
BRANCHIAL (PHARYNGEAL) ARCHES ........................................10
Derivatives of the Branchial (Pharyngeal) Arch System....................13
FATE OF GROOVES AND POUCHES ..........................................14
ANATOMY OF AN ARCH ............................................................15
FUSION OF PROCESSES..............................................................17
FORMATION OF THE PALATE.......................................................20
FORMATION OF THE PRIMARY PALATE .................................20
FORMATION OF THE SECONDARY PALATE............................20
Conclusion..........................................................................................23
Clinical Significance ...........................................................................25
Acknowledge.........................................Error! Bookmark notdefined.
References..........................................................................................26

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List of figures
Figure1. 1The building blocks for cephalogenesis. .......................................................5
Figure1. 2Rhombomeres of Hindbrain ..........................................................................6
Figure1. 3Occiptal somites and somitomeres ................................................................7
Figure1. 4Migrating NCCs express the same homeobox (Hox) genes as their
precursors in the rhombomeres from which they derive. Note that Hox genes are not
expressed anterior to rhombomere 3. A new set of patterning genes (Otx2, Msx, Dlx,
and Barx) has evolved to bring about development of cephalic structures so that a
“Hox code” also is transferred to the branchial arches and developing face. ................9
Figure2. 1Sagittal section through a 4-week-old embryo showing the stomatodeum
delimited by the frontal prominence above and the developing cardiac bulge below.
The buccopharyngeal membrane separates the stomatodeum from the primitive gut. 10
Figure2. 2A 26-day-old embryo. A, Front view. B, Side view. The structures limiting
the stomatodeum are clearly recognizable. (Courtesy of H. Nishimura.)....................11
Figure2. 3A, Development of pharyngeal arches and the grooves between them in a
35-day-old embryo. B, Midline section showing reflection of the arches on the
pharyngeal wall and the pharyngeal pouches separating them. The dotted line (arrow)
represents the site where the buccopharyngeal membrane was. ..................................11
Figure2. 4Progressive stages in development of pharyngeal arches and their
derivatives during the second month in utero. .............................................................15
Figure2. 5Fusion of facial processes involves elimination of furrows between them.
The arrows indicate the general direction of the fusion events. Compare with...........17
Figure2. 6During palate formation, there is fusion of palatal processes, involving the
breakdown of surface epithelium. ................................................................................18
Figure2. 7A 27-day-old embryo viewed from the front. The beginning elements for
facial development and the boundaries of the stomatodeum are apparent. The first
arch gives rise to maxillary and mandibular processes. (Courtesy of H. Nishimura.) 19
figure4. 1The first three branchial arch........................................................................23
figure4. 2The last two branchial arch...........................................................................24
figure4. 3Summary of palate development.................................................................24

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Abstract
In this document we will start in the next lines using the words to start
our path for seek of getting the knowledge about the pharyngeal or
branchial arch plus the development of the palate.so we here we start
mentioning the oro-pharyngeal apparatus and to get approachpharyngeal
arch development is more complex, and more consensual, than was
previously believed.
Introduction
The oro-pharyngeal apparatus has its origin in a series of bulges that is
found on the lateral surface of the embryonic head, the pharyngeal
arches. The development of the pharyngeal arches is complex involving a
number of disparate embryonic cell types:
1. Ectoderm.
2. Endoderm.
3. Neural crest.
4. Mesoderm.
They development must be co-ordinated to generate the functional
adult apparatus. In the past, we will find that many if not most of the
studies have been done emphasised that the role done by the neural crest,
which produced the skeletal components of the arches, forming the
pharyngeal arch development, but it has also become obvious that the
other tissues like mainly the endoderm also ha a noticable role in
managing the arch development. Now with these little information we
can form a picture of how the development of the branchial arch is more
difficult or complex than was thought.
By obtaining the enough knoweldge about the genesis development of the
skull and other parts like face plus the jaws is cosidered an aid in
understanding the complex process during the cephalogenesis.
Early chordates have a fairly simple anatomic plan with:
(1) A notochord forsupport
(2) A simple nervous system and sense organs

