LCA

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Chapter 6 Life Cycle Assessment: Interpretation and
Reporting

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Outline
6.1 Introduction
6.2 LCA Interpretation according to ISO
6.3 Uncertainty and Sensitivity Analysis
6.4 Contribution Analysis
6.5 Presenting LCIA Results
6.6 Preparing the Final Report
6.7 The Review Process
6.8 Product Category Rules and Environmental Product
Additional Information

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This chapter explores the key features of LCA interpretation,
including the following:
• The use of a systematic procedure to identify, qualify, check,
evaluate and present the conclusions based on the results of an
LCA or LCI, in order to meet the requirements of the application
as described in the goal and scope of the study;
• The use of an iterative procedure both within the interpretative
phase and with the other phases of an LCA;
• Maintaining transparency throughout the interpretation phase by
clearly stating in the final report any and all preferences,
assumptions, or value choices that were used in the
assessment or in reporting.
CONTENT

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• The results from an LCA can be difficult to comprehend because of
the vast amount of data, diversity of physical units, use of value
judgments, and uncertainty in the parameters. These factors limit its
capacity to directly, and transparently, interpret information for
decision makers (Canis et al 2010, Boufateh et al 2011).
• As a result, many comparative LCA studies stop the assessment
after calculation of potential impact indicators (characterized data),
leaving the decision makers to confront multi-criteria, multi-
stakeholder problems unaided (Rogers et al 2008, Rowley and
Peters 2009).
• This can lead to confusion and bias since human cognitive ability to
process large amounts of data is limited and subject to systematic
flaws (Hertwich and Hammit 2001).
6.1 Introduction

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• LCA study is a highly iterative process, so that the LCA practitioner
may need to go back to the goal and scope after the preliminary
inventory work, to move back from impact assessment to inventory
analysis, to have a look at the interpretation in an early stage, etc.
6.1 Introduction

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LCA cannot determine if a product is “sustainable” or “environmentally
friendly”
The results can only indicate if product X is “more sustainable” or “more
environmentally friendly” than product Y, or that the use phase is the “least
sustainable” or “least environmentally friendly” part of the life cycle for product Z
6.1 Introduction

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6.2 LCA Interpretation according to ISO
• Phase of LCA in which the findings of either the LCI (LC Inventory
analysis) or LCIA (LC the impact assessment), or both, are evaluated
in relation to the defined goal and scope in order to reach
conclusions and recommendations.
• The standard defines two objectives of life cycle interpretation:
• Analyze results, reach conclusions, explain limitations, and
provide recommendations based on the findings of the
preceding phases of the LCA, and to report the results of the life
cycle interpretation in a transparent manner.
• Provide a readily understandable, complete, and consistent
presentation of the results of an LCA study, in accordance with
the goal and scope of the study.

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An evaluation that considers:
 Completeness check- to ensure that all relevant information and data are available
and complete
 Sensitivity analysis - to assess the reliability of the final results and conclusions
 Consistency check - to determine whether the assumptions, methods and data are
consistent with the goal and scope;
If The uncertainties are too high, then those steps must be repeated until the results can
support the original goals of the study.
6.2 LCA Interpretation according to ISO
The same applies to most
guidebooks on LCA. They
mention carrying out an
uncertainty analysis, but
give no clear guidance on how
this should be done.

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ISO 14040 describes that Potential sources of uncertainty include:
• The data source itself (random or systematic error in measurement
and
• sampling or natural variability),
• Any assumptions and/or calculation use to manipulate data, and
Aggregating very different data sources or values.
6.3 Uncertainty and Sensitivity Analysis
Sensitivity analysis can be used to indicate which parameters are most
important to the analysis. Both sensitivity analysis and uncertainty
analysis
are useful in determining where data quality resources should be
directed
or redirected. sources or values.

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1. Uncertainty Analysis
2. Uncertainty in Impact models
3. Sensitivity Analysis
4. Monte Carlo Simulation
6.3 Uncertainty and Sensitivity Analysis
Sensitivity analysis can be used to indicate which parameters are most
important to the analysis. Both sensitivity analysis and uncertainty
analysis
are useful in determining where data quality resources should be
directed
or redirected. sources or values.

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6.3 Uncertainty and Sensitivity Analysis

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• Due to the uncertainty with inventory and impact data, it may not be
possible to state that one alternative is better than the others
because of the uncertainty in the final results
6.3.1 Uncertainty Analysis

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• In cases where the choice of methodology has a strong influence
on the study results and conclusions, the practitioner should justify
the reasons for the methodology chosen, and a sensitivity analysis
should be conducted to see if an alternative methodological choice
produces similar or different results and conclusions.
• For example, because of the many uncertainties surrounding
biomass decomposition in landfills, it is advisable to conduct
sensitivity analyses on the carbon storage and releases associated
with landfilled biomass products.
• Typical environmental and human health impact models, such as
those used in risk assessment, are based on exposure and effect
(that is,where the substance goes once it is emitted to the
environment, who is exposed to the substance and how much, and
how toxic the substance is). Effects on human health are based on
data developed in toxicological studies where safety factor are set
to determine acceptable daily intake.
6.3.2 Uncertainty in Impact Models

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Sensitivity analysis is done by systematically changing an input parameter and
observing the impact on the results. It may be useful in the following situations:
• The analyst does not have a high degree of confidence in an important data
source,
• The production system being assessed is highly variable, or Data for a particular
element are missing or deficient (EPA 1995).
The
6.3.3 Sensitivity Analysis

