Atomic Models Through History

MATTER STRUCTURE &
PHYSICAL & CHEMICAL
CHANGES, PROPERTIES,
AND CHANGES
7oB (Vermont School)

By:
Santiago Sanguino
Juan Feipe Rico García
Pedro José García
Daniel Ospina Montoya

ATOM HISTORY &
MODEL
By:
Daniel Ospina

Introduction
• An atom is the smallest particle of any element that still
retains the characteristics of that element. Atom comes
from the Greek, A (that means without) and Tom (that
means division). However, atoms consist of even smaller
particles. Atoms consist of a central, dense nucleus that is
surrounded by one or more lightweight negatively charged
particles called electrons (symbol -). The nucleus is made
up of positively charged particles called protons and
neutrons which are neutral (symbol o). An atom is held
together by forces of attraction between the electrons and
the protons, that are positive (symbol +).

• The neutrons help to hold the protons together. Protons
and neutrons are believed to be made up of even smaller
particles called quarks. We will limit our discussions to
protons, neutrons and electrons.
• During story there have been many scientists that
developed different atom models.

Bohr´s Model
• Bohr was a Danish • Bohr´s Model
scientist who
introduced the model
of an atom in 1913.
Bohr's model consists
of a central nucleus
surrounded by tiny
particles called
electrons that are
orbiting the nucleus in
a cloud.

• The Bohr model was
based on his
observations of the
atomic emissions
spectrum of the
hydrogen atom. When
white light is diffracted
with a prism, all the
colors of the visible
spectrum can be seen.

• This led Bohr to theorize
that electrons only have
certain energies in an
atom and they had to be
in energy levels. Bohr
found the energy of the
colors of light that the
hydrogen atom released.
He used these energies
to find the energies that
the single electron in the
hydrogen atom have.

• Bohr said that the
electron had to release
energy to change, so
the differences
between the energies
of light seen in the
atomic spectrum
should correspond to
the differences in
energies of the energy
levels.

Rutherford
• Rutherford´s
experiment and atomic
model tested
Thomson's hypothesis
by devising his "gold
foil" experiment.
Rutherford reasoned
that if Thomson's
model was correct
then the mass of the
atom was spread out
throughout the atom.

• As expected, most alpha
particles went right through
the gold foil but to his
amazement a few alpha
particles rebounded almost
directly backwards. These
deflections were not
consistent with Thomson's
model. “Rutherford was
forced to discard the Plum
Pudding model and
reasoned that the only way
the alpha particles could
be deflected backwards
was if most of the mass in
an atom was concentrated
in a nucleus”.

• With these results he
developed the planetary
model of the atom which
put all the protons in the
nucleus and the electrons
orbited around the nucleus
like planets around the
sun. Rutherford´s
experiment gave an atomic
model similar to Bohr´s, as
both refer to a “solar
system”, the sun is the
protons and neutrons
attached together, and the
electrons orbit around
them as the planets.

J.J Thomson
• Rutherford´s atomic model
leads us to J.J Thomson. It is
also known as the Chocolate
Chip Cookie or Blueberry
Muffin Model. You can easily
picture it by imagining the
said goodies. For example,
you can imagine a plum
pudding wherein the pudding
itself is positively charged
and the plums, dotting the
dough, are the negatively
charged electrons. For
Thomson’s atomic theory
model he was awarded noble
prize in 1906 and he died in
the year 1940.

• Thomson discovered electron
by the cathode ray tube. It
has been previously seen
that if an electric current is
passed through a vacuum
tube, a steam of glowing
material was formed.
Thomson found that the
mysterious glowing stream
would bend toward a
positively charged electric
plate. Thomson atomic
theory proved that the stream
is made up of small particles
which is piece of the atom
and is negatively charged.
Thomson named these
particles as electrons.

Schrödinger
• In 1926 Erwin Schrödinger,
an Austrian physicist, took
the Bohr atom model and
“take it further”. Schrödinger
used mathematical equations
to describe the likely finding
of an electron in a certain
position. This atomic model is
known as the quantum
mechanical model of the
atom. Unlike the Bohr model,
the quantum mechanical
model does not shows the
exact path of an electron, on
the other hand, it predicts the
odds of the location of the
electron.

• This model can be • Quantum mechanical model
portrayed as a nucleus
surrounded by an
electron cloud. Where
the cloud is most dense,
the probability of finding
the electron is greatest,
and vice versa, the
electron is less likely to
be in a less dense area
of the cloud. “Thus, this
model introduced the
concept of sub-energy
levels”.

