1. The document discusses parallels between attachment theory and Gestalt psychology, noting that both emphasize the social nature of children and their need for secure attachments and belonging to a community.
2. Attachment theory proposes that children are born with the ability to form attachments as a way to feel secure, and that early attachment experiences shape internal working models that influence future behavior and development.
3. Gestalt theory and attachment theory both view behavior as arising from the dynamic interaction between an individual and their environment, rather than in isolation.
The document discusses John Bowlby's attachment theory and how it has influenced childcare practices. Some key points:
- Bowlby believed that forming an attachment to a primary caregiver is crucial for infant development. This attachment helps the child feel secure and use the caregiver as a "secure base."
- Mary Ainsworth further studied attachment styles and identified secure, avoidant, and anxious-ambivalent attachments in infants.
- Securely attached infants feel comfortable exploring when their caregiver is present and distressed when they leave. Insecure styles are less adaptive.
- Bowlby's theory emphasized the importance of the caregiver-child bond and influenced practices like encouraging parents to stay with children in hospitals
Session Two Presentation: Attachment TheoryAndriaCampbell
Attachment theory proposes that secure attachment to caregivers is essential to child development. John Bowlby's research found that infants develop internal working models of relationships based on interactions with primary caregivers. These models influence how children view themselves, relationships, and regulate emotions. Secure attachment arises from caregivers being consistently sensitive and responsive to children's needs and signals. This allows children to develop self-esteem, empathy, emotional regulation, and view caregivers as a secure base for exploration.
1. Attachment theory proposes that deep emotional bonds form between infants and their caregivers and influence development. John Bowlby identified four stages of attachment formation in early childhood.
2. Research on Bowlby's theory identified three main attachment styles in infants - secure, anxious/resistant, and avoidant - based on their reactions to separation and reunion with caregivers.
3. Secure attachment is correlated with positive outcomes, while insecure styles can lead to difficulties with relationships and emotional regulation. Caregiver sensitivity and consistency affects the attachment style that develops.
1) Developmental milestones proposed by Arnold Gesell occur in predictable sequences, allowing developmental issues to be identified and addressed. However, a child's development can vary across physical, cognitive, and social/emotional domains and is influenced by many environmental factors.
2) A child's environment must meet their basic needs for development to progress. Trauma can delay or arrest development as needs take time to feel securely met.
3) Positive attachment enables exploration and cognitive growth, while insufficient attachment focuses development on survival and can disrupt the brain. Trauma affects cognitive and learning milestones, which vary individually rather than by age.
Attachment And Children In Care 45 Slide HandoutBill Reid
Attachment theory proposes that secure attachment to caregivers in early childhood is essential for healthy social and emotional development. Insecure or disrupted attachment can result from factors like parental mental illness, abuse/neglect, and multiple caregiving changes. Children with insecure attachment are at higher risk for problems like difficulty regulating emotions and forming relationships. Providing stable, nurturing caregiving environments and supporting the development of secure attachments can help mitigate these risks.
This document provides an overview of attachment theory and its origins. It discusses how John Bowlby developed attachment theory based on his clinical work with children and observations that infants experience distress when separated from their primary caregiver. It describes Bowlby's view that attachment is an evolutionary adaptive mechanism to enhance infant survival. The document summarizes key studies that helped establish attachment theory, including Harlow's experiments demonstrating that infant monkeys form attachments to surrogate mothers based on contact comfort rather than just food provision. It also outlines the stages of attachment identified in Schaffer and Emerson's longitudinal study of infant development.
AUTISM PSYCHOANALYTIC APPROACHES A CASE STUDYJackie Gold
This document summarizes a case study examining a psychoanalytic approach to understanding autism. It discusses theories from psychoanalysts like Bick, Tustin, and Meltzer regarding autism and the mother-child relationship. It then presents the case of Chris, a 17-year-old student with autism who displays dangerous behaviors. Analyzing Chris's behaviors through the psychoanalytic lens, the document concludes he lacks a sense of his own body and identity, preventing relationships and individualization. The document recommends treatment to help Chris develop this sense of self through addressing his "lack of wrapping feeling."
Attachment theory examines how infants form emotional bonds with their caregivers, and how these early attachments influence children's social and emotional development. Through experiments like the Strange Situation test, researchers have identified different attachment styles that can impact relationships and psychological well-being. However, some argue that attachment theory does not adequately account for cultural differences in child-rearing and overemphasizes the mother-child bond.
The document discusses John Bowlby's attachment theory and how it has influenced childcare practices. Some key points:
- Bowlby believed that forming an attachment to a primary caregiver is crucial for infant development. This attachment helps the child feel secure and use the caregiver as a "secure base."
- Mary Ainsworth further studied attachment styles and identified secure, avoidant, and anxious-ambivalent attachments in infants.
- Securely attached infants feel comfortable exploring when their caregiver is present and distressed when they leave. Insecure styles are less adaptive.