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(2) Segmented muscle blocks.
(3) A series of branchial clefts supported by cartilage to permit gaseous
exchange.
The first vertebrates obtained from such previous plan were jawless by
another term it's agnathia. Also the Cartilaginous segments like occipital
and parachordal, developed to aid the notochord in the head area beside
the cartilaginous capsules suchas nasal, optic and otic to protectthe other
sense organs.
These cartilages collectively form the neurocranium. The branchial
arches one of our main topic here plus the palated are maintained by a
group of cartilaginous rods-shaped basically taking numbers 0, 1, 2, and
etc that form the viscerocranium. The first cartilage taking the name
cartilage 0 of the branchial arches moved to the neurocranium to give
extra supportas the trabecular cartilage. Such proccess,produceda
dilemma as the actual second arch cartilage took its name and became the
first arch cartilage.
The neurocranium and viscerocranium together form the
chondrocranium. From the previous mentioned module, the vertebrates
have an attribute or hold the jaws or we can call it gnathostomata through
alteration of the jointed first arch cartilage, with the upper element, the
palatopterygo quadrate bar, undergoing to be the upper jaw and the lower
element, Meckel’s cartilage, changing to be the lower jaw. The fibrous
connection between the two formed the jaw joint.
Not only the jaws but in addition the vertebrate evolution yet brought
about huge expansion of the head area and associated larger neural and
sensory components. Forsupplying the enough protection, dermal bones
evolved as an extra bony skeletal components to participate in formation
of the skull vault and the facial skeleton, which included bony maxilla
and bony mandible plus the teeth. So this kind of cephalic expansion
needs a type of source of new connective tissue which to be the
neuroectoderm, from which neural crest cells (NCCs) migrate and
differentiate to producethe ectomesenchyme.

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NEURAL CREST CELLS AND HEAD FORMATION
The folding of the trilaminar or what we call the three germ layers which
are the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm that had been described, and
the head fold is cosidered important till now.
The neural tube is originated by two main processes, the formation and
the fusion of the neural folds, which sink beneath surface ectoderm. The
anterior part of this neural tube extends massively as the forebrain,
midbrain, and hindbrain form, and the part related to the hindbrain (the
lower part of the brainstem, comprising the cerebellum, pons, and
medulla oblongata) produces a segment of eight bulges, the
rhombomeres.
Figure1. 1The building blocks for cephalogenesis.

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Figure1. 2Rhombomeres of Hindbrain
Lateral to it, is the paraxial mesoderm that partially segments anteriorly to
create seven somatomeres and fully segments posteriorly to form somites,
the first in the series is the occipital somites. NCCs from the midbrain and
the first two rhombomeres transform and migrate in form of streams to
aid in supplying the additional embryonic connective tissue required for
craniofacial creation.

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Figure1. 3Occiptal somites and somitomeres
The first stream gives most of the ectomesenchyme related to the face in
mean while the second stream is directed to the first arch where they
provide the development of the jaws. NCC subpopulations, being
contingent upon their anteroposterior site through the neural tube, are
subject to a unique complex temporal and spatial set of signaling process.
A plethora of molecules are to be used as cues to direct them to their final
end location within restricted regions of the head.
Their final differentiation is also tightly directed through reciprocal
signaling with adjacent ectodermal cells. The different intracellular
signaling events and crosstalk through cells at the end reach the final
stage to elicit different cellular responses like proliferation, migration,
differentiation, and survival or even apoptosis. NCCs from rhombomere 3
and beyond migrate into arches that will finally producethe pharyngeal
structures. Because homeoboxtranscription factor genes are not
expressed anterior to rhombomere 3, another different set of coded
patterning genes has been adjusted to give out the cephalic structures.

