Measurement involves comparing an unknown quantity (measurand) to a standard unit of measurement. There are direct and indirect methods of measurement. Direct methods directly compare the measurand to a standard, while indirect methods use measurement systems that require an indirect method. Measurement systems have elements like primary sensing elements, variable conversion elements, and data presentation elements. Instruments are classified based on their static and dynamic characteristics like accuracy, sensitivity, speed of response, and errors. Calibration involves comparing an instrument to a known standard to determine errors and accuracy. Standards can be primary, secondary, or working standards of a known physical quantity.
EXPERT SYSTEMS AND SOLUTIONS
Project Center For Research in Power Electronics and Power Systems
IEEE 2010 , IEEE 2011 BASED PROJECTS FOR FINAL YEAR STUDENTS OF B.E
Email: expertsyssol@gmail.com,
Cell: +919952749533, +918608603634
www.researchprojects.info
OMR, CHENNAI
IEEE based Projects For
Final year students of B.E in
EEE, ECE, EIE,CSE
M.E (Power Systems)
M.E (Applied Electronics)
M.E (Power Electronics)
Ph.D Electrical and Electronics.
Training
Students can assemble their hardware in our Research labs. Experts will be guiding the projects.
EXPERT GUIDANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS POWER ELECTRONICS
We provide guidance and codes for the for the following power systems areas.
1. Deregulated Systems,
2. Wind power Generation and Grid connection
3. Unit commitment
4. Economic Dispatch using AI methods
5. Voltage stability
6. FLC Control
7. Transformer Fault Identifications
8. SCADA - Power system Automation
we provide guidance and codes for the for the following power Electronics areas.
1. Three phase inverter and converters
2. Buck Boost Converter
3. Matrix Converter
4. Inverter and converter topologies
5. Fuzzy based control of Electric Drives.
6. Optimal design of Electrical Machines
7. BLDC and SR motor Drives
EXPERT SYSTEMS AND SOLUTIONS
Project Center For Research in Power Electronics and Power Systems
IEEE 2010 , IEEE 2011 BASED PROJECTS FOR FINAL YEAR STUDENTS OF B.E
Email: expertsyssol@gmail.com,
Cell: +919952749533, +918608603634
www.researchprojects.info
OMR, CHENNAI
IEEE based Projects For
Final year students of B.E in
EEE, ECE, EIE,CSE
M.E (Power Systems)
M.E (Applied Electronics)
M.E (Power Electronics)
Ph.D Electrical and Electronics.
Training
Students can assemble their hardware in our Research labs. Experts will be guiding the projects.
EXPERT GUIDANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS POWER ELECTRONICS
We provide guidance and codes for the for the following power systems areas.
1. Deregulated Systems,
2. Wind power Generation and Grid connection
3. Unit commitment
4. Economic Dispatch using AI methods
5. Voltage stability
6. FLC Control
7. Transformer Fault Identifications
8. SCADA - Power system Automation
we provide guidance and codes for the for the following power Electronics areas.
1. Three phase inverter and converters
2. Buck Boost Converter
3. Matrix Converter
4. Inverter and converter topologies
5. Fuzzy based control of Electric Drives.
6. Optimal design of Electrical Machines
7. BLDC and SR motor Drives
This slide comprises a very rudimentary introduction of Industrial Instrumentation.
These slides may help students understand the aspects the Industrial Instrumentation.
This slide comprises a very rudimentary introduction of Industrial Instrumentation.
These slides may help students understand the aspects the Industrial Instrumentation.
Water scarcity is the lack of fresh water resources to meet the standard water demand. There are two type of water scarcity. One is physical. The other is economic water scarcity.