- Bowlby's theory emphasized the importance of the caregiver-child bond and influenced practices like encouraging parents to stay with children in hospitals
Session Two Presentation: Attachment TheoryAndriaCampbell
Attachment theory proposes that secure attachment to caregivers is essential to child development. John Bowlby's research found that infants develop internal working models of relationships based on interactions with primary caregivers. These models influence how children view themselves, relationships, and regulate emotions. Secure attachment arises from caregivers being consistently sensitive and responsive to children's needs and signals. This allows children to develop self-esteem, empathy, emotional regulation, and view caregivers as a secure base for exploration.
1. Attachment theory proposes that deep emotional bonds form between infants and their caregivers and influence development. John Bowlby identified four stages of attachment formation in early childhood.
2. Research on Bowlby's theory identified three main attachment styles in infants - secure, anxious/resistant, and avoidant - based on their reactions to separation and reunion with caregivers.
3. Secure attachment is correlated with positive outcomes, while insecure styles can lead to difficulties with relationships and emotional regulation. Caregiver sensitivity and consistency affects the attachment style that develops.
1) Developmental milestones proposed by Arnold Gesell occur in predictable sequences, allowing developmental issues to be identified and addressed. However, a child's development can vary across physical, cognitive, and social/emotional domains and is influenced by many environmental factors.
2) A child's environment must meet their basic needs for development to progress. Trauma can delay or arrest development as needs take time to feel securely met.
3) Positive attachment enables exploration and cognitive growth, while insufficient attachment focuses development on survival and can disrupt the brain. Trauma affects cognitive and learning milestones, which vary individually rather than by age.
Attachment And Children In Care 45 Slide HandoutBill Reid
Attachment theory proposes that secure attachment to caregivers in early childhood is essential for healthy social and emotional development. Insecure or disrupted attachment can result from factors like parental mental illness, abuse/neglect, and multiple caregiving changes. Children with insecure attachment are at higher risk for problems like difficulty regulating emotions and forming relationships. Providing stable, nurturing caregiving environments and supporting the development of secure attachments can help mitigate these risks.
This document provides an overview of attachment theory and its origins. It discusses how John Bowlby developed attachment theory based on his clinical work with children and observations that infants experience distress when separated from their primary caregiver. It describes Bowlby's view that attachment is an evolutionary adaptive mechanism to enhance infant survival. The document summarizes key studies that helped establish attachment theory, including Harlow's experiments demonstrating that infant monkeys form attachments to surrogate mothers based on contact comfort rather than just food provision. It also outlines the stages of attachment identified in Schaffer and Emerson's longitudinal study of infant development.
AUTISM PSYCHOANALYTIC APPROACHES A CASE STUDYJackie Gold
This document summarizes a case study examining a psychoanalytic approach to understanding autism. It discusses theories from psychoanalysts like Bick, Tustin, and Meltzer regarding autism and the mother-child relationship. It then presents the case of Chris, a 17-year-old student with autism who displays dangerous behaviors. Analyzing Chris's behaviors through the psychoanalytic lens, the document concludes he lacks a sense of his own body and identity, preventing relationships and individualization. The document recommends treatment to help Chris develop this sense of self through addressing his "lack of wrapping feeling."
Attachment theory examines how infants form emotional bonds with their caregivers, and how these early attachments influence children's social and emotional development. Through experiments like the Strange Situation test, researchers have identified different attachment styles that can impact relationships and psychological well-being. However, some argue that attachment theory does not adequately account for cultural differences in child-rearing and overemphasizes the mother-child bond.
This document discusses attachment theory and its implications for therapy. It introduces John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth's work identifying secure, insecure-preoccupied, insecure-avoidant, and insecure-disorganized attachment styles in infants based on their interactions with caregivers. Insecure attachment can stem from unpredictable, frightening, or dangerous caregiving or unresolved caregiver states. Attachment shapes biological systems in the body. Internal working models develop from early relationships. Adult romantic relationships and attachment-focused therapy can help develop secure attachment. The document then describes OnTrack's attachment-focused program which aims to build parenting capacity and reduce intergenerational trauma through assessment, therapy, and parenting coaching to reduce out-of-home placements.
Attachment Theory In Adolescence And Its Relevance To Developmental Psychopat...Sabrina Baloi
This document provides an overview of attachment theory and its relevance to adolescent psychopathology. It discusses how early attachment experiences with caregivers influence later psychological development and the potential development of psychopathology during adolescence. Specifically, it summarizes key concepts in attachment theory such as internal working models, attachment styles identified in the Strange Situation experiment (secure, anxious-avoidant, anxious-ambivalent, disorganized), and how the focus of research has shifted to mental representations and the Adult Attachment Interview. The document suggests early attachment quality impacts adolescent psychopathology and that more research is needed on attachment during adolescence given the developmental changes that occur during this period.
