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Botany session 6
1.
© Copyright PCNM
2011 Botany and Pharmacognosy Session 6
2.
© Copyright PCNM
2011 Review Last week we covered: • Fruit & Seeds • Fruit Dispersal • Inhibitors
3.
© Copyright PCNM
2011 This Session During this session we will cover: Ethnobotony
4.
© Copyright PCNM
2011 Ethnobotany • The term ethnobotany comes from the Greek: ethno-cultural groups of people, - ology- the study of, and botany- the study of plants. • Ethnobotany is the scientific study of the relationships that exist between people and plants. It does not just describe the use of plants but locates plants within their cultural context in particular societies, and situates peoples within their ecological contexts. www.accessexcellence.org
5.
© Copyright PCNM
2011 Ethnobotany • Ethnobotany is a branch of ethnobiology, the study of past and present interrelationships between human cultures and the plants, animals and other organisms in their environment. It makes apparent the connection between human cultural practices and the sub-disciplines of biology. ntbg.org
6.
© Copyright PCNM
2011 Ethnobotany • The term ethnobotany was first used by the US botanist John William Harshberger in 1895 but its roots extend back at least two thousand years, to Greek, Roman and pre-Islamic sources. en.wikipedia.org
7.
© Copyright PCNM
2011 Ethnobotany • In 77AD, the Greek surgeon Dioscorides published De Materia Medica, a catalogue of approximately six hundred plants found growing in the Mediterranean region. • This illustrated herbal described the appearance, medicinal properties and other characteristics of plants used in herbal medicine. Information was included on how and when each plant was gathered, its use by the Greeks, and whether or not the plant was edible. • Dioscorides even provided recipes! He also assessed the economic potential of each plant. en.wikipedia.org De Materia Medica
8.
© Copyright PCNM
2011 Ethnobotany • The earliest known herbal was compiled by the Chinese emperor Shen Nung before 2000BC. • It is known that both the Incas of South America and the Aztecs of Mesoamerica maintained botanical gardens. Shen Nung en.wikipedia.org
9.
© Copyright PCNM
2011 Ethnobotany • Ethnobotany appears to have been neglected in the Western world during the Dark Ages, that period of time between the fall of the Roman Empire in the fifth century, and the Italian Renaissance in the fourteenth century. • The Renaissance in Europe saw a revival of interest in ethnobotany. This interest was intensified by geographic exploration, and then colonialism. www.huh.harvard.edu
10.
© Copyright PCNM
2011 Ethnobotany • Ethnobotanical writings again began to emerge. • In 1542 the Renaissance artist Leonhart Fuchs published De Historia Stirpium, a catalogue of four hundred plants native to Germany and Austria. • The Englishman, John Gerard published the Herball or Generall Histories of Plantes in 1597. It remained in print for over four hundred years. De Historia Stirpium library.missouri.edu
11.
© Copyright PCNM
2011 Ethnobotany • In 1753, the Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus, wrote Species Plantarum, with information on over 5900 plants. Linnaeus is known as the father of taxonomy as he popularised binomial nomenclature, in which all living organisms are assigned a two-part name, genus and species. Carolus Linnaeus en.wikipedia.org
12.
© Copyright PCNM
2011 Ethnobotany • The nineteenth century saw the peak of botanical exploration. Alexander von Humboldt gathered specimens and information from the ‘New World’. • Captain James Cook returned from his South Pacific voyages with many botanical specimens and information on their use. • This was the time of the establishment of major botanical gardens in Europe, including the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, in England. Captain James Cook’s voyages to the South Pacific vec.wikipedia.org
13.
© Copyright PCNM
2011 Ethnobotany • In the late nineteenth century there was increased interest in learning how different cultures used the various plants growing in their localities. This was the beginning of modern ethnobotany. • Much of the first fieldwork was conducted in the North American West, and was referred to as ‘aboriginal botany’. • During this time there as an immense amount of raw data collected, and some attempt to analyse the uses of the plants from an indigenous/local perspective ntbg.org
14.
© Copyright PCNM
2011 Ethnobotany • Famous names in ethnobotany at this time included Edward Palmer, Matilda Coxe Stevenson and Wilfred Robbins. They researched the use of indigenous plants by the inhabitants of the Great Basin region of America, and of Mexico. • Edward Palmer collected artefacts and botanical specimens from peoples in North American West, known as the Great Basin, and Mexico, from the 1860s to the 1890s. www.dailykos.com
15.
© Copyright PCNM
2011 Ethnobotany • Aboriginal botany is the study of all forms of the vegetable world which aboriginal peoples use for food, medicine, textiles, building materials, ornamentation, and for spiritual and religious uses. en.wikipedia.org www.etwa.org.au
16.
© Copyright PCNM
2011 Ethnobotany • These studies were what is now called etic studies. Etic studies are those performed by someone outside the cultural group being studied. Etic studies attempt to be culturally neutral. • Emic studies are those performed by people from within that particular culture. Emic studies and accounts are described in terms that are meaningful to the person making them. This may be deliberate but it may also occur unconsciously when someone from within a culture describes part of that culture. epicureandculture.com
17.
