A brief review about the history, philosophy and current trends concerning automotive safety automation
...and why we won't have automatic cars during the next few decades
Continuous Monitoring: Introduction & Considerations – Part 1 of 3EMC
This white paper is the first in a series of three papers on continuous monitoring (CM) and how to successfully manage a CM program. Intended for security professionals who are new to CM, this first document discusses common misconceptions and provides definitions, an introduction and brief history of CM.
Continuous Monitoring: Introduction & Considerations – Part 1 of 3EMC
This white paper is the first in a series of three papers on continuous monitoring (CM) and how to successfully manage a CM program. Intended for security professionals who are new to CM, this first document discusses common misconceptions and provides definitions, an introduction and brief history of CM.
OUR COMPANY
Interactive Driving Systems is a global provider of DRIVER SAFETY MANAGEMENT SOLUTIONS. We work with our clients on shaping and influencing their drivers' attitude and behavior towards safer travel. This is achieved through Virtual Risk Manager's (VRM) award winning solution – CRASH FREE CULTURE. VRM helps bring organisational policy to life; ensuring expectations are reinforced and understood across the entire organisation.
OUR PRIMARY GOAL IS TO HELP CLIENTS REDUCE DRIVER INCIDENTS, COLLISIONS, LICENCE ENDORSEMENTS AND INJURIES YEAR ON YEAR.
This model was developped by me in the same period of, a ndindependant from, Reason's Swiss Cheese Model Although it isa far more dynamic model, closer to reality it had never the success the SCM had. I am no professor and simply a SIBEENG (SIlly BElgian ENGineer).
P.A.S.S. System™ Driver Training - Driver safety photos & moviesjoeyg6600
P.A.S.S. System™ Driver Training
Tom Donovan, M.S.
Battalion Chief, PFD (retired)
Member ADTSEA
trdfcu@juno.com
http://www.bestdriversafetytraining.com
ALCOHOL DETECTION SYSTEM USING GSM TECHNOLOGYOodit Jethwa
This project is designed by keeping in mind the accidental death caused on the roads because of the consumption of alcohol by the driver. The whole system can be employed in any steering wheel equipped motor vehicle. The system which is made as compact as possible senses the alcohol molecules present in a specific range and if found, fails the attempt of the driver to start the engine. Pushing the envelope and considering the actuality of the situation where the driver may not be able to drive, the system is interfaced with the widely used GSM technology to establish a quick cellular contact with the closest kin or with the law enforcers.
OUR COMPANY
Interactive Driving Systems is a global provider of DRIVER SAFETY MANAGEMENT SOLUTIONS. We work with our clients on shaping and influencing their drivers' attitude and behavior towards safer travel. This is achieved through Virtual Risk Manager's (VRM) award winning solution – CRASH FREE CULTURE. VRM helps bring organisational policy to life; ensuring expectations are reinforced and understood across the entire organisation.
OUR PRIMARY GOAL IS TO HELP CLIENTS REDUCE DRIVER INCIDENTS, COLLISIONS, LICENCE ENDORSEMENTS AND INJURIES YEAR ON YEAR.
This model was developped by me in the same period of, a ndindependant from, Reason's Swiss Cheese Model Although it isa far more dynamic model, closer to reality it had never the success the SCM had. I am no professor and simply a SIBEENG (SIlly BElgian ENGineer).
P.A.S.S. System™ Driver Training - Driver safety photos & moviesjoeyg6600
P.A.S.S. System™ Driver Training
Tom Donovan, M.S.
Battalion Chief, PFD (retired)
Member ADTSEA
trdfcu@juno.com
http://www.bestdriversafetytraining.com
ALCOHOL DETECTION SYSTEM USING GSM TECHNOLOGYOodit Jethwa
This project is designed by keeping in mind the accidental death caused on the roads because of the consumption of alcohol by the driver. The whole system can be employed in any steering wheel equipped motor vehicle. The system which is made as compact as possible senses the alcohol molecules present in a specific range and if found, fails the attempt of the driver to start the engine. Pushing the envelope and considering the actuality of the situation where the driver may not be able to drive, the system is interfaced with the widely used GSM technology to establish a quick cellular contact with the closest kin or with the law enforcers.