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Monte Carlo simulation is a widely used method to perform uncertainty and
sensitivity analysis. It uses statistical sampling techniques to approximate the
probability of certain outcomes by running multiple trial runs, called simulations,
using random variables. Many commercial LCA programs now offer Monte Carlo
analysis.
6.3.4 Monte Carlo Simulation

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6.4 Contribution Analysis

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6.5 Presenting LCIA Results
Usually, to present LCA results, bar charts and spider charts are used

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v
6.5 Presenting LCIA Results

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6.6 Preparing the Final Report
The report presents the results, data, methods, assumptions, and limitations in
sufficient detail to allow the reader to comprehend the complexities and trade-offs
inherent in the LCA study.
Chapter 6 Life Cycle Assessment: Interpretation and
Reporting
The reference document should consist of the following elements (ISO 1997):
1. Administrative Information
a. Name and address of LCA practitioner (who conducted the LCA study)
b. Date of report
c. Other contact information or release information
2. Definition of Goal and Scope
3. Life Cycle Inventory Analysis (data collection and calculation procedures)
4. Life Cycle Impact Assessment (methodology and results of the impact assessment
that was performed)
5. Life Cycle Interpretation
a. Results
b. Assumptions and limitations
c. Data quality assessment (including findings of uncertainty and sensitivity)
6. Critical Review (internal and external)
a. Name and affiliation of reviewers
b. Critical review reports
c. Responses to recommendations

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6.7 The Review Process
ISO 14044 (2006) specifically identifies five requirements in the critical review process
Clause 6.1 General
The critical review process shall ensure that:
– the methods used to carry out the LCA are consistent with this international standard;
– the methods used to carry out the LCA are scientifically and technically valid;
– the data used are appropriate and reasonable in relation to the goal of the study;
– the interpretations reflect the limitations identified and the goal of the study;
– the study report is transparent and consistent.
Figure 6.7 Timing the Peer Review
Chapter 6 Life Cycle Assessment: Interpretation and
Reporting

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6.8 Product Category Rules and Environmental Product Declarations
A classification system for voluntary labels has been presented in the ISO 14020
series categorizing environmental product and service claims as Type I (third party
certified, specifics in ISO 14024), Type II (self-declared, specifics in ISO 14021), and
Type III (third party based on LCA, specifics in ISO 14025).
Of these ecolabeling types, Type III, also known as Environmental Product
Declarations, are the most closely tied to the LCA methodology.
o Type I, Type II, and Type III claims and their respective relationship with life cycle
assessment;
o Product Category Rules & Environmental Product Declarations;
o PCRs in Carbon Footprinting and Product Index development; and
o “Other relevant environmental information” within PCRs informed by other
assessment methods including: Water Footprinting, Toxicity Assessment and
Ecosystem Services Assessment.
Chapter 6 Life Cycle Assessment: Interpretation and
Reporting

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6.8 Product Category Rules and Environmental Product Declarations
1. Type III Environmental
Product Declarations
2. An EPD is a Document
3. An EPD is Primarily
Based on LCA
4. An EPD is Developed by
Following a “Product
Category
Rule”
5. An EPD can contain other
Relevant Information beyond
the LCA
6. Further Information on
EPDs and PCRs
ISO 14025 (ISO 2006c) describes a Type III Environmental Product Declaration (EPD)
as a document which indicates the environmental performance of a specific product,
providing quantified environmental data developed using the LCA methodology set
forth in ISO 14040 and 14044 and a predetermined set of rules for the assessment
called “Product Category Rules” and, where relevant, additional environmental
information (e.g., toxicity in the use phase)
EPDs are described as nutrition labels including environmental information, however
it should be noted that solely a multi-attribute label expressing the life cycle impacts
assessment results for a product would not meet all of the required documentation
outlined in the ISO standard for an EPD
ISO 14025 specifically lists the ISO 14040 series as the basis for data and inventory
analysis supporting the development of an EPD and its supporting PCR
PCRs provide guidance on those areas of the LCA standards that are more nebulous
and tend to change depending on the goal and scope of the study. This guidance
includes: the determination of the functional unit, allocation rules, recommended
data sources, impact assessment methods, and additional relevant environmental
information that should be included to address environmental concerns
EPD’s should, by design, provide accurate quantification of environmental attributes
of products, communication of these attributes in a standardized and transparent
fashion, and permit comparison of one product to another with an EPD in the same
product category
Chapter 6 Life Cycle Assessment: Interpretation and
Reporting
EPDs can also include information that is not strictly specified in ISO 14025, but
referred to as “other relevant environmental information

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Additional Information
o The white 1-litre PET bottle is a
modern remake of the glass bottle
(used in Italy until the seventies); the
new container was designed with a
view to combining the value of
tradition with respect for the
environment and the need for a more
practical container.
o In relation to the handling of PET
bottles at the end of their life, it
should be pointed out that the
environmental impacts depend mainly
on the behavior of the end user and
the local availability of efficient
separate waste collection services;
o According to the statistics, on average,
PET waste in Italy is disposed of as
follows:
1. Recycling: 41%;
2. Waste to energy systems 30%.
3. Delivery to dump: 29%;
o There are two ways of recycling PET: it
can be transformed into secondary raw
material or it can be converted into
energy
Chapter 6 Life Cycle Assessment: Interpretation and
Reporting

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