This document provides an overview of attachment theory and its utilization in counseling victims of domestic violence. It begins with an abstract that discusses domestic violence as a global issue and how attachment research has shown correlations between attachment patterns and victimization risk. The document then outlines how attachment theory posits that early attachments influence future relationships and how using this theory in therapy can help victims of domestic violence end the cycle of abuse by establishing safe attachments with their counselor.
This document discusses addiction and attachment theory. It begins by defining addiction and describing various psychological theories that attempt to explain it. It then introduces attachment theory as an approach that has produced significant research in understanding and treating addiction. The paper reviews key aspects of attachment theory including the internal working model, attachment styles in children and adults, and how attachment theory understands addiction as an attempt to regulate affect for those with insecure attachments. It discusses how addiction is treated as an attachment disorder from an attachment theory perspective, focusing on early and later stages of therapy. Finally, it reviews several relevant research studies that examine connections between addiction and attachment.
This document discusses various topics in psychology including:
- Behaviourism, social learning theory, attachment theory, evolutionary theory, and behavioural genetics as approaches to studying behaviour.
- Defining major concepts of behaviourism, social learning theory, and attachment theory and their differences.
- Describing attachment theory and its relation to psychoanalytic theory and evolutionary psychology. Defining behavioural genetics.
- Discussing cohort effects on experiences of childhood, old age, and adulthood based on different time periods.
Universal vs conntext.specific develpmentEngr Hassan
The document discusses three key issues in developmental psychology: nature vs nurture, continuity vs discontinuity, and universal vs context-specific development. It then summarizes three major theories: Piaget's cognitive-developmental theory which emphasizes innate stages of cognitive development influenced little by environment; Erikson's psychosocial theory which views development as proceeding through innate psychosocial stages with strong environmental influences; and social cognitive learning theory which sees development as the gradual accumulation of learned behaviors through modeling and reinforcement from the environment.
A Comparison Of Attachment Theory And Individual Psychology A Review Of The ...Scott Faria
- Both attachment theory and Individual Psychology include a coherent and stable view of the self and the world, and acknowledge the importance of social interaction for expressing these patterns.
- Attachment theory proposes that the quality of care an infant receives determines the quality of the attachment relationship and can mitigate potential developmental difficulties. There are secure and insecure attachment styles.
- Individual Psychology and attachment theory have similarities but have not been systematically blended on a large scale before. The article aims to outline the major tenets of both theories and argue that elements are similar.
The document discusses various theories of learning. It begins by describing Gestalt psychology, founded in the 20th century, which emphasized that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts in perception. It then summarizes several influential learning theories: behaviorism focuses on observable behaviors and conditioning, while cognitivism sees learning as connecting symbols; constructivism views learning as constructing meaning through experience. The document also outlines approaches like social learning theory and multiple intelligences theory.
This document summarizes recent research on positive emotions and cognition from developmental, neuroscience, and health perspectives. It discusses how the field of positive psychology has grown to study human thriving, happiness, and resilience, rather than just focusing on problems and dysfunction. Research suggests positive emotions may have evolutionary benefits by signaling safety and increasing social bonds. Developmentally, secure early attachments are linked to more positive emotions and behaviors in infants. Neuroscience research on rats indicates high maternal care can permanently alter brain regions involved in emotion regulation and stress responses. This suggests childhood experiences of love and trust are important for well-being, while neglect and abuse raise risks of later issues.
This document provides an overview of learning theory and different types of learning. It discusses classical conditioning, operant conditioning, observational learning, and insight learning. Classical conditioning involves associating stimuli, like Pavlov's dogs learning to associate food with a bell. Operant conditioning is demonstrated through rat training experiments. Observational learning occurs through observing others, like children learning from parents. Insight learning involves understanding through connecting ideas. The document also discusses cognitive processes, memory, and factors that influence learning motivation.
How To Research For A Research Paper. Write A ReLori Moore
The document provides instructions for completing a 5-step process to request an assignment be written by a writer on the HelpWriting.net platform. It explains that users must first create an account, then complete an order form with instructions and deadline. Writers will then bid on the request and the user can choose a writer to complete the assignment, making revisions until satisfied with the final product.
Best Custom Research Writing Service Paper WLori Moore
The document discusses the steps to get writing assistance from HelpWriting.net, including creating an account, submitting a request form with instructions and sources, and choosing a writer to complete the assignment. Clients can then review and approve the work before authorizing final payment. HelpWriting.net offers revisions and refunds to ensure clients' needs and expectations are met.
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The document discusses the steps to get writing help from HelpWriting.net:
1. Create an account with a password and valid email.
2. Complete a 10-minute order form providing instructions, sources, deadline and sample work.
3. Writers will bid on the request and the client can choose a writer based on qualifications.
4. The client can request revisions to ensure satisfaction with the final paper and receives a full refund if the paper is plagiarized.