An efficient automotive collision avoidance system for indian traffic conditionseSAT Journals
Abstract The execution of a wide-ranging accident cautioning system is being visualised by ACAS Program, which is proficient in perceiving and cautioning the driver of potential hazard conditions forward, on the side, and rear sections of the vehicle. The structure would use: (a) long array sensor or visual devices to identify probable hazards in front of the vehicle, (2) short range sensors to caution the driver of nearby objects while changing traffic lanes or backing up, and (3) a track exposure arrangement to alert the motorist when the vehicle deviates from the intended traffic lane. Accident Prevention organisms, as a consequent step to collision mitigation, are one of the Great challenges in the area of active safety for road vehicles. The task of a collision avoidance system is to track objects of potential collision threat and govern any action to evade or diminish a crash. The main focus is how to make decisions based on ambiguous evaluations and in the presence of numerous hurdles. The first step in CA (Collision Avoidance) systems for automotive applications is adaptive cruise control (ACC). The ability of the car to protect its passengers is sometimes called crashworthiness. Generally, a CM (Collision Mitigation) system tries to reduce the severity of the accident as much as possible under some constraints. The situation may be observed with detector sensors, laser radar, vision sensors, ultrasonic sensors, GPS sensors and inter-vehicle communication. FCM (Forward Collision Mitigation) systems mainly try to avoid or mitigate frontal collisions. The CA decision is based on the current position estimate of the host vehicle and those of other objects. The focus is towards the method for determining the threat of a collision given that the state of other objects is known. Two collision mitigation by braking systems are considered for study. One system uses the probability of collision, to decide when to perform braking interventions. The other system has a multiple obstacle decision. The scenarios that are calculated in this segment are primarily those where a CMbB has a large potential of significantly reducing the collision speed. Therefore, the test results of main interest is those between 0 and 70 km/h also for simulations. Hence, this ACAS Program detects the potential hazards, warns the driver and takes action to avoid or mitigate a collision. Keywords: Collision Warning, Decision Making, Collision Mitigation Braking, Tracking Sensors
Algorithmic decision-making in AVs: understanding ethical and technical conce...Araz Taeihagh
Autonomous Vehicles (AVs) are increasingly embraced around the world to advance smart mobility and more broadly, smart and sustainable cities. Algorithms form the basis of decision-making in AVs, allowing them to perform driving tasks autonomously, efficiently and more safely than human drivers and offering various economic, social and environmental benefits. However, algorithmic decision-making in AVs can also introduce new issues that create new safety risks and perpetuate discrimination. We identify bias, ethics and perverse incentives as key ethical issues in the AV algorithms’ decision-making that can create new safety risks and discriminatory outcomes. Technical issues in the AVs’ perception, decision-making and control algorithms, limitations of existing AV testing and verification methods, and cybersecurity vulnerabilities can also undermine the performance of the AV system. This article investigates the ethical and technical concerns surrounding algorithmic decision-making in AVs by exploring how driving decisions can perpetuate discrimination and create new safety risks for the public. We discuss steps taken to address these issues and increase the accountability of AV stakeholders, highlight the existing research gaps and the need to mitigate these issues through the design of AV’s algorithms and of policies and regulations to fully realise AVs’ benefits for smart and sustainable cities.
ARRL: A Criterion for Composable Safety and Systems EngineeringVincenzo De Florio
While safety engineering standards define rigorous and controllable
processes for system development, safety standards’ differences in distinct
domains are non-negligible. This paper focuses in particular on the aviation,
automotive, and railway standards, all related to the transportation market.
Many are the reasons for the said differences, ranging from historical reasons,
heuristic and established practices, and legal frameworks, but also from the
psychological perception of the safety risks. In particular we argue that the
Safety Integrity Levels are not sufficient to be used as a top level requirement
for developing a safety-critical system. We argue that Quality of Service is a
more generic criterion that takes the trustworthiness as perceived by users better
into account. In addition, safety engineering standards provide very little
guidance on how to compose safe systems from components, while this is the
established engineering practice. In this paper we develop a novel concept
called Assured Reliability and Resilience Level as a criterion that takes the
industrial practice into account and show how it complements the Safety
Integrity Level concept.
Design and Manufacturing of Automobile Vehicle Safety with Pneumatic BumperShaikh Parvez
Design and Manufacturing of Automobile
Vehicle Safety with Pneumatic Bumper - In the design of an automobile, a most important task is to minimize the occurrence and
consequences of automobile accidents. Automotive safety can be improved by "active" as well
as "passive" measures. Active safety refers to technology which assists in the prevention of a
crash. Passive safety includes all components of the vehicle that help to reduce the
aggressiveness of the crash event. Crash protection priorities vary with the speed of the car
when crash occurs.