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This new set of transcription factor genes, reflecting the later
development of the head in evolutionary terms, includes orthodenticle
homeobox 2 (Otx2), muscle segment homeobox (Msx), the distal-less
homeobox (Dlx), and the BarH-like homeobox(Barx). Homeobox genes
also are entailed in dental development. Some NCC populations need to
receive orders from their regional microenvironment. The resulting
crosstalk involves common signaling pathways, such as sonic hedgehog
(Shh), fibroblast growth factor (Fgf), and bone morphogenetic proteins
(Bmp). Enzymes that regulate chromatin architecture modifying the
approachability of transcription factors to DNA also play a role in
craniofacial patterning. Environmental factors that transmit repulsive
and/or attractive signals are also instrumental in specifying the
segregation and fate of NCCs in their migration to branchial arches.
Many different secreted ligands and their membrane bound receptors
supply repulsive cues prominently in the NCC-free regions of
mesenchyme near to rhombomeres 3 and 5. Besides other contributers,
important players in this series are as following, the membrane anchored
receptors v-erb-b2 avian erythroblastic leukemia viral oncogene homolog
4 (Erbb4), ephrin plus neurolipin, beside their respective soluble ligands,
neuregulins, ephrins and semaphorins. On the other hand, directional
guidance (attraction) of NCCs into their respective arches is provided by
another elaborate set of speciesspecific molecules, such as Twist, T-box1
(Tbx1), stromal cell-derived factor 1/chemokine cxc motif receptor 4
(Sdf1b/ Cxcr4a), neuropilin 1/vascular endothelial growth factor
(Npn1/Vegf), and Fgf receptor 1 (Fgfr1). The species-specific patterning
of the head and face, especially shape and size of beak and muzzle, has
been suggested to depend on the canonical (beta-catenin-dependent)
Wntsignaling pathway which seems to be an upstream modulator of
critical effector molecules, such as Fgf8, Bmp2, and Shh present in the
fronto-nasal ectodermal zone (FEZ) center. This center is another major
determinant of species-specific patterning and outgrowth of the upper
face.
Diversity in the organization, in relation to size and position of the FEZ,
besides with the other molecules such as calmodulin, in some degree are
responsible for the various shapes encountered in nature. Planar polarity
genes are attracting much attention not only because of their role in
regulating cell polarity and morphogenesis but also because of their
implication in positioning cellular structures, and coordinating activities,
such as cell intercalation. One such structure is the cilium, which is

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located on the surface of many if not most vertebrate cells and its
function to perform a mechanical/chemical sensor. Ciliary disorder or
dysfunction is exist in some syndromes, like facial-digital syndrome and
Bardet-Biedl syndrome, which shows facial disorders plus cleft palate
and micrognatia.
Experimentally, it has been shown that a neural crest-targeted mutation of
the kif3 gene, encoding for a kinesin-like protein implicated in
ciliogenesis and intraflagellar transport, affects polarized growth and cell
shape, producing shortened mandibles and defects in the cranial base.
Figure1. 4Migrating NCCs express the same homeobox (Hox)genes as their precursors in the rhombomeres from whichthey
derive. Note that Hox genes are not expressed anterior to rhombomere 3.A new set of patterninggenes (Otx2, Msx, Dlx,and
Barx) has evolvedto bring about development of cephalic structures so that a “Hoxcode” also is transferredto the branchial
arches and developing face.

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BRANCHIAL (PHARYNGEAL) ARCHES
When the stomatodeum initially patterns, it is bounded anteriorly by the
frontal prominence and posteriorly by the forming cardiac bulge. As the
figure below illustrates.
Figure2. 1Sagittal section througha 4-week-oldembryoshowingthe stomatodeum delimitedby thefrontal prominence above
and the developingcardiacbulge below. Thebuccopharyngeal membrane separates the stomatodeum from the primitivegut.
The buccopharyngeal membrane, a bilaminar structure develoing from
apposed ectodermand endoderm, devides the stomatodeum from the the
anterior part of the gut, but this soontakes apart so that the stomatodeum
gains its own direct contact with the foregut as we see in these two
figures.