Author Research Paper. How To Co. 2019-02-04Lori Moore
The document provides instructions for requesting an assignment writing service from the website HelpWriting.net. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account with a password and email. 2) Complete an order form with instructions, sources, and deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and choose one. 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment. 5) Request revisions until satisfied with the work. The document emphasizes that original, high-quality content will be provided, with refunds offered for plagiarized work.
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1) Evogear is an online retailer that sells discounted snowboard, skateboard, and wakeboarding gear through its website Evogear.com.
2) As an e-business, Evogear is able to offer lower prices than conventional stores due to lower overhead costs.
3) Evogear promotes its business through word-of-mouth and affiliate websites related to action sports that include links to Evogear, providing a 12% commission on resulting sales.
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The document discusses the origins and key beliefs of Sikhism. It begins with Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism, and his teachings of karma, reincarnation, and rejecting ritualism. It then outlines the succession of the nine Gurus and how the religion developed, including the building of the Golden Temple and compilation of the Guru Granth Sahib. It notes how the faith transitioned from Nanak's teachings to also take on military aspects to protect against Mughal forces.
Lined Paper For First Graders. Online assignment writing service.Lori Moore
The author tested Delicates Laundry Bags from Inside Smarts by putting dish towels through an extra
tough wash, and found that the bags protected the towels effectively with no damage, making them
well-suited for delicate items and demonstrating their durability even under harsh conditions.
FREE Printable Always Do Your Be. Online assignment writing service.Lori Moore
The essay discusses Christina Rossetti's 1862 poem "Goblin Market" and how it deals with themes of feminism and sexuality, making it more mature than simply appealing to children as the author claimed. It introduces the two sisters Laura and Lizzie from the poem and how they come across goblins selling fruit in the forest. While the author intended it for children, the essay argues themes of feminism and sexuality make it more suitable for older readers.
Scholarship Essay Essay Writers Service. Online assignment writing service.Lori Moore
1. The document describes the steps to get essay writing help from the website HelpWriting.net, including creating an account, submitting a request with instructions and deadline, reviewing writer bids and choosing one, and authorizing payment after receiving the completed paper.
2. Writers use a bidding system, and customers can request unlimited revisions to ensure satisfaction. The website promises original, high-quality content and refunds for plagiarized work.
3. Customers can confidently choose HelpWriting.net knowing their needs will be fully met.
Essay Written In Third Person - College LifeLori Moore
The document provides instructions for requesting an assignment writing service from HelpWriting.net. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account with a password and email. 2) Complete a form with assignment details, sources, and deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and choose one based on qualifications. 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment if satisfied. 5) Request revisions until fully satisfied, with a refund option for plagiarized work. The process aims to match clients with qualified writers and ensure client satisfaction.
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This document discusses attachment theory and its implications for therapy. It introduces John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth's work identifying secure, insecure-preoccupied, insecure-avoidant, and insecure-disorganized attachment styles in infants based on their interactions with caregivers. Insecure attachment can stem from unpredictable, frightening, or dangerous caregiving or unresolved caregiver states. Attachment shapes biological systems in the body. Internal working models develop from early relationships. Adult romantic relationships and attachment-focused therapy can help develop secure attachment. The document then describes OnTrack's attachment-focused program which aims to build parenting capacity and reduce intergenerational trauma through assessment, therapy, and parenting coaching to reduce out-of-home placements.
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Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptxDenish Jangid
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering
Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
Reimagining Your Library Space: How to Increase the Vibes in Your Library No ...Diana Rendina
Librarians are leading the way in creating future-ready citizens – now we need to update our spaces to match. In this session, attendees will get inspiration for transforming their library spaces. You’ll learn how to survey students and patrons, create a focus group, and use design thinking to brainstorm ideas for your space. We’ll discuss budget friendly ways to change your space as well as how to find funding. No matter where you’re at, you’ll find ideas for reimagining your space in this session.
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
1. *
Lecture at the 15th International Scientiic Convention of the GTA at the University of Macerata, Italy
(24.-27.5.2007)
ATTACHMENT THEORY AND GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY
Katharina Sternek*
In connection with the title of the conference “Relations and Structures” I would
like to present to you some results of the research in the ield of Attachment theory
because I think that they are interesting for Gestalt psychology and Gestalt theory.
Concerning the question of whether there are parallels between Attachment theory
and Gestalt psychology I will start with something Wolfgang Metzger, a famous Ge-
stalt psychologist of the second generation, mentioned when he wrote about Adler and
the child`s need for tenderness:
“Although the child demands physical nearness and contact to its caregivers the child does
not expect some sensation of the skin in a psycho-sexual meaning. The child requires nearness,
connection, membership and holding in the sense of being with others and belonging to others
(as later described by Balint). Alfred Adler regarded this as the early and fundamental form of
the feeling of belonging to a community.” (Metzger 1977, English translation KSt).