46 ProfessionalSafety FEBRUARY 2017 www.asse.org.docxalinainglis
46 ProfessionalSafety FEBRUARY 2017 www.asse.org
Program Management
Peer-reviewed
P
art 1 of this article (PS, January 2017,
pp. 36-45) discussed the three key elements
of a modern occupational safety program:
engineering and technical standards and controls,
management and operation systems, and human
factors. Each element plays an important role, yet
many organizations continue to stress one at the
expense of the others, which creates an unbalanced
and ineffective OSH program. The human factor is
present in most every incident, yet often the focus
is too narrowly trained on blaming at-risk behav-
iors or unsafe acts rather than on identifying and
addressing the conditions, systems and norms that
enable or cause those errors.
Part 2 of this article examines how employers
can better incorporate engineering and system
elements into worker-oriented initiatives to cre-
ate a more comprehensive approach to OSH and
thereby better understand incident causes, reduce
incident rates, confirm regulatory compliance, and
prevent serious injuries and fatalities.
Proving due diligence
While some allege that companies may use
behavior-based safety (BBS) as due-diligence
or reasonable-care proof in potential litigation
(United Steelworkers Local 343, 2000), in the au-
thor’s opinion, BBS observation documentation
does not appear to be strong in that regard, as it
is typically based on basic observations of work-
ers’ behaviors by nonprofessionals, and often
has nothing to do with recognizing and control-
ling occupational hazards. Traditional regulatory
compliance-based safety systems should be ex-
pected to provide due diligence.
only applicable to “best in class”?
BBS programs are often recommended for best-
in-class companies that already have engineering
controls and systems in place and an excellent
safety culture. Implementation in less-advanced
safety systems may be less ideal.
For example, “Practical Guide for Behavioral
Change in the Oil and Gas Industry,” states:
During the past 10 years, large improvements
in safety have been achieved through improved
hardware and design, and through improved
safety management systems and procedures.
However, the industry’s safety performance has
leveled out with little significant change being
achieved during the past few years. A different
approach is required to encourage further im-
provement. This next step involves taking action
to ensure that the behaviors of people at all lev-
els within the organization are consistent with an
improving safety culture. (Step Change in Safety,
2001)
The potential effect of behavior modifications on
safety performance (incident rates) is illustrated in
Figure 1 (p. 48). The conclusion suggested by Fig-
ure 1 is that significant incident reduction can be
achieved through engineering and systems con-
trols. When those two are addressed, an organi-
zation can then work on behavioral modifications
for further imp.
Testing the dual-route model about the Simon effect with a replicated go-/no-go task, this experiment revealed that conditional trials did not exercise an inhibitory effect on subsequent response decisions.
Overestimating the road traction of one's own car can be fatal while taking a sharp turn. I suggest the integration of an instrument which calculates the lateral forces over the next 10 seconds and displays a warning if physical stability limits will be exceeded.
The graph will respond in real time to the vehicle velocity, providing valuable feedback for the driver, especially in critical situations.
Current sensory data (GPS, map data and electronic traction control) are sufficient to provide a steady stability prediction, and existing gauges can be used as display.
If the study proves to be successful, transition towards the new technology would be only a matter of a software update.
A summary about the techniques and assignments from the course about qualitative psychological research.
Topics include:
- Learning mechanisms and beliefs of knowledge
- Business quality evaluation
- Scale development: theory and application
A discourse over the role of persuasive psychology in commercial advertising.
Topics include:
- Advertising psychology over time
- cognitive theories and effects
- rhetoric influences on advertising
- advertising effects on children
Hint:
Download the presentation for extensive presenter explanations (dutch) in the notes section.
A 25-minute summary about our study results.
We tried to expand the Posner paradigm, a framework which links attentive effects to early events of cognitive processing.
In a spatial cueing task, the influence of attentive effects on the P1 component onset was confirmed.
Hint:
Download the presentation for extensive presenter explanations in the notes section.
We tried to expand the Posner paradigm, a framework which links attentive effects to early events of cognitive processing.
In a spatial cueing task, the influence of attentive effects on the P1 component onset was confirmed. The discussion includes speculation about the underlying neural mechanisms.