© Copyright PCNM
2011 Ethnobotany • These terms were coined by a linguist, Kenneth Pike, in 1954. It has been argued that etic refers to objective views from outsiders, and emic refers to subjective or insider accounts. However, Pike and some anthropologists have asserted that cultural ‘insiders’ and ‘outsiders’ are equally capable of producing emic and etic accounts of a culture. itec-edu.org
18.
© Copyright PCNM
2011 Ethnobotany • Early ethnobotanical studies were not very reliable because there was little collaboration between botanists and anthropologists. The botanists concentrated on identifying plant species and how they were used, rather than focussing on how plants fit into people’s lives. On the other hand, anthropologists were interested in the cultural role of plants but not the scientific aspect. It was not until the early twentieth century that botanists and anthropologists finally collaborated, and the collection of reliable, detailed, relevant data began. ucjeps.berkeley.edu
19.
© Copyright PCNM
2011 Ethnobotany • There was now a shift from the raw compilation of data to analyses of that data from a cultural and scientific point of view. This is academic ethnobotany, developed by Richard Evans Schultes. Schultes (1915-2001) was an American academic and researcher. He studied the Native American uses of hallucinogenic plants. kwekudee-tripdownmemorylane.blogspot.com
20.
© Copyright PCNM
2011 Ethnobotany • One of his enthnobotanical discoveries was the source of the dart poison, curare, used by South American hunters. He also alerted the world to the destruction of the Amazon rainforest and its people. • He is considered the father of modern ethnobotany but is possibly most known for his popular writings, including The Plants of the Gods: Their Sacred, Healing and Hallucinogenic Powers, written in 1979 in collaboration with Albert (Abbie) Hoffmann, the discoverer of LSD. www.youtube.com
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2011 Ethnobotany • Today, the field of ethnobotany requires a variety of skills: botanical training for the identification and preservation of plant specimens; anthropological training to understand the cultural concepts around the perception of plants; linguistic training to be able to transcribe local terms and understand native language morphology, syntax and semantics. Ethnobotany is truly multidisciplinary, encompassing not just botany, anthropology and linguistics but also archaeology, geography, medicine, pharmacology, economics, and landscape architecture.
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2011 Checkpoint!
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2011 Ethnobotany • Ethnobotanical studies have a very broad range, from archaeological investigations of the role of plants in ancient civilisations to the bioengineering of new crops. Indigenous, non- Westernised cultures play a crucial role in ethnobotany. As a result of such studies it is now widely recognised that these cultures possess much great knowledge of local ecology gained through many centuries of interaction with their living environment.
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2011 Ethnobotany • Ethnobotany is not limited to studies of non-industrialised or non-urbanised societies. With increasing urbanisation and industrialisation the relationship between plants and humans has altered, and there are many studies of plant-human relationships in the context of urbanisation and globalisation in the twentieth and twenty first centuries.www.philipnixondesign.com
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2011 Ethnobotany • The significance of ethnobotany is manifold. Studying indigenous food production may well lead to developments in sustainable agriculture. Local medicinal knowledge studies lead to the discovery of new medicines. Ethnobotany also highlights the importance of the link between biodiversity and cultural diversity, and helps develop understanding of the mutual influences, both beneficial and destructive, of plants and humans. salonedelgustoterramadre.slowfood.com
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2011 The Influence Of Human Culture • The relationship between plants and people is profound, affecting nearly every aspect of our lives. Why might plants have come to function as the material basis for human culture? • The immediate answer is very evident and encapsulated in the succinct biblical text “All flesh is grass”, Isaiah 40:6. www.south-africa-the-real-issues.org
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2011 The Influence Of Human Culture • We eat plants, or if we eat animals they or their prey have eaten plants. Their immobility makes them a more reliable source of food than animals which can move away and evade capture. • But we rely on plants for more than food. The combination of their immobility and their tremendous production of cellulose means plants are a much more efficient and reliable source of building materials for shelter. ahaplessoul.blogspot.com
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2011 The Influence Of Human Culture • Plants immobility also leads to their great biochemical diversity. Not being able to move away from predators and noxious stimuli has led to plants producing chemicals as a way of interacting with other organisms in their environment, as well as for protection from the elements. en.ria.ru
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2011 The Influence Of Human Culture • These chemicals may be anti- feedants so that insects do not kill a plant or herbivores do not eat an entire plant, or they may be antioxidants to protect against ultraviolet radiation from the sun. • Some chemicals are produced as pesticides, such as root secretions to deter soil nematodes. • Other chemicals are produced to enlist the assistance of animals such as bees and birds in achieving pollination.