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Figure2. 2A 26-day-old embryo. A, Front view. B, Side view. The structures limiting the stomatodeum
are clearly recognizable.(Courtesy of H. Nishimura.)
Laterally the stomatodeum appears to be bounded by the first pair of
pharyngeal or branchial arches as we will see in the next below diagram.
Figure2. 3A, Development of pharyngeal arches and the grooves between them in a 35-day-old embryo.
B, Midline section showing reflection of the arches on the pharyngeal wall and the pharyngeal pouches
separating them. The dotted line (arrow) represents the site where the buccopharyngeal membrane
was.

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The branchial arches form in the pharyngeal wall as a proliferation of
mesoderm infiltrated by migrating NCCs.
Six in count cylindrical thickenings thus form except that the fifth and
sixth are considered as transient structures in human beings. They extend
from the lateral wall of the pharynx and advance their anatomic
counterparts extending from the other opposite direction. In doing so, the
arches progressively devide the primitive stomatodeum from the growing
heart. Now the arches are being seen clearly as bulges on the lateral
aspectof the embryo and are separated externally by small clefts called
branchial grooves.
Shifting to the inner aspectof the pharyngeal wall which are cosidered
corresponding small or slightly tiny depressions called pharyngeal
pouches that do as a barrier for each of the branchial arches internally.
The next table will literally summarizes the derivatives of the branchial
(pharyngeal) arch system.

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Derivatives of the Branchial(Pharyngeal) Arch System
1. Mandible and
maxilla
2. Meckel’s
cartilage:
a. Incus and
malleus of inner
ear
b.Sphenomalleolar
ligament
c.
Sphenomandibular
ligament
1. External
auditory
meatus
2. Tympanic
membrane
3. Tympanic
cavity
4. Mastoid
antrum
5. Eustachian
tube
1. Reichert’s
cartilage:
a.styloid process
of temporal bone
b. Stylohyoid
ligament
c. Lesser horns of
the hyoid bone
d. Upper part of
the body of the
hyoid bon
Obliterated by
the
downgrowth of
the second arch
1. Largely
obliterated
2. Contributes
to tonsil
1. Lower part of
the body of the
hyoid bone 2.
Greater horns of
the hyoid bone
Inferior
parathyroid
gland
Thymus
1. Cartilages of
the larynx
Superior
parathyroid
gland
Ultimobranchial
body
Transient Transient Transient
Transient Transient Transient

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FATE OF GROOVES AND POUCHES
The first groove and pouchare included in the creation of the external
auditory meatus, tympanic membrane, tympanic antrum and mastoid
antrum, plus pharyngotympanic or eustachian tube.
The second, third, and fourth grooves normally are obliterated by
overgrowth of the second arch forming a cervical sinus that sometimes
persists and opens onto the side of the neck (branchial fistula) or on the
neck and inside the pharynx (pharyngocutaneous fistula).
The second pouchis also largely obliterated by the development of the
palatine tonsil; a part persists as the tonsillar fossa.
The third pouchexpands dorsally and ventrally into two compartments,
and its connection with the pharynx is obliterated.The dorsalcomponent
becomes a base for the inferior parathyroid gland, whereas the ventral
component, with its anatomic counterpart from the opposite side, creates
the thymus gland.
The fourth pouchalso expands into dorsaland ventral components. The
dorsalcomponent becomes or contributes to the superior parathyroid
gland, and the ventral portion becomes the ultimobranchial body which
by the way produces the parafollicular cells belonged to the thyroid
gland.
The fifth pouchin human beings is rudimentary and thus disappears or
becomes incorporated into the fourth pouch.