Chadwick
• Until 1932, the atom was
believed to be composed of a
positively charged nucleus
surrounded by negatively
charged particles, the
electrons. In 1932, James
Chadwick bombarded beryllium
atoms with alpha particles. An
unknown radiation was
produced. Chadwick interpreted
this radiation as being
composed of particles with a
neutral electrical charge and
the approximate mass of a
proton. This particle became
known as the neutron. With the
discovery of the neutron, an
adequate model of the atom
became available to chemists.

References:
• http://scienceblogs.com/dotphysics/2009/09/04/the-
development-of-the-atomic-model/
• http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/quantumzone/bohr.html
• http://www.broadeducation.com/htmlDemos/AbsorbChem/Histo
ryAtom/page.htm
• http://www.iun.edu/~cpanhd/C101webnotes/modern-atomic-
theory/rutherford-model.html
• http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_WI2zSLl2Z_4/TQdbE0K6rHI/AAAAA
AAAABA/CAD5aDQAuhA/s320/400px-ChadwicksModel.png
• http://ansnuclearcafe.org/2011/10/19/pioneers102011/
• https://encrypted-
tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSqP3IU0Ch6H-
xb4HJ_YxMRrrvwQ7LAszXiqHvqgXY9YUmgz2uZ_A
• http://www.iun.edu/~cpanhd/C101webnotes/modern-atomic-
theory/images/Rutherford-atom.jpg

PHYSICAL AND
CHEMICAL
PROPERTIES
By:
Santiago Sanguino

Physical properties
• is a characteristic of a substance that does not involve a
chemical change, such as density, color, or hardness.

Chemical properties
• is a property of matter that describes a substance's ability
to participate in chemical reactions.

iron
• The ability of the iron kneel to be band is a physical
property called malleability the rusting of iron is a
chemical change iron reactivity with oxygen to form rust is
a chemical property.

Red food color
• The food color on this water is red, color is a physical
property and in bleach solution changes the chemical
composition of the die and it is no longer red. The abily of
bleach to make other substances decolorate is a chemical
properties.

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL
PROCESS AND THEIR
DEFINITION
BY:
PEDRO JOSÉ GARCÍA ROMERO,

PHYSICAL PROCESSESS
• DISTILLATION
• DECANTATION
• CONDENSATION
• EVAPORATION
• FILTRATION

DISTILLATION
DEFINITION APPARATUS
The liquid you are distilling goes into one
• Distillation, process used to beaker, along with a boiling chip. This beaker
separate the substances sits on the hot plate, since this is the liquid you
will be heating. Insert a short length of glass
composing a mixture. It tubing into a stopper. Connect it to one end of
involves a change of state, as a length of plastic tubing. Connect the other
end of the plastic tubing to a short length of
of liquid to gas, and glass tubing inserted into the other stopper.
The distilled fluid will pass through this tubing
subsequent condensation. to the second flask. Insert a short length of
The process was probably first glass tubing into the stopper for the second
flask. It is open to the air to prevent pressure
used in the production of buildup inside the apparatus. Place the
receiving flask in a large container filled with
intoxicating beverages. Today, ice water. Vapor passing through the plastic
refined methods of distillation tubing will condense immediately when it
comes into contact with the cooler air of the
are used in many industries, receiving flask. It's a good idea to clamp down
both flasks to help keep them from tipping over
including the alcohol and by accident.
petroleum industries.

DECANTATION
A decantation apparatus comprises a
• Decantation is a process horizontally elongated vessel having a top
used to separate a mixture. section and a bottom section and being
arranged to be filled to a predetermined level of
It usually involves removing the top section. Feed means feeds the
suspension into the vessel. A distributor chamber
the liquid portion of a extends lengthwise of the vessel substantially
coextensive within the top section and receives
substance while leaving the suspension from the feed means. An
elongated loading well extends lengthwise of the
behind the sediment. This distributor chamber below the same and
process is used in a variety substantially coextensive therewith. It
communicates with the distributor chamber and
of instances. Red wine is a projects downwardly into the bottom section. A
pair of outlet channels extends lengthwise of the
common example of a loading well at opposite lateral sides thereof at
the level of the suspension. Discharge means is
substance that is decanted. provided in the bottom section extending
lengthwise of the vessel at least substantially
Wastewater may also be coextensive therewith for discharging the solid
processed using this component of the suspension which has settled
in the bottom section.
method.