An extensive review over recent developments and possibilities in the area of medical technology, specifically in genetics.
Topics include:
- background of genetic engineering
- powers behind medical development
- ethical and medical implications for the society
- expectations over future developments
A 20 minute overview over the results of our study.
We attempted to combine the research areas of joint action and implicit learning to provide an explanation for the underlying mechanisms of mirror neurons in joint tasks. Therefore, a shared SRT task in a joint condition was conducted. Joint effects in implicit learning or processing speed were not found. A shared task representation could lead to confusion of competence, a phenomenon explained by ideomotor theory.
Hint:
Download the presentation for extensive presenter explanations in the notes section.
We attempted to combine the research areas of joint action and implicit learning to provide an explanation for the underlying mechanisms of mirror neurons in joint tasks. Therefore, a shared SRT task in a joint condition was conducted. Joint effects in implicit learning or processing speed were not found. A shared task representation could lead to confusion of competence, a phenomenon explained by ideomotor theory.
Review about the problem of burnout among medical assistants and a proposed solution framework.
Topics include:
- theoretical background of the syndrome
- relevant risk groups
- frameworks for behavioral factors
- different approaches for intervention
- concrete realization: cost/time frame
- evaluation of intervention effect
An extensive review over current technology, possibilities and ethical implications in the area of neuronal implants.
Topics include:
- different forms of neuronal implants
- problems with current technology
- future possibilities
A 10-minute summary about the practical application of scale development on the example of narcissism.
Topics include:
- psychological features of narcissism
- therapeutic interpretation
- Scale development: application
Hint:
Download the presentation for extensive presenter explanations in the notes section. Icons will also be displayed correctly.
A 10-minute review about the popular scale "Inventaris Leerstijlen" (Inventory of learning styles) by Vermunt and Rijswijk.
Topics include:
- Scale structure
- Potential methodological problems
- Suggestions for increased validity
Hint:
Download the presentation for extensive presenter explanations in the notes section. Icons will also be displayed correctly.
A 10-minute summary about the practical analysis of different learning styles under college students.
Topics include:
- individual and common factors about good education
- individual and common factors about own experience
- personal conclusions
Hint:
Download the presentation for extensive presenter explanations in the notes section. Icons will also be displayed correctly.
What Are The Immediate Steps To Take When The VW Temperature Light Starts Fla...Import Motorworks
Learn how to respond when the red temperature light flashes in your VW with this presentation. From checking coolant levels to seeking professional help, follow these steps promptly to prevent engine damage and ensure safety on the road.
Welcome to ASP Cranes, your trusted partner for crane solutions in Raipur, Chhattisgarh! With years of experience and a commitment to excellence, we offer a comprehensive range of crane services tailored to meet your lifting and material handling needs.
At ASP Cranes, we understand the importance of reliable and efficient crane operations in various industries, from construction and manufacturing to logistics and infrastructure development. That's why we strive to deliver top-notch solutions that enhance productivity, safety, and cost-effectiveness for our clients.
Our services include:
Crane Rental: Whether you need a crawler crane for heavy lifting or a hydraulic crane for versatile operations, we have a diverse fleet of well-maintained cranes available for rent. Our rental options are flexible and can be customized to suit your project requirements.
Crane Sales: Looking to invest in a crane for your business? We offer a wide selection of new and used cranes from leading manufacturers, ensuring you find the perfect equipment to match your needs and budget.
Crane Maintenance and Repair: To ensure optimal performance and safety, regular maintenance and timely repairs are essential for cranes. Our team of skilled technicians provides comprehensive maintenance and repair services to keep your equipment running smoothly and minimize downtime.
Crane Operator Training: Proper training is crucial for safe and efficient crane operation. We offer specialized training programs conducted by certified instructors to equip operators with the skills and knowledge they need to handle cranes effectively.
Custom Solutions: We understand that every project is unique, which is why we offer custom crane solutions tailored to your specific requirements. Whether you need modifications, attachments, or specialized equipment, we can design and implement solutions that meet your needs.
At ASP Cranes, customer satisfaction is our top priority. We are dedicated to delivering reliable, cost-effective, and innovative crane solutions that exceed expectations. Contact us today to learn more about our services and how we can support your project in Raipur, Chhattisgarh, and beyond. Let ASP Cranes be your trusted partner for all your crane needs!