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ANATOMY OF AN ARCH
Every branchial arch shares one identical basic plan. The inner side is
lined by endoderm and the outer surface is lined by ectoderm, the only
exception that for the first arch as it creates in front of the
buccopharyngeal membrane and therefore derives totally from
ectodermally covered surfaces.
The central core formed of mesenchyme came from lateral plate
mesoderm encroached by NCCs, described as ectomesenchyme. This
“neural-derived” mesenchyme compressed to create a bar of cartilage, the
arch cartilage, as we see below.
Figure2. 4Progressive stages in development of pharyngeal arches and their derivatives during the
second month in utero.
The cartilage of the first arch is defined as Meckel’s cartilage, and that of
the second Reichert’s, after the anatomists that were the first to describe
them. The other arch cartilages are not named. The contribution of
Meckel’s is discussed subsequently and Reichert’s cartilage gives rise to
a bony process, the stylohyoid ligament and the upper part of the body
and lesser horns of the hyoid bone.

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The cartilage of the third arch produces the lower components of the body
and greater horns of the hyoid bone and that of the fourth arch to the
cartilages of the larynx. Some of the mesenchyme surrounding this
cartilaginous bar develops into striated muscle. The first arch musculature
gives origin to the muscles of mastication, and the second arch
musculature to the muscles of facial expression. Every one of the arches
also possessesan artery and a nerve as we decribe in the next.
Innervation and Vascularization of Pharyngeal Arches
First
aortic
arch
Mandibular (and maxillary)
division of the trigeminal nerve
(cranial nerve V)
Second
aortic
arch
Facial (VII)
Third
aortic
arch
Glossopharyngeal (IX)
Fourth
aortic
arch
Vagus (X)
The nerve consists of two components, one motor (supplying the muscle
of the arch) and one sensory. The sensory nerve gives two branches: a
posttrematic branch that supplies the epithelium that masking the anterior
half of the arch, and a pretrematic branch that advances to innervate the
epithelium that spreads over the posterior half of the preceding arch.
The nerve of the first arch is the fifth cranial (or trigeminal) nerve, that of
the second is the seventh cranial (or facial) nerve, and that of the third is
the ninth cranial (or glossopharyngeal) nerve. Structures came from any
arch have the nerve supply for them of that arch. Thus the muscles of
mastication are innervated by the trigeminal nerve.

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FUSION OF PROCESSES
The first, second, and third branchial arches play an important role in the
development of the face, mouth, and tongue. Classically, the formation of
the face is described in terms of the formation and fusion of several
processes orprominences. As shown in the below figure.
Figure2. 5Fusion of facial processes involves elimination of furrows between them. The arrows indicate the
general direction of the fusion events. Compare with
This terminology may be confusing, however. In some instances these
processes are swellings of mesenchyme that cause furrows between
apparent processes,so that the ostensible fusion of processes actually
involves the elimination of a furrow. Only in certain instances, such as

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the union of the palatal processes, does actual fusion occuras seen in the
below figure.
Figure2. 6During palate formation, there is fusion of palatal processes, involving the breakdown of
surface epithelium.
With this distinction understood, the conventional term process (rather
than the more accurate terms swelling or prominence) is used to describe
the further development of the face and oral cavity. To recapitulate, the
primitive stomatodeum is at first bounded above (rostrally) by the frontal
prominence, below (caudally) by the developing heart, and laterally by
the first branchial arch. With spread of the arches midventrally, the
cardiac plate is distanced from the stomatodeum, and the floor of the
mouth is now formed by the epithelium covering the mesenchyme of the
first, second, and third branchial arches. At about day 24 of gestation, the
first branchial arch establishes another process, the maxillary process, so
that the stomatodeum is limited cranially by the frontal prominence
covering the rapidly expanding forebrain, laterally by the newly formed
maxillary process, and ventrally by the first arch (now called the
mandibular process.See the next figure.

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Figure2. 7A 27-day-old embryo viewed from the front. The beginning elements for facial development and the
boundaries of the stomatodeum are apparent. The first arch gives rise to maxillary and mandibular processes.
(Courtesy of H. Nishimura.)