This comes close to Fritz Künkel´s term of “We-ness” (Künkel 1974), which is
regarded by Adler as the basis for the development of psychic health. And it was Max
Wertheimer, the main founder of Gestalt theory, who has suggested already very early
in 1924 that many disturbances of mental health can be understood and should be seen
as problems of the individual in establishing, maintaining and adequately shaping his
or her connectedness to a “we”.
John Bowlby who established the Attachment theory expressed something similar
in his speech at the University of Regensburg in 1988.
“Within the attachment theory attachment is neither submitted to nutrition or sexuality nor
does it derive from there. In spite of the theory of dependence which understands the urgent
demand for comfort and support within dificult situations as infantile, the tendency to build
attachments (as the person who gives support or as the person who needs support or both) is a
fundamental aspect of a good functioning personality and therefore the basis of psychic health.”
(Bowlby 1995, English translation KSt).
Both Gestalt theory and Attachment theory emphasize the sociable nature of the
child within their considerations.
TheAttachment theory assumes that the child is born with the ability and tendency to
create attachments. The main aim of attachment is the need for a feeling of security. At
the beginning the child tries to be physically near to its caregivers to feel secure. Later
on this physical nearness changes into a psychological feeling of nearness and security.
If the child`s requirement for attachment is accepted by its caregivers in a good way, the
child will feel secure and therefore it will be encouraged to explore the environment.
Attachment theory with its dynamic and systemic approach is closely related to
Gestalt Theory. Neither of these approaches investigate the child`s behaviour in an
isolated way, but they study its behaviour in the context of, and in interaction with,
the environment. That means that they try to consider all the factors within the whole
2. Sternek: Attachment Theory and Gestalt Psychology 311
system. This is reminiscent of the ield theory developed by Kurt Lewin (Lewin 1963)
and the so called “life-space” in which the person and the environment are regarded
as a dynamic constellation of interdependent factors, and therefore the behaviour of
the person arises from this constellation.
With regard to Lewin, the group which one lives in provides a basis for our devel-
opment and therefore the belonging to this group inluences the behaviour of the indi-
vidual. From this point of view we can say that the experience of good early relation-
ship and bonding supports the child to develop a stable basis that later on will help the
child to deal with challenges and stress. On the other hand if the child is detached and
alone tension, frustration and anxiety will increase. The feeling of anxiety activates
attachment but it inhibits exploration and this has an impact on later development.
Based on infant research, we know that the child is able to have more than one inter-
acting partner, but in general the child prefers one main person for attachment – in most
cases this is the mother. This selection is inluenced by factors such as care, responsive-
ness, tenderness, availability, regularity and adequate stimulation and treatment.
According to Fremmer-Bombik´s description (Fremmer-Bombik 1995), Bowlby
assumes that the early experiences form a regulation-system for the affections and
emotions and so they constitute representational systems. These representational sys-
tems of the self in interaction with the others are called internal working models or
inner working models. The internal working models support the child to anticipate the
behaviour of the mother, to regulate its own behaviour, to estimate happenings and to
develop anticipation in the future.
They are conceived as dynamic models arising from the actual interactions between
child and mother. They are the basis for the development of different internal structures
and representational systems which later on inluence both perception and behaviour.
Although these internal working models tend to be stable and unconscious they are open
systems and can be inluenced – maybe by psychotherapy. For me this seems to be as
well a parallel to Lewin who regarded the life-space as a dynamic open system.
Concerning representation researchers such as Beebe, Jaffe, Lachmann, Feldstein,
Crown and Jasnow (2002) differentiated representational levels. They describe them
with regard to the memory and the organisation of social behaviour.
“Whereas the explicit (declarative) memory has to keep in mind organised information
and occurrences, the implicit memory contains emotional and procedural facts, which are not
conscious. The procedural memory refers to skills and sequences of behaviour which are not
symbolized. They are trained and happen automatically and this inluences the processes that
organize and regulate the behaviour ….. the procedural approach means that the control of
our social-behaviour is mainly not conscious, it is based on the relation between organism and
environment, so that the information to structure the behaviour is already inherent in the rela-
tion between organism and environment …… behaviour is regarded as a dynamic system, as
the result of the dynamic interaction between organism and environment which is re- organized
every moment and changes according to inluences.” (Beebe et al., 2002, 57f, English transla-
tions KSt).
Mary Ainsworth (Ainsworth et al. 1978), a noteworthy researcher in the ield of
Attachment theory observed the behaviour of children in the so-called “Strange Situ-
ation”. The experimental situation was that the one-year-old child is left alone in a
room for some minutes and then the mother comes back. The results of the observa-
3. Gestalt Theory, Vol. 29 (2007), No. 4
312
tions were interpreted in relation to the child`s experiences of acceptance or rejec-
tion concerning attachment. They concluded that the typical behavioural patterns of
children refer to internal working models and following main patterns of attachment
were identiied.