NO1 Uk best vashikaran specialist in delhi vashikaran baba near me online vas...Amil Baba Dawood bangali
Contact with Dawood Bhai Just call on +92322-6382012 and we'll help you. We'll solve all your problems within 12 to 24 hours and with 101% guarantee and with astrology systematic. If you want to take any personal or professional advice then also you can call us on +92322-6382012 , ONLINE LOVE PROBLEM & Other all types of Daily Life Problem's.Then CALL or WHATSAPP us on +92322-6382012 and Get all these problems solutions here by Amil Baba DAWOOD BANGALI
#vashikaranspecialist #astrologer #palmistry #amliyaat #taweez #manpasandshadi #horoscope #spiritual #lovelife #lovespell #marriagespell#aamilbabainpakistan #amilbabainkarachi #powerfullblackmagicspell #kalajadumantarspecialist #realamilbaba #AmilbabainPakistan #astrologerincanada #astrologerindubai #lovespellsmaster #kalajaduspecialist #lovespellsthatwork #aamilbabainlahore#blackmagicformarriage #aamilbaba #kalajadu #kalailam #taweez #wazifaexpert #jadumantar #vashikaranspecialist #astrologer #palmistry #amliyaat #taweez #manpasandshadi #horoscope #spiritual #lovelife #lovespell #marriagespell#aamilbabainpakistan #amilbabainkarachi #powerfullblackmagicspell #kalajadumantarspecialist #realamilbaba #AmilbabainPakistan #astrologerincanada #astrologerindubai #lovespellsmaster #kalajaduspecialist #lovespellsthatwork #aamilbabainlahore #blackmagicforlove #blackmagicformarriage #aamilbaba #kalajadu #kalailam #taweez #wazifaexpert #jadumantar #vashikaranspecialist #astrologer #palmistry #amliyaat #taweez #manpasandshadi #horoscope #spiritual #lovelife #lovespell #marriagespell#aamilbabainpakistan #amilbabainkarachi #powerfullblackmagicspell #kalajadumantarspecialist #realamilbaba #AmilbabainPakistan #astrologerincanada #astrologerindubai #lovespellsmaster #kalajaduspecialist #lovespellsthatwork #aamilbabainlahore #Amilbabainuk #amilbabainspain #amilbabaindubai #Amilbabainnorway #amilbabainkrachi #amilbabainlahore #amilbabaingujranwalan #amilbabainislamabad
Quality defects in TMT Bars, Possible causes and Potential Solutions.PrashantGoswami42
Maintaining high-quality standards in the production of TMT bars is crucial for ensuring structural integrity in construction. Addressing common defects through careful monitoring, standardized processes, and advanced technology can significantly improve the quality of TMT bars. Continuous training and adherence to quality control measures will also play a pivotal role in minimizing these defects.
Vaccine management system project report documentation..pdfKamal Acharya
The Division of Vaccine and Immunization is facing increasing difficulty monitoring vaccines and other commodities distribution once they have been distributed from the national stores. With the introduction of new vaccines, more challenges have been anticipated with this additions posing serious threat to the already over strained vaccine supply chain system in Kenya.
Student information management system project report ii.pdfKamal Acharya
Our project explains about the student management. This project mainly explains the various actions related to student details. This project shows some ease in adding, editing and deleting the student details. It also provides a less time consuming process for viewing, adding, editing and deleting the marks of the students.
Final project report on grocery store management system..pdfKamal Acharya
In today’s fast-changing business environment, it’s extremely important to be able to respond to client needs in the most effective and timely manner. If your customers wish to see your business online and have instant access to your products or services.
Online Grocery Store is an e-commerce website, which retails various grocery products. This project allows viewing various products available enables registered users to purchase desired products instantly using Paytm, UPI payment processor (Instant Pay) and also can place order by using Cash on Delivery (Pay Later) option. This project provides an easy access to Administrators and Managers to view orders placed using Pay Later and Instant Pay options.
In order to develop an e-commerce website, a number of Technologies must be studied and understood. These include multi-tiered architecture, server and client-side scripting techniques, implementation technologies, programming language (such as PHP, HTML, CSS, JavaScript) and MySQL relational databases. This is a project with the objective to develop a basic website where a consumer is provided with a shopping cart website and also to know about the technologies used to develop such a website.
This document will discuss each of the underlying technologies to create and implement an e- commerce website.
Courier management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
It is now-a-days very important for the people to send or receive articles like imported furniture, electronic items, gifts, business goods and the like. People depend vastly on different transport systems which mostly use the manual way of receiving and delivering the articles. There is no way to track the articles till they are received and there is no way to let the customer know what happened in transit, once he booked some articles. In such a situation, we need a system which completely computerizes the cargo activities including time to time tracking of the articles sent. This need is fulfilled by Courier Management System software which is online software for the cargo management people that enables them to receive the goods from a source and send them to a required destination and track their status from time to time.
Forklift Classes Overview by Intella PartsIntella Parts
Discover the different forklift classes and their specific applications. Learn how to choose the right forklift for your needs to ensure safety, efficiency, and compliance in your operations.
For more technical information, visit our website https://intellaparts.com
Democratizing Fuzzing at Scale by Abhishek Aryaabh.arya
Presented at NUS: Fuzzing and Software Security Summer School 2024
This keynote talks about the democratization of fuzzing at scale, highlighting the collaboration between open source communities, academia, and industry to advance the field of fuzzing. It delves into the history of fuzzing, the development of scalable fuzzing platforms, and the empowerment of community-driven research. The talk will further discuss recent advancements leveraging AI/ML and offer insights into the future evolution of the fuzzing landscape.
Immunizing Image Classifiers Against Localized Adversary Attacksgerogepatton
This paper addresses the vulnerability of deep learning models, particularly convolutional neural networks
(CNN)s, to adversarial attacks and presents a proactive training technique designed to counter them. We
introduce a novel volumization algorithm, which transforms 2D images into 3D volumetric representations.