CONDENSATION
• Condensation is the phase The invention provides an
change of water vapor into a apparatus for increasing the size of
liquid. During the condensation gas-entrained particles in order to
process, water molecules lose the render the gas-entrained particles
600 cal/gm of latent heat that detectable by a particle detector,
were added during the the apparatus comprising an
evaporation process. When latent evaporation chamber (2) and a
heat is released it is converted condenser (7); the apparatus is
into sensible heat which warms configured so that vapors-laden gas
the surrounding air. Warming the from the evaporation chamber can
flow into the condenser and
air increases its buoyancy and condensation of the vaporizable
fuels the development of storms. substance onto gas-entrained
Condensation takes place in the particles in the condenser takes
presence of condensation nuclei place to increase the size of the
and when the air is nearly particles so that they are capable of
saturated. being detected by a particle
detector.

EVAPORATION
• Evaporation is a thermal separation Provided is an evaporation
process, widely used for concentration of apparatus which reduces
liquids in the form of solutions, deformation of a mask, improves
suspensions, and emulsions. adhesion between a substrate and
Concentration is accomplished by boiling
out a solvent, normally water, from the an evaporation mask, and improves
liquid. In most cases, concentrate accuracy of dividing a region on
resulting from the evaporation process is which a film is to be formed and a
the final product. Sometimes, however, region on which the film is not to be
the evaporated, volatile component is formed. The evaporation apparatus
also a main product, as, for example, includes a pressing mechanism for
during solvent recovery. Evaporation pressing a film forming substrate
processes fall into two general disposed on an evaporation mask
categories: including a magnetic material
-Film type evaporation. against the evaporation mask. The
-Suppressed boiling type evaporation. pressing mechanism includes a
magnet for attracting the mask
toward at least a corner portion of
the film forming substrate.

FILTRATION
• The process of filtration involves A filtration apparatus 10, includes: a filter
the flow of water through a body 4 formed by spirally winding a
granular bed, of sand or another sheet-shaped member; and a filtration
tank 1 through which water to be treated
suitable media, at a low speed. is passed, and into which the filter body 4
The media retains most solid is charged such that the axis of the filter
matter while permitting the water body 4 extends along the direction of
to pass. The process of filtration water passage, wherein the sheet-
is usually repeated to ensure shaped member is composed of a sheet-
shaped mesh sheet 5 having holes
adequate removal of unwanted through which the water to be treated
particles in the water (Ramstorp, passes, and a sheet-shaped spacer 6
2003). This type of slow filtration through which the water to be treated
over a granular bed is generally passes with difficulty as compared with
known as slow sand filtration. It is the mesh sheet 5, the sheet surfaces of
the oldest method of filtration but the mesh sheet 5 and the spacer 6 being
superposed on each other.
still widely used in municipal
water treatment plants today.

CHEMICAL PROCESS
• BURNING COMBUSTION
• OXIDATION CORROSION
• FERMENTATION
• REDUCTION
• IONIZATION
• CATALYSIS
• ELECTROLYSIS

BURNING CONBUSTION
A method of operating a combustion
• Combustion or burning is the apparatus such as an internal combustion
sequence of exothermic engine is described, in which the apparatus
includes at least one combustion chamber
chemical reactions between a with an inlet port for primary combustion air,
fuel and an oxidant an apparatus to introduce into the
combustion chamber primary fuel for
accompanied by the combustion with the primary air, an exhaust
port for combustion products, and an exhaust
production of heat and system for exhausting the combustion
conversion of chemical products to atmosphere, the method
including introducing into the exhaust system
species. The release of heat secondary air, mechanically acting upon the
secondary air and products of combustion in
can produce light in the form of the exhaust system in the presence of a
either glowing or a flame. catalyst, to produce a reformed fuel,
introducing the reformed fuel into the
Fuels of interest often include combustion chamber for combustion with
primary fuel and primary air.
organic compounds (especially
hydrocarbons) in the gas,
liquid or solid phase.

OXIDATION CORROSION
• A process in which oxygen is An oxidation apparatus is
caused to combine with other described which continuously
molecules. The oxygen may records the volume of oxygen
be used as elemental oxygen, absorbed by a sample of oil, in a
as in air, or in the form of an closed system, maintained at
constant temperature and
oxygen-containing molecule pressure. The apparatus is
which is capable of giving up automated through the use of a
all or part of its oxygen. specially devised liquid level probe
Oxidation in its broadest and other ancillary equipment such
sense, that is, an increase in as recorders, timers, and
positive valence or removal of temperature controllers. The
electrons, is not considered apparatus can be used to compare
here if oxygen itself is not the relative oxidation stability of
involved. See also Oxidation- various lubricants over a wide
reduction. range of operating conditions.