Secure attachment: When the mother leaves the room, the child is sad and protests
as a normal reaction to detachment. When the mother comes back it will quickly be
comforted. In general the mother is sensitive enough and supports the needs of the
child so that the child is trustful. Secure attachment is the result of a good and ade-
quate interaction. Later on this could be a supporting factor with regard to resilience.
Insecure-avoiding attachment assumes that the avoiding behaviour of the child is
the answer to rejection or neglect. A child who cannot trust in the mother´s availabil-
ity and support, shows a lack of sadness during detachment. When the mother comes
back there is less interest because the child has extremely controlled affections. This
can be regarded as a strategy of defence. On the one hand, the child´s behaviour is
seemingly normal, on the other hand one can ind a high concentration of cortisol
– a stress-hormone in the child`s saliva (personal information of Dr. Brisch within a
seminar, 2007).
(I often observed similar behaviour treating patients with psychosomatic or de-
pressive symptoms. Such patients often have problems to perceive or to express their
emotions, but they offer a lot of somatic symptoms. Here I would pose the question
whether internal working models have a long-lasting impact on the present situation
in terms of inluence on the phenomenal world of patients. If so it could have signii-
cant consequences for the psychotherapeutic treatment).
By observing insecure-ambivalent attachment one sees a desperate child who
protests strongly against detachment. The main point is that when the mother comes
back it cannot be comforted. The child shows strong emotions, perhaps to get atten-
tion from its mother. This reaction is often the result of inconsistent and unpredictable
treatment by the caregivers. The relationship experience of the child is often over-
strained and contradictory.
(In the clinical work I think this behaviour sometimes is similar to the panic be-
havioural style which is expressed, for example, by patients with anxiety disorder
or patients with borderline personality organisation. These patients suffer extremely
from real or imagined loneliness and they are often not able to regulate their emo-
tions alone).
In Ainsworth’s Strange Situation there were children who had not established a
certain working model. Although the mother returned the child seemed to be more
or less confused and behaved disorganized. Main and Hesse (Main & Hesse 2002)
explored the behaviour of disorganized children and adults. It seems logical that
disorganization often arises from a background of unstable family structure. The
parents of the disorganized child often had experiences of unresolved loss, abuse
or suffered from some kind of mental illness. Such parents risk evoking anxiety or
they are anxious themselves and this seems to make it dificult for their children to
develop a coherent working model. Disorganized behaviour is not really a stable
behavioural style. On the contrary, it is the interruption and instability of behav-
4. Sternek: Attachment Theory and Gestalt Psychology 313
iour and more or less the breakdown of behavioural structure. This observation is
reminiscent of Lewin`s description of regression (Lewin 1982). He distinguishes re-
gression exactly from retrogression. He said that regression is primitive behaviour,
which means less different, less organized, less coherent, less relected behaviour.
All of this shows the change in the behavioural structure in the way that there is less
complexity. According to Lewin regression arises from illness, frustration, insecu-
rity and high tension.
There exist many investigations of the connection between attachment and the af-
fect regulation. I would like to conclude simply that secure attachment refers to the
ability to regulate the affections whereas insecure attachment forces the individual to
regulate the affections too much or to regulate them less. Insecure-avoiding attach-
ment often includes the suppression of affections as a possibility to defend oneself.
Whereas insecure-ambivalent attachment often refers to a high level of affectiones
because the person is not able to calm down. In both cases the affected person often is
not able to behave according the requirement of the situation.
Today the stability of attachment classiication and the inluence on later develop-
ment is widely discussed. There exist numerous studies suggesting that disorganized
attachment refers to later psychopathology, especially to the borderline personality
disorder, which is also described by Peter Fonagy (Fonagy 2003, 2004).
In summary, one could say that, according to Attachment theory, the aim of attach-
ment is to give a secure and stable basis to support the child to explore the environ-
ment and to regulate its emotions. Furthermore, the early experiences of relationship
inluence and establish representational systems, which are called internal working
models. These internal working models are based on experiences within the phenom-
enal world and later they have an inluence on the perception of the phenomenal world
and the behaviour.
Peter Fonagy, a psychoanalyst, contributed to Attachment theory with his theory
of the “Relective Function” (Fonagy & Target 2003, Fonagy et al. 2004). His theory
is based on the observation that the child notices that human behaviour is inluenced
and motivated by psychic processes. In the irst years the child starts to regard its own
behaviour and the behaviour of others as meaningful and having some purpose and
some intention. Fonagy developed a theory of mind and uses the term relective func-
tion which is based on Daniel Dennett and his concept of intention (Dennett 1987).
Relective function/competence means that the individual has got a basic knowledge
of mental processes.
“Relective competence is a developmental achievement which is reached within the context
of close emotional interpersonal relationships in the irst ive years of personal development.
This allows the individual to develop a rich inner world of mental representation concerning
oneself, others and the interaction...” (Reinke 2003, 7, English Translation KSt).