When combined with 3D convolution and deep curriculum learning optimization (CLO), itsignificantly improves
the immunity of models against localized universal attacks by up to 40%. We evaluate our proposed approach
using contemporary CNN architectures and the modified Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR-10
and CIFAR-100) and ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC12) datasets, showcasing
accuracy improvements over previous techniques. The results indicate that the combination of the volumetric
input and curriculum learning holds significant promise for mitigating adversarial attacks without necessitating
adversary training.
2. Measurement
s
2
Measurement: Comparison between a
standard and what we want to measure (the
measurand).
Two quantities are compared the result is
expressed in numerical values.
3. Basic requirements for a meaningful
measurement
3
The standard used for comparison purposes
must be accurately defined and should be
commonly accepted.
The apparatus used and the method adopted
must be provable (verifiable).
4. Two major functions of all branch of
engineering
4
Design of equipment and processes
Proper Operation and maintenance of
equipment and processes.
6. DIRECT METHODS: In these methods, the
unknown quantity (called the measurand ) is
directly compared against a standard.
INDIRECT METHOD: Measurements by direct
methods are not always possible, feasible
and practicable. In engineering applications
measurement systems are used which require
need of indirect method for measurement
purposes.
6
7. Instruments and Measurement Systems.
• determining quantities or variables.
Because of modular nature of the elements within it, it is common
to refer the measuring instrument as a MEASUREMENT SYSTEM.
7
instruments as a physical means
Measurement involve the use of
of
8. Evolution of Instruments.
8
a) Mechanical
b)Electrical
c) Electronic Instruments.
MECHANICAL: These instruments are
very reliable for static and stable
conditions. But their disadvantage is that
they are unable to respond rapidly to
measurements of dynamic and transient
conditions.
9. Contd
9
ELECTRICAL: It is faster than mechanical,
indicating the output are rapid than mechanical
methods. But it depends on the mechanical
movement of the meters. The response is 0.5 to
24 seconds.
ELECTRONIC: It is more reliable than other
system. It uses semiconductor devices and weak
signal can also be detected.
10. Classification Of Instruments
10
Absolute Instruments.
Secondary Instruments.
ABSOLUTE: These instruments give the
magnitude if the quantity under
measurement terms of physical constants
of the instrument.
SECONDARY: These instruments are
calibrated by the comparison with absolute
instruments which have already been
calibrated.
12. Functions of instrument and measuring
system can be classified into three. They
are:
i) Indicating function.
ii) Recording function.
iii) Controlling function.
Application of measurement systems are:
i) Monitoring of process and operation.
ii) Control of processes and operation.
iii) Experimental engineering analysis.
12
13. Types Of Instrumentation
System
13
Intelligent Instrumentation (data has been
refined for the purpose of presentation )
Dumb Instrumentation (data must be
processed by the observer)
14. Elements of Generalized
Measurement System
14
Primary sensing element.
Variable conversion element.
Data presentation element.
PRIMARY SENSING ELEMENT: The
quantity under measurement makes its first
contact with the primary sensing element of
a measurement system.
VARIABLE CONVERSION ELEMENT: It
converts the output of the primary sensing
element into suitable form to preserve the
information content of the original signal.
15. Contd..
15
DATA PRESENTATION ELEMENT:
The information about the quantity under
measurement has to be conveyed to the
personnel handling the instrument or the
system for monitoring, control or analysis
purpose.
16. Functional Elements of an
Instrumentation System
16
PRIMARY
SENSING
ELEMENT
VARIABLE
CONVER
-SION
ELEMENT
VARIABLE
MANIPULATI-
ON ELEMENT
DATA
TRANSMISSIO
-N ELEMENT
DATACONDITIONING ELEMENT
INTERMEDIATE STAGE
DETECTOR
TRANSDUCER
STAGE
TERMINATING
STAGE
QUANTITY
TO BE
MEASURED
DATA
PRESENTA
TION
ELEMENT
17. Static Characteristics Of Instruments And
Measurement Systems ( Ref 4, Chapter 2)
17
Application involved measurement of
quantity that are either constant or varies
slowly with time is known as static.
Accuracy
Drift
Dead Zone
Static Error
Sensitivity
Reproducibility
19. ACCURACY: It is the closeness with an
instrument reading approaches the true
value of the quantity being measured.
TRUE VALUE: True value of quantity
may be defined as the average of an infinite
no. of measured value.
SENSITIVITY is defined as the ratio of
the magnitude of the output response to that
of input response.
19
20. STATIC ERROR: It is defined as the
difference between the measured value
and true value of the quantity.
A=Am-At
20
Where Am =measured value of quantity
At =true value of quantity.