What Could Be Behind Your Mercedes Sprinter's Power Loss on Uphill RoadsSprinter Gurus
Unlock the secrets behind your Mercedes Sprinter's uphill power loss with our comprehensive presentation. From fuel filter blockages to turbocharger troubles, we uncover the culprits and empower you to reclaim your vehicle's peak performance. Conquer every ascent with confidence and ensure a thrilling journey every time.
How To Fix The Key Not Detected Issue In Mercedes CarsIntegrity Motorcar
Experiencing a "Key Not Detected" problem in your Mercedes? Don’t take it for granted. Go through this presentation to find out the exact nature of the issue you are dealing with. Have your vehicle checked by a certified professional if necessary.
Ever been troubled by the blinking sign and didn’t know what to do?
Here’s a handy guide to dashboard symbols so that you’ll never be confused again!
Save them for later and save the trouble!
Your VW's camshaft position sensor is crucial for engine performance. Signs of failure include engine misfires, difficulty starting, stalling at low speeds, reduced fuel efficiency, and the check engine light. Prompt inspection and replacement can prevent further damage and keep your VW running smoothly.
What Is Recruitment Processing Outsourcing (RPO) Services?Impeccable HR
Impeccable HR provides a wide range of RPO services for your bulk hiring needs within a stipulated period. They meticulously build RPO solutions to improve your recruitment process. RPO services are great for budget-conscious recruiters who want high-quality personnel.
Things to remember while upgrading the brakes of your carjennifermiller8137
Upgrading the brakes of your car? Keep these things in mind before doing so. Additionally, start using an OBD 2 GPS tracker so that you never miss a vehicle maintenance appointment. On top of this, a car GPS tracker will also let you master good driving habits that will let you increase the operational life of your car’s brakes.
Learn why monitoring your Mercedes' Exhaust Back Pressure (EBP) sensor is crucial. Understand its role in engine performance and emission reduction. Discover five warning signs of EBP sensor failure, from loss of power to increased emissions. Take action promptly to avoid costly repairs and maintain your Mercedes' reliability and efficiency.
The Octavia range embodies the design trend of the Škoda brand: a fusion of
aesthetics, safety and practicality. Whether you see the car as a whole or step
closer and explore its unique features, the Octavia range radiates with the
harmony of functionality and emotion
What Could Cause The Headlights On Your Porsche 911 To Stop WorkingLancer Service
Discover why your Porsche 911 headlights might flicker out unexpectedly. From aging bulbs to electrical gremlins and moisture mishaps, we're delving into the reasons behind the blackout. Stay tuned to illuminate the road ahead and ensure your lights shine bright for safer journeys.
What Could Cause The Headlights On Your Porsche 911 To Stop Working
Review: Development and trends in vehicle safety automation
1. Review: Development and trends in vehicle safety automation
Dominic Portain
04/25/10
Abstract
Objective: This review covers the recent 50 years of driving-related research and oers an out-
look into future developments of vehicle safety automation from the perspective of human factors
and ergonomic design. Background: Safety features in automotive design and engineering feature an
increasing amount of automated processes, creating the need for evaluation of driver behavior and
interaction. Structure: A brief comparison of the contemporary, basic approaches regarding automa-
tion is presented to provide a solid foundation for the following topics. After a brief historcal overview
of the related ndings in automotive safety, the focus is changed towards present issues and trends:
the example of intelligent seatbelt indicators is used as an introduction to the discussion between
hard and soft automation. Finally, the combined remarks are compiled into an outlook about the
future development of safety automation in automotive design.
Introduction
Ever since the introduction of the personal automobile, considerable eort was expended to increase
safety for the passengers while driving. The safety devices for early cars were directly adopted from
horse carriers, as both were travelling at approximately the same speed and weight. However, when
automobile parts became more powerful and the electric systems were increasingly portable, new features
- such as the brake light - became neccessary to prevent frequent accidents. Along with the increasingly
miniaturized electronics, essential- as well as comfort and safety features were subject to a strong trend
towards automation. Quickly, indicator lights were blinking in a steady rhythm and the engine didn't
require a crank for startup any more.