Fonagy maintains that the quality of attachment and early relationship is not only
important for the development of relective function but also for affect-regulation
and the development of the psychic self (Fonagy et al. 2004). For Peter Fonagy the
relective function or “mentalization” includes both cognition and affect. Concerning
the ability to regulate affect, he distinguishes two forms of affect regulation: namely
a simple and a complex one. The simple form of affect regulation is based on the idea
5. Gestalt Theory, Vol. 29 (2007), No. 4
314
that there must be a mother to help the baby to regulate affections in the sense of a
co-regulation. Whereas the complex form of affect regulation means that the develop-
ment of the relective function supports the child in learning to regulate itself. Fonagy
also emphasizes that the relective competence of the mother is particularly important
for the development of the child´s relective function and the development of its
psychic self. This competence allows the mother not only to understand the child`s
behaviour but also to respect the underlying mental state of the child. By respecting
the child as an individual with intention the mother fosters the development of the
child`s relective competence.
This description its well to my understanding of the Gestalt-theoretical approach
in the therapeutic setting. In the process of exploring the phenomenal world we en-
courage our patients to perceive and understand their affections, thoughts and inten-
tions. In this sense we also support the perception and the development of the self.
For the development of the relective function within the interaction between child
and mother Fonagy describes two processes which are important: the connection of
representations (representational mapping) and the representation of rational action
(Fonagy & Target 2003, 36). Within the interaction with the mother the child builds
representations and develops the ability to adapt its own affectionate state with the
mother`s affection by trying to share experiences with her. Fonagy wrote:
“According to Gergely and Watson (1996) the representation of the inner affection of the
child is built in the process of “mirroring – interaction” between child and mother.” (Fongay &
Target 2003, 37, English translation KSt).
If the mother is empathic enough she can interpret and even modify the affection-
ate signal of the child. The child can learn to organize itself because the representa-
tion of the child`s expression by the mother can be connected with the representa-
tion of the self. Fonagy concludes that the mirroring of the mother represents a
meta-representation of the child`s experience and plays a decisive role in the child`s
organization. He predicts that if either the answer of the mother is too near or too far
from the child`s experience then the process of mirroring fails. If the child`s signal
is inadequately mirrored by the mother then the child cannot build a certain repre-
sentation. In contrast, if the mirroring is too strong then the child is confronted with
a strong affection because this affection is not regulated and symbolized enough to
calm the child.
I think that these assumptions are useful to understand what happens within the
clinical work treating patients who show a low tolerance to stress and have a tendency
to be anxious. With regard to Lewin (Lewin 1982), the tension in their life-space is
high, followed by regression and the inability to relect and behave adequately. From
my point of view they need more “phenomenal distance” concerning their experienc-
es. Psychotherapy can support such patients to develop more relective competence
and affect regulation. (Concerning the clinical work Fonagy (Fonagy 2004, 436-468)
describes some interesting case studies.)
To develop the relective function Fonagy maintains that the child also needs a
logical structure to understand and interpret behaviour. It needs representations of
expected states and therefore it is relevant that the caregivers show a logical and
foreseeable behaviour. By observing the behaviour of disorganized children and
6. Sternek: Attachment Theory and Gestalt Psychology 315
adults Main (Main 1995) found out that disorganized children often have problems
interpreting the parent`s behaviour and so they cannot develop coherent behavioural
structures. If the parent`s behaviour is frightened or frightening the child often can-
not differentiate whether it is the source of the parent´s behaviour or not. Some
children start to observe and control their parent`s behaviour at the cost of having
less energy for their own development. (I believe that this aspect has parallels for
the treatment of patients in that it also requires a reliable, clear and transparent
therapeutic relationship.)
According to Attachment theory one can agree that the responsiveness and empa-
thy of the parents are main factors for the development of secure attachment and the
development of the relective competence. Within the early interactions between child
and parents, the parent`s attribution of the motive of intention is extremely important
for the child because this promotes the development of the relective function and the
development of the psychic self.
One can summarize that good early relationship and secure attachment supports the
development of the relective competence whereas the development of the relective
function is inhibited or fails altogether if the relationship is traumatic, hostile or empty.
At this point, I would like to reiterate that the new researches in the ield of Attach-
ment theory and relective competence are interesting and useful for Gestalt-theoreti-
cal psychotherapy.
The most important parallel to Gestalt psychology is that they all emphasize the
importance of interaction and relationship for development and psychic health or its
failure to develop. This idea refers to a lot of Gestalt-theoretical contributions which
one can read in Gerhard Stemberger`s edition: “Psychische Störungen im Ich-Welt-
Verhältnis”, where Stemberger wrote:
“The starting point is that relationships to others are important for the relation between the
individual and the world. According to this interpretation not all, but a lot of psychic diseases
are the result of an imbalance between the individual and the others.”(Stemberger 2002, 19f,
English translation KSt).