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2011 The Influence Of Human Culture • Other chemicals make some fruits attractive to animals so that seed may be dispersed away from the parent plant. • Some chemicals act to prevent other plants growing very close by, thus reducing competition for water and sunlight. • Modern society still relies on chemical constituents in plants for twenty five percent of prescription drugs, and nearly all recreational chemicals, such as the caffeine in coffee, theophylline in tea and nicotine in tobacco. blacklemag.com
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2011 Branches of Ethnobotany Ethnomedicine • Ethnomedicine is a sub-field of medical anthropology that deals with the study of traditional medicines. • This includes ancient written sources which give us Traditional Chinese medicine, Traditional Tibetan Medicine and Ayurveda. • It also includes all the cultures that may not have had a written language but have passed down their knowledge and practices orally for many centuries. www.sacredearth.com
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2011 Branches of Ethnobotany • The focus for ethnomedicine may be the indigenous perception and use of traditional medicines, but drug discovery and development also rely on this type of research. • Digoxin, morphine and atropine are major pharmaceuticals which have been developed from foxglove, the opium poppy and belladonna, respectively. • More recent developments of podophyllotoxin and vinblastine as anti- cancer drugs have also occurred because of ethnomedical research. Foxglove www.realcork.org
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2011 Agriculture • Agriculture may be defined as the culturally influenced selection of plants with specific genetic characteristics that are desired by humans to create domesticated plants or crops. Ethnobotany contributes to an understanding of agriculture in two ways: • It describes and explains the many different ways the same crop can be raised, whether for economic gain, for sustained yield or for other culturally specific purposes. • It reveals ways to create genetically altered plants for human purposes. Quinoa Crop www2.cnrs.fr
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2011 Agriculture • There are many examples of the mutual influence of plants and human cultures in agriculture. One is the cane sugar industry. This developed as it did only because of the translocation of millions of Africans from their homelands to the Caribbean and the Americas. The slave trade has had enormous ramifications for the world. libcom.org
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2011 Agriculture • Another example of the mutual influence of plants and humans is the Irish potato famine in the mid-nineteenth century. • After the potato was introduced to Ireland in the latter half of the 1600s it rapidly became the staple diet. • More than one third of the Irish depended entirely on the potato for their food. The potato crop was a monoculture; all the potatoes came from one strain. • This strain was susceptible to potato blight, caused by Phytophthora infestans, an oomycete or ‘water mould’. potatonewstoday.com
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2011 Agriculture • In the 1800s this caused the total destruction of the Irish potato crop. • More than a million people died from starvation and another million emigrated to countries such as the United States of America, Canada and Australia. • The potato famine was also the rallying point for organised dissent against the English. Both the Diaspora and the fight against the English have had great impacts on world history and the make up of the modern America and Australia. disney.wikia.com
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2011 Plants in Religion and Ritual • An entheogen is a psychoactive substance, usually some plant matter with hallucinogenic effects that causes an enlightening spiritual or mystical experience. Indigenous people from most countries have employed a wide variety of entheogens. Some examples include Borrachero from the Brugsmania tree and tryptamine-containing snuff from the Tree of Knowledge, Anadenathera. These, and many other hallucinogenic substances, have been derived from plants since ancient times, and are still used today.
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2011 Folk Classification • Folk classification refers to how members of a language community name and categorise plants and animals. This type of ethnobotanical study requires an emic approach. The first person to publish a modern emic perspective of the plant world was Leopold Glueck. • Although he was German he worked as a physician in Sarajevo. His study on the traditional uses of plants by the rural people of Bosnia, published in 1896, is considered the first modern ethnobotanical work.
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2011 Archaeoethnobotany • Archaeoethnobotany, or paleoethnobotany, is the study of the ethnobotany of the ancient past. • It is closely allied to modern ethnobotany as it is difficult to understand the ecology of modern environments without considering the environmental history that often involved prehistoric human interventions. anthro.vancouver.wsu.edu
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2011 Archaeoethnobotany • The history of the domestication of the cereal grain maize, or corn, is a good example of the melding of paleo- and modern ethnobotany. It is thought that this began up to 12000 years ago, although recent archaeological evidence from the highlands near Oaxaca and from the Naquitz Cave in the Oaxaca valley date corn domestication between 6250 and 9000 years ago. commons.wikimedia.org
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2011 Ethnobotanical Publications • There are several peer-reviewed ethnobotanical journals.including the following: • Journal of Ethnobiology • Ethynobotany Research and Applications • Journal of Ethnobiology and Etyhnomedicine • Journal of Ethnopharmacology • Economic botany • Ethnobotany Research and Applications • There is also the bimonthly BLACPMA, the Boletin latinoamericano y del caribe de plantas medicinalis y aromaticas or The Latin American and Caribbean Bulletin of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants which accepts material covering a very wide range of ethnobotanical interests.
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2011 Checkpoint!
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2011 Summary Today we have covered; • Ethnobotony
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2011 Next Session We will cover: • Phytochemistry, Part I
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2011 Preparation Brief Notes • Don’t forget to log on to the LMS and download and print off your brief notes and handouts for the next session.