Approximately in the early 70s, a paradigm that would later be described as performance-oriented by
Parasuraman Ridley (1997), peaked in its popularity among automotive engineers and designers. Trac
accidents were seen as consequence of lacking mechanic properties of the vehicle parts. As the historic
solutions often excerted undesired behavior in extreme situations (such as self-oscillating suspensions
that cause a barrel roll after aprupt changes of direction), this explanation followed sound reasoning.
Only when the major technical issues were resolved - trac accidents dropping by almost 80% -, another
contributing factor for accidents became increasingly evident. The human in the driver's seat - and his,
often unexplicably low, performance - had to be incorporated into future safety measures as well.
Performance versus Behavior
The major paradigm shift in those decades was led by the increasingly important distinction between
performance and behavior (Lee 2008b). While performance in the traditional sense could be (and, in
military context, was) described as the limit of physical and mental capabilites, behavior was a better
description for the processes in daily trac. In contrast to the military denition, the possible limits
of man and machine were found to be rarely reached even in extreme situations: Casual drivers neither
dispose of the extensive training nor of the clear objectives that make the performance paradigm a valid
assumption in combat situations. Several other factors prove to be inuental to the drivers' behavior:
• limits of perception and attention (especially in heavy trac) decrease the information basis on
which the reactions are based;
1
2. • the three most common impairments - fatigue, distraction and alcohol - decrease reaction speed
and accuracy;
• priorities, safety margins and trade-os (such as the cost of an accident versus the time of arrival)
eectively decrease the general limit of performance;
• personal goals, needs and motivations lead to subjectively biased - and, consequently, unpredictable
- decisions.
Additional to these factors - which are more or less valid for every human driver - individual dierences
play an essential role in modelling the causes of an accident. For example, the risk of having a fatal
accident is increased by ve times for elderly people (80 and beyond), compared to the age group between
40 and 50 years. Although the risk is - similarly - increased tenfold when comparing drivers under the
age of 20 to the reference group, the underlying reason is completely dierent. In order to understand
why the pure risk percentages are insucient in the process of planning a future safety feature, one must
rst acknowledge the inherent complexity and inhomogeneity within its user group. Made possible by
advances in the young eld of cognitive psychology and -ergonomics, several studies were conducted that
introduced a certain amount of transparency into the eld of complex interactions between man and
machine.
Adoption of Technology
Parasuraman Ridley (1997) have introduced four rudamentary but robust categories that describe the
basic forms of interaction: Use, Abuse, Misuse and Disuse. The distinction is reasonably robust because
it is based on the interaction of underlying long-term factors, such as personal skills or design usability.
First, the concept Use describes the ideal type of interaction: the system provides valuable support to
the user's task, and the user decides to engage the automation during adequate situations (e.g., the rain-
intensity dependent windscreen wiper that prevents the user from constantly switching the wiping speed).
In automotive design, solutions that promote use are highly desired because of the decreasing cognitive
workload ( CWL; see Patten et al., 2004) by enabling cognitive outsourcing. In cases of abuse, the user
is willing to accept the system's intervention. However, most likely due to an unforseen combination of
circumstances, the automation does either not provide adequate support, or even counteracts the user. A
prominent example features the safety system in modern aircrafts that prevents full reverse throttle when
no weight is measured on the landing wheels. This principle also holds when the responsible sensor has
failed, preventing a safe landing. Unfortunately, this design aw only becomes apparent at the moment
when the catastrophe is already inevitable.
To understand the following two aspects of awed man-machine interaction, grasping the concept of
operator condence or trust is imperative. Due to a series of psychological factors - including several
misattributed heuristics from social psychology - the operator of a complex system begins to develop
a decision bias in whether to trust in the automated process. As a general rule, trust increases with
the regularity of expected behavior; and is severely decreased after an unexpected event. An operator
condence level that is too high (overestimation of reliability) is attributed with the term misuse, while
a overly low condence level creates disuse. Both processes lead to awed operator decisions concerning
the use of existing automation - either through trusting a system which is not adequately equipped to
cope with the situation (e.g. a parking sensor that is expected to detect light bushes) or through not
engaging the automation even when it could righteously support the user (e.g. turning the parking sensor
o before reversing into one's garage).
For those aspects, it is not only imperative to estimate the amount of perceived condence in the early
design, but also to consider the method of enabling or disabling one specic automation. Additional
to the operator's evaluation whether or not to trust the automation (decision bias), the action also can
inuence the perceived control and risk normalization : current risk psychology assumes that operators
behave in an equilibrium of (perceived) risk and control. The activation of an additional safety mechanism
can lead to an inadequate increase of perceived safety, causing a greater tolerance towards other risks.