FERMENTATION
• Fermentation is a process used The practice of fermentation is
to produce wine, beer, yogurt and a vital process in the industry.
other products. Here's a look at Although fermentation can
the chemical process that occurs have more precise definitions,
during fermentation. when talking about Industrial
Fermentation is a metabolic fermentation, it is a looser term
process in which an organism referring to the breakdown of
converts a carbohydrate, such as organic materials into simpler
starch or a sugar, into an alcohol materials. Kind of a paradox in
or an acid. For example, yeast itself, fermenting culture in the
performs fermentation to obtain industry usually refers to a
energy by converting sugar into highly oxygenated growth
alcohol. Bacteria perform state, whereas fermentation,
fermentation, converting bio chemically speaking, it is
carbohydrates into lactic acid. only an anaerobic procedure.

REDUCTION
The majority of femur fractures are closed fractures in
the mid-third of the femoral shaft. A very well-known
• The chemical process of fixation technique is the one using an intramedullary pin,
which is inserted from the hip side. Open reduction of
reduction is any process in the fracture is mostly applied but the majority, between
85 and 93%, of the fractures are closed and therefore a
which electrons are added more logical and safer technique would be closed
reduction. However, this technique, also called blind-
to an atom or ion (as by nailing, is more difficult. Besides an x-ray scanner with a
monitor it also requires experience of the surgeon and
removing oxygen or adding some special tools to supply the necessary reduction
forces to the proximal and distal parts of the femur. This
hydrogen); always occurs publication describes a new designed reduction
apparatus (1) that primarily simplifies blind-reduction of
accompanied by oxidation of femur fractures, but can also be used for any other
operation technique where a good grip on bones has to
the reducing agent. To allow be provided with a minimum of tissue damage. The
apparatus is designed to be used with standard
a sauce or stock to simmer Kirschner-wires and is easy to apply in combination with
the existing operation techniques, and does not require
without a lid on. This makes special skill.
it thicker. This is another
answer for cooking.

IONIZATION
A sampling nozzle 21, an ion supply
• As penetrating radiation tube 31 leading to an analysis
apparatus 50 and a barrier
moves from point to point in discharge tube 11 are connected to
matter, it loses its energy first, second and third ends,
through various interactions respectively, of a T-shaped tube 41
with the atoms it encounters. having three connecting ports, and
The rate at which this the central portion of the T-shaped
tube is an ionization chamber SP.
energy loss occurs depends The ionization chamber SP is a
upon the type and energy of closed space, and ions generated
the radiation and the density therein are introduced to the
and atomic composition of analysis apparatus 50 through the
ion supply tube 31. As a result,
the matter through which it almost all of the ions are introduced
is passing. into the interior of the analysis
apparatus.

CATALYSIS
• A catalyst makes a reaction A catalyst-testing apparatus includes a heater, a
U-shaped reactor, a gas flow controller, a liquid
happen. In a process known as flow controller, two pressure gauges, a separator
catalysis, a relatively small and a chromatograph. In use, under control of
amount of foreign material, called the gas flow controller, natural gas and air are
directed to the U-shaped reactor. Under control
a catalyst, augments the rate of a of the liquid flow controller, pure water is directed
chemical reaction without being to the U-shaped reactor. The pure water travels
consumed in the reaction. A down the wall of the U-shaped reactor. The pure
water is heated and turned into steam in a front
catalyst can make a reaction go section of the U-shaped reactor. Together with
faster and in a more selective the natural gas and the air, the steam is directed
manner. Because of its ability to to a catalyst zone in the U-shaped reactor for
reaction. With the chromatograph, volumes and
speed up some reactions and not compositions of resultant gases are analyzed.
others, a catalyst enables a Thus, the stability of the performance of the
chemical process to work more catalyst is tested, and the performance of the
catalyst for producing hydrogen by is revealed.
efficiently and often with less
waste. Hence, catalysts are
important in industrial chemistry.