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FORMATION OF THE PALATE
The palate is derived into two components as the palate has 2 parts one is
hard and is called the hard palate and the other is the soft palate ended
with the Uvula, this was a structually classification.the palate act as a
barrier that seperates the oral cavity from the nasal cavity anatomically.
The palate properdevelops from primary and secondary components.
FORMATION OF THE PRIMARY PALATE
The formation of the primary palate from the frontonasal and medial
nasal processes.
It is done by the proliferation and migration of ectomesenchyme involved
in the formation of the primitive nasal cavities.
At about day 28 of gestation, localized thickenings develop within the
ectoderm of the frontal prominence, just above the opening of the
stomatodeum. These thickenings are the olfactory placodes.
Rapid proliferation of the underlying mesenchyme around the placodes
bulges the frontal eminence forward and also produces a horseshoe-
shaped ridge. The medial arm of it is called the medial nasal process.The
merging of the two medial nasal processesalso results in the formation of
(also part of the maxilla carrying the incisor teeth) the primarypalate.
The palate formation initiated during week 5, but fusion of its component
parts is not finished till week 12.
FORMATION OF THE SECONDARYPALATE
Initially, there is a common oronasal cavity bounded anteriorly by the
primary palate and occupied mainly by the developing tongue. Only after
the development of the secondary palate is distinction between the oral
and nasal cavities possible. The formation of the secondary palate
commences between 7 and 8 weeks of gestation and completes around the
third month of gestation. Three outgrowths appear in the oral cavity; the
nasal septum grows downward from the frontonasal process along the

22. P a g e 21 | 26
midline, and two palatine shelves or processes, onefrom each side,
extend from the maxillary processes toward the midline. The shelves are
directed first downward on each side of the tongue. After 7 weeks of
development, the tongue is withdrawn from between the shelves, which
now elevate and fuse with each other above the tongue and with the
primary palate Figures.
figure3. 1Palatogenesis.Illustration ofthe developing secondary palate
The septum and the two shelves converge and fuse along the midline,
thus separating the primitive oral cavity into nasal and oral cavities. The
closure of the secondary palate proceeds gradually from the primary
palate in a posterior direction. A factor contributing to closure of the
secondarypalate is displacementof the tongue from between the palatine
shelves by the growth pattern of the head. Between 7 and 8 weeks of
gestation the tongue and mandible in the embryo are small relative to the
upper facial complex, and the lower lip is positioned behind the upper
one. For fusion of the palatine shelves to occurand fusion of any other
processes,elimination of the epithelial covering of the shelves is
necessary. As the two palatine shelves meet, adhesion of the epithelia
occurs so that the epithelium of one shelf becomes indistinguishable from

23. P a g e 22 | 26
that of the other, and a midline epithelial seam that consists of two layers
of basal epithelial cells forms.
This midline seam must be removed to permit ectomesenchymal
continuity between the fused processes. As palatal growth proceeds, the
seam first thins down and then breaks up into discrete islands of epithelial
cells.
The basal lamina surrounding these cells then is lost, and the epithelial
cells lose their epithelial characteristics and assume fibroblast-like
features. In other words, epithelial cells transform into mesenchymal
cells; that is, they undergo an epitheliomesenchymal transformation
(transition).

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Conclusion
As now with enough detailed infromation admistrated in those previous
lines we can have an enough knowledge about the branchia arch and how
the palate is developed in human beings.
So to revise most of the previous data I hope the next few figures
summerize our interesting complex topic.
figure4. 1The first three branchial arch

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figure4. 2The last two branchial arch.
figure4. 3Summaryof palate development

26. P a g e 25 | 26
Clinical Significance
Any disorder or problem in developing of the branchial arches to properly
formation will result in a myriad of physical dillema. We will aim in
point what may happen as the most common congenital craniofacial
malformations as consequences ofbranchial arch dysfunction which
belong to the first and second arch complexes.
 Facial clefting, most commonly seen as cleft lip or palate
 Auricular atresia is another disorder
 Micrognathia refers to the improper development of the mandible
leading to a hypoplastic mandible.
 Branchial cleft cysts.

27. P a g e 26 | 26
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