For example, this mechanism leads to more careless driving behavior (higher speeds, less safety distance)
when the adaptive cruise control is perceived as capable to execute the neccessary braking maneuvers.
2
3. If, additionally, either road or trac conditions fall outside the implemented parameters, the situation
imperceptibly degrades to misuse. When the safety automation isn't consciously perceived - as, for
example, is the case with seatbelts or airbags - the negative inuence through risk normalization is far
smaller then the actual increase in safety, causing an overall positive eect.
To prevent the occurence of each of the several biases (condence, perceived risk and control pose only a
small, although signicant, sample), current ergonomic design strives to reach a balance of authority (Lee,
2008a): The operator is in complete control as long as he is capable of resolving the situation, yet the
automation takes initiative when it is adequate to provide support. This balance requires an excellent
evaluation of capabilities from either the user or the automation - and careful consideration from the
designer, when including the interface to enable or disable certain automatic safety systems. As these
issues require increasingly detailed psychological insights much more than physical performance data, the
view on automation has generally shifted towards an operator-centric perspective.
Hard or Soft Driving?
The balance of authority is a rather recent prospect to automotive engineers. However, the issue has
already received sucient attention in aviation over the past two decades. The two opposite approaches,
soft and hard automation, are represented prominently through the design paradigms by Boeing and
Airbus. If the process of pulling up a Boeing 777 exceeds the plane's safety limit of structural strength,
the yoke becomes stier - increasing the required force to fulll the critical action (soft automation). In
contrast, the Airbus 380 limits the actions of its pilots to the predened safety margins (hard automation).
In an incident that involved a critical engine failure in a China Airlines 747 in 1985 (see Young, Stanton
and Harris, 2007), the airplane suered signicant structural damage while losing almost 30.000 feet in
an uncontrollable dive. Because the control inputs that led to the recovery of control had exceeded the
safety limits, the plane would have crashed under a hard automation. Overall, the Airbus paradigm is
designed to overrule small control mistakes or human overreactions that could result in larger accidents;
in turn taking control from the pilots when an unforeseen situation occurs (bias towards abuse : designers
ignore operators' skills). The Boeing paradigm, in contrast, is designed to refrain from taking control
even over apparent errors (bias towards disuse : operators ignore automation capabilities) and providing
adequate feedback instead.
Young et al. performed a meta-study to provide an indication which paradigm results in more desirable
results. The indicator in air trac can be directly compared to automotive trac: number of accidents
caused by automation errors in either of the two aircraft types. The data reveals that more than twice as
many major faults were caused by awed automation systems that followed the hard approach. Addition-
ally, many of the Boeing-related accidents were only barely tenuously related to automation, as primarily
being caused by a lack of situational awareness among the crew. In the aviation industry, conclusions
were drawn according to those tendencies. Overly automated systems seem to develop animacy : they are
perceived to have an own will, that has to be defeated when the intentions of humans and automation do
not match. This problem was condensated to a lack of mode awareness : the crew couldn't understand the
procedure that was currently executed by the automation, provoking a blind wrestling for control. For
example, when an automated ight level change was overridden by a manual increase of climb rate, an
invisible mode was activated; resulting in a surprising behavior when this mode causes an error during
the landing procedure (several hours later).
As a resolution to the conict between soft and hard automation, the authors introduce a third philosophy
- again, based on the concept of shared authority. To improve communication between operator and
machine and prevent errors (e.g., of mode awareness), an intuitive feedback system is proposed to be
constructed using usability engineering.
Application
One of the earliest technologies in vehicle safety that incorporate the principle of shared authority is the
concept of intelligent seatbelt indicators (Lie, 2006). This implementation, although technically following
the hard paradigm, refrains from taking control over any driving functions. As an early example of
3
4. successfully shared authority, the safety feature only provides (visible and audible) constant feedback to
the operator when his seatbelt is not engaged yet. The swedish researchers compared seatbelt use in
automobiles with or without seatbelt indicators within urban areas across Europe. The results showed
that the lack of this device is connected to a vefold increased rate of driving without seatbelt. The
seatbelt indicator design uses the risk normalization to its advantage: The actual seatbelt use is perceived
as almost neutral when risk prevention is concerned (see Lee, 2008b). By bringing the lack of a seatbelt to
the drivers' attention, the perceived risk is increased - causing either more careful driving behavior or the
engagement of the seatbelt. An interesting factor concerns perceived control, as drivers' risk perception
is also inuenced by their actual choice whether to wear the seatbelt or not. The system is currently
designed to stop after at least 90 seconds of signaling; the ratio of seatbelt use is expected to decrease
slightly when this is not the case (and drivers feel forced into engaging the seatbelt).