ELECTROLYSIS
• An electrolytic process is the use of An electrolysis apparatus is disclosed and
electrolysis industrially to refine metals comprises a plurality of cells connected in
or compounds at a high purity and low series both on the current flow path (an
cost. Some examples are the Hall- electrical course being connected across the
end ones of the electrodes) and the
Héroult process used for aluminums, or electrolyte/gas flow path (electrolyte entering
the production of hydrogen from water. one end cell through one end electrode and
Electrolysis is usually done in bulk using gas issuing from the other end cell through
hundreds of sheets of metal connected the other end electrode), the cells including at
to an electric power source. In the least one series of gas generating cells
production of copper, these pure sheets followed by at least one cooling cell. The end
of copper are used as starter material electrodes of a series of cells may be short
circuited so that these cells become cooling
for the cathodes, and are then lowered cells because they are not active to generate
into a solution such as copper sulfate gas and instead the electrolyte and gas
with the large anodes that are cast from flowing through them undergoes cooling. The
impure (97% pure) copper. The copper apparatus may be arranged for generating
from the anodes are electroplated on to detonating gas or may be modified for
the cathodes, while any impurities settle generating oxygen and hydrogen at separate
to the bottom of the tank. This forms outlets.
cathodes of 99.999% pure copper.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
• http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Distillation+Processes
• http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-decantation.htm
• http://www4.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/ritter/geog101/textbook/atmospheric_moisture/conde
nsation_process.html
• http://www.niroinc.com/news_archives/evaporation_process_principles.asp
• http://www.historyofwaterfilters.com/filtration-process.html
• https://fp.auburn.edu/fire/combustion.htm
• http://www.answers.com/topic/oxidation-process
• http://chemistry.about.com/od/lecturenoteslab1/f/What-Is-Fermentation.htm
• http://www.scienceclarified.com/Oi-Ph/Oxidation-Reduction-Reaction.html
• http://www.ndted.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Radiography/Physics/Io
nization.htm
• http://portal.acs.org/portal/acs/corg/content?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=PP_ARTICLEMA
IN&node_id=1188&content_id=CTP_003378&use_sec=true&sec_url_var=region1&__u
uid=b8cdd7f8-b28b-43e7-83df-874f0cba22c4
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytic_process
• http://chemistry.about.com/od/chemistrylab/ss/How-To-Set-Up-Distillation-
Apparatus.htm
• http://www.faqs.org/patents/app/20110239941#b

CHEMICAL &
PHYSICAL PROCESS
MEDICAL &
INDUSTRIAL USES.
By:
Juan Felipe Rico

• We an use destillation destiling water,
• We can use decantation when we boild the tea bags.
• We can use condensation involving union between
molecules often with elimination of a simple molecule (as
water) to form a new more complex compound of often
greater molecular weight.
• We can use evaporation in Just one example of
evaporative cooling would be the cooling of condensers
beneath steam turbines.
• We can use filtration because Some people have special
electro-static air filters that remove very fine particles such
as pollen from the air.
• We can use combustion in gas turbines in industries.

• We can use corrosion in methods like this: Nearly all metals,
with the exception of gold and platinum, will corrode in an oxide
environment forming compounds such as oxides, hydroxides
and sulphides.
• We can use fermentation fermenting alcohol in medicine.
• We can use reduction in: To avoid fever-reducing medications
like acetaminophen or ibuprofen – or when you just don't have
any handy – you can try a non-medical approach to lowering
your child's fever.
• We can use ionization when we ionization radiation in the
medical scanners machines.
• We can use catalysis in A simple example is the catalytic
converter in all newer motor cars. These reduce emissions of
nitrogen oxide (cause of acid rain; it reacts with water to form
dilute nitric acid), unburned hydrocarbons (which form ozone -
toxic at ground level) and carbon monoxide (CO - again a toxic
gas).
• We can use electrolysis in Production of aluminum, lithium,
sodium, potassium, magnesium.

References:
• http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Where_do_you_use_filtration_in_your_every_day_life
• http://www.google.com.co/#hl=es-
419&q=how+we+can+use+burning+combustion+in+industry&oq=how+we+can+u
se+burning+combustion+in+industry&gs_l=serp.3...3631.9037.0.9366.22.19.3.0.0
.0.286.2175.9j9j1.19.0...0.0...1c.1.5.serp.xgRGx8E2rKQ&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.&
fp=c660f8bd406c4a8d&biw=1241&bih=606
• http://hbmag.com/distilled-water-your-purest-choice/
• http://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20080802172957AAhLJxt
• http://www.merriam-webster.com/medical/condensation
• http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_are_some_of_the_industrial_applications_of_eva
poration
• http://nzic.org.nz/ChemProcesses/metals/8J.pdf
• http://www.babycenter.com/404_how-can-i-reduce-my-childs-fever-without-using-
medicine_10338495.bc
• http://infohost.nmt.edu/~jaltig/Distillation.pdf
• http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1464228-overview
• http://espanol.answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20080828140607AAKUhbI
• http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_ways_can_electrolysis_be_used_in_industry

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