The systemic and dynamic approach of Attachment theory comes close to Gestalt
theory because they consider the child`s experience and behaviour in the context of
the whole situation. Concerning early interactions between the child and the mother
they explore the dynamic interdependence between the interactions and the develop-
ment of mental structures and its inluence on the structure of the phenomenal world.
Attachment theory and Gestalt theory are also compatible in their epistemological
approach because both emphasize the necessity of the exploration of phenomenal
processes without confusing them with trans- phenomenal aspects.
Concerning the results of Attachment theory I think that early relationships have
an inluence on the structure of perception and behaviour. In this context I would
like to mention Lewin`s concept of the perspective of time and Koffka`s system of
imprints.
Lewin: “Behaviour is not only inluenced by the psychological present, but also by expec-
tations, wishes and fears concerning the future and the knowledge of the past. Psychological
present, psychological past and psychological future are main parts of the life-space of the
individual at any given moment.” (Lewin 1982, 309, English translation KSt).
7. Gestalt Theory, Vol. 29 (2007), No. 4
316
Koffka: ”One assumes an imprint of the past which represents the past in the present and one
assumes a current process which refers to this imprint and therefore a new process of recogni-
tion and reproduction starts (compare Lewin`s perspective of time). This system of imprints is
organized and it changes according to principles of Gestalt-Theory like the principle Prägnanz.“
(Koffka 1935, cited from Walter 1985, 50, English translation KSt).
It could be interesting to observe in which way those models have an inluence on
the structure and dynamic in the life-space of a person if similar conditions exist. For
example: There are a lot of patients who are successful in some areas of their lives
but have problems with near relationships because these intimate relationships trig-
ger their attachment-system. Within psychotherapy it could be useful to understand
the internal working models of our patients, especially for the exploration of past and
current relationships. This aspect also includes the relection and understanding of the
relationship between patient and psychotherapist.
Also the assumptions about the connection between attachment, relective function
and affect regulation could be useful for clinical work because we often have to treat
patients who need our support to perceive and to regulate their affections. This means
we often have to support them to develop more affect regulation and more relective
competence.
As a practical psychotherapist I ask myself whether theories are important and make
sense for my psychotherapeutic understanding and behaviour. Walter refers to Kurt
Lewin and his description of the constructive method for a theory of personality:
“According to Lewin a theory is constructive when the method helps to understand phenom-
ena in the context of the individual and his environment instead of outer classiication. There-
fore the whole creative process has to be understood .…. A theory of personality has to be at the
same time a theory which describes processes of development, maturation and psychic growth.
And therefore it has to be a theory about developmental changes and the therapeutic inluence
on such processes to be relevant.” (Walter 1985, 74, English translation KSt).
Attachment theory and the theory of relective function are signiicant because
they help us to understand more about interactive processes and their inluence on
the development of the individual. As a Gestalt-theoretical psychotherapist I feel it is
particularly important to create an atmosphere of security and recognition within the
psychotherapeutic relationship in order to encourage patients to explore themselves,
others and their phenomenal world.
Summary
The basic Gestalt theory assumption that human relationships are important for development
is reinforced by observations made in attachment theory.
Bowlby regards attachment as a fundamental human requirement which corresponds to the
need to belong to a community as described by numerous Gestalt theorists (such as Metzger,
Wertheimer, Lewin a.o.). Results of attachment theory research suggest that experiences of
attachment and relationship in early childhood inluence the development of mental structure
which Bowlby refers to as an “Internal working model”. That means that attachment experi-
ences produce images which affect the perception and handling of later relationships. Fonagy
expands on attachment theory by using the “Theory of the Relective Function”. He assumes
that the relective function builds the basis for a consciousness of the psychological self and
inluences cognition and affection.
8. Sternek: Attachment Theory and Gestalt Psychology 317
Zusammenfassung
Die Betonung der Wichtigkeit menschlicher Beziehungen von seiten der Gestalttheorie
wird durch Beobachtungen der Bindungsforschung untermauert. Bowlby betrachtet Bindung
als grundlegendes menschliches Bedürfnis, was dem von etlichen Gestalttheoretikern (z.B.
Metzger, Wertheimer, Lewin u. a.) beschriebenem Bedürfnis nach Zugehörigkeit zu einer
Gemeinschaft bzw. Gruppe verwandt ist. Ergebnisse der Bindungsforschung belegen, dass
frühkindliche Beziehungserfahrungen die Basis für die Bildung „Innerer Arbeitsmodelle“ dar-
stellen und dahingehend die Entwicklung mentaler Strukturen beeinlussen. Fonagy trägt mit
dem Konzept der „Relexiven Funktion“ maßgeblich zur Erweiterung der Bindungstheorie bei
indem er darstellt, welche bedeutende Rolle diese Funktion sowohl für die Entwicklung des
Selbst als auch für die Affektregulierung besitzt.
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Address of the Author:
Katharina Sternek
1140 Wien
SMZ - Baumgartner Höhe
3. Psychiatr. Abteilung, Pav. 21
sternek@aon.at