Currently, automobile automation can be classied into one of two categories: vehicle automation and
driving automation (Bishop, 2000). The former (e.g., automatic transmissions, ABS, ESP, classic cruise
control) aects only the lowest level of driving: brakes, gears, accelerator; controlled by the direct prox-
imity (traction, motor revolutions or wheel speed). Driving automation techniques (e.g., adaptive cruise
control, collision avoidance system, parking aids) are, in contrast, context-dependent - inuenced and
controlled by cues from a complex environment. As a result from this inherent complexity, errors and
design aws become much more apparent and inuential when driving automation is implemented under
the paradigm of hard automation: the user has no means, in contrast to the soft paradigm, to override
an erronous intention in a critical situation. Generally, driving automation is therefore better suited for
soft paradigms. The context-independent vehicle control, in comparison, has a far smaller spectrum of
possibilities - which, additionally, are not as well perceived by the driver. Therefore, hard paradigms tend
to be suited better for automation systems that increase the safety and stability of vehicle control. Even
if this categorization already seems to crystallize from concurrent implementations, the sharp separation
of the two paradigms is not only unneccessary, but prevents the incorporation of essential feedback that
could prove useful against human mode errors and cognitive biases.
The consequence of these ndings not only aects future automation in automotive and aviation design,
but also coincides with the paradigm shift that can simultaneously be observed in computer science:
the trend towards steadily increasing automation has come to a standstill. The increasingly important
focus on usability, together with the retention from clustering multiple services to one bundle (e.g., the
Yahoo search portal, the Adobe Creative Suite), provides the user with a perception of greater relevance.
Software and automotive systems become increasingly aware of their limitations, and - as formerly,
the quality of intelligent behavior - balance of authority will become the next most relevant design
consideration. As a result of this subtle paradigm shift, interaction with technical devices will be much
more eortless in the near future - allowing the intuitive incorporation of several automative solutions
into our daily procedures. As the all-in-one paradigm will further decrease in relevance, we will be using
(and depending on) several dierent devices throughout our day - each interface optimized to present
only the most neccessary choices and information.
Finally, the increasingly strong prognosis about the development of fully automated automobiles (ex-
claimed univocally by both futurologists and engineers) will probably not become reality in the next few
decades - until the automation can retain the vehicle control without the need for human intervention.
Ironically, when the automation is more capable than a human driver in all situations, the driver not
only becomes utterly superuous .
Conclusions
The view on interface design and safety automation has undergone a shift towards a user-centric per-
spective. One of the essential aspects concerns the balance of authority between driver and automated
system, which can additionally be inuenced by a variety of psychological factors. The choice for one or
another type of design (e.g., hard or soft automation) can strongly inuence the actual increase of safety
in daily usage.
Designers are strongly adviced to incorporate the users and their cognitive biases already in the early
stages of design. Not only increases usability optimization cost exponentially with the elapsed progress;
the intimate cooperation prevents all involved parties from falling victim to common engineering fallacies.
4
5. References
[Bishop(2000)] R. Bishop. A survey of intelligent vehicle applications worldwide. In Proceedings of the
IEEE Intelligent Vehicles Symposium, volume 2000, 2000.
Human Factors: The Journal of the
[Lee(2008a)] John D. Lee. Fifty years of driving safety research.
Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 50(3):521528, June 2008a. doi: 10.1518/001872008X288376.
URL http://hfs.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/50/3/521.
[Lee(2008b)] John D. Lee. Review of a pivotal human factors article: Humans and automation: Use,
misuse, disuse, abuse. Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society,
50(3):404410, June 2008b. doi: 10.1518/001872008X288547. URL http://hfs.sagepub.com/cgi/
content/abstract/50/3/404.
[Lie et al.(2008)Lie, Krat, Kullgren, and Tingvall] A. Lie, M. Krat, A. Kullgren, and C. Tingvall. In-
telligent seat belt