It is also called as the absolute static error.
21. SCALE RANGE: The scale range of an
instrument is defined as the difference
between the largest and the smallest reading
of the instrument.
Suppose highest point of calibration is Xmax
units while the lowest is Xmin units, then the
instrument range is between Xmin and Xmax.
SCALE SPAN: Scale span or instrument
span is given as Scale span= Xmax - Xmin
It is the difference between highest and
lowest point of calibration.
21
22. Reproducibility is specified in terms of
scale readings over a given period of time.
Drift is an undesirable quality in industrial
instruments because it is rarely apparent
and cannot be maintained.
It is classified as
a) Zero drift
b) Span drift or sensitivity drift
c) Zonal drift.
22
24. .
24
SPEED OF RESPONSE :It is defined as
the rapidity with which a measurement
system responds to changes in measured
quantity. It is one of the dynamic
characteristics of a measurement system.
FIDELITY: It is defined as the degree to
which a measurement system indicates
changes in the measured quantity without
any dynamic error.
25. Dynamic Error
25
It is the difference between the true value
of the quantity changing with time and the
value indicated by the measurement system
if no static error is assumed. It is also
called measurement error. It is one the
dynamic characteristics.
26. Measuring Lag
26
It is the retardation delay in the response of
a measurement system to changes in the
measured quantity. It is of 2 types:
Retardation type: The response begins
immediately after a change in measured
quantity has occurred.
Time delay: The response of the
measurement system begins after a dead
zone after the application of the input.
27. Errors in Measurement
27
Limiting Errors (Guarantee Errors)
Known Error
Classification
Gross
Error
Systematic Or
Cumulative
Error
Random Or
Residual Or
Accidental
Error
Instrumental Environmental Observational
28. Gross Error
Human Mistakes in reading , recording and
calculating measurement results.
The experimenter may grossly misread the
scale.
E.g.: Due to oversight instead of 21.5oC,
they may read as 31.5oC
They may transpose the reading while
recording (like reading 25.8oC and
record as 28.5oC)
28
29. Systematic Errors
29
INSTRUMENTAL ERROR: These errors
arise due to 3 reasons-
• Due to inherent short comings in the
instrument
• Due to misuse of the instrument
•Due to loading effects of the instrument
ENVIRONMENTAL ERROR: These errors
are due to conditions external to the measuring
device. These may be effects of temperature,
pressure, humidity, dust or of external electrostatic
or magnetic field.
OBSERVATIONAL ERROR: The error on
account of parallax is the observational error.
30. Residual error
30
This is also known as residual error. These
errors are due to a multitude of small
factors which change or fluctuate from one
measurement to another. The happenings or
disturbances about which we are unaware
are lumped together and called “Random”
or “Residual”. Hence the errors caused by
these are called random or residual errors.
31. Arithmetic Mean
31
The most probable value of measured variable is
the arithmetic mean of the number of readings
taken.
It is given by n
n
x
x
x1 x2 .....xn
Where x = arithmetic mean
x1,x2,.. x3= readings of samples
n= number of readings
32. Deviation
32
Deviation is departure of the observed reading
from the arithmetic mean of the group of readings.
d1 x1 X
d2 x2 X
d3 x3 X
dn xn X
d1 d 2 d 3 ..... d n 0
ie
( x1 X ) ( x2 X ) ( x3 X ) .. ( xn X )
( x1 x2 x3 ... xn ) n X
n X n X 0
33. Standard Deviation
33
The standard deviation of an infinite number of
data is defined as the square root of the sum of the
individual deviations squared divided by the
number of readings.
d
n
d
2
d 2
1
2
d 2
1
n 1
d 2
d 2
... d 2
2 3 4
n 1
S.D s
20observation
20observation
d 2
d 2
... d 2
2 3 4
n
S.D
36. Problem
36
Question: The following 10 observation were
recorded when measuring a voltage:
41.7,42.0,41.8,42.0,42.1,
41.9,42.0,41.9,42.5,41.8 volts.
1. Mean
2. Standard Deviation
3. Probable Error
4. Range.
38. Calibration
38
Calibration of all instruments is important since it
affords the opportunity to check the instruments
against a known standard and subsequently to find
errors and accuracy.
Calibration Procedure involve a comparison of the
particular instrument with either
a Primary standard
a secondary standard with a higher accuracy than
the instrument to be calibrated.
an instrument of known accuracy.
39. Standard
s
39
A standard is a physical representation of
a unit of measurement. The term ‘standard’
is applied to a piece of equipment having a
known measure of physical quantity.
40. Types of Standards
40
–International Standards (defined based
on international agreement )
–Primary Standards (maintained by
national standards laboratories)
–Secondary Standards ( used by industrial
measurement laboratories)
–Working Standards ( used in general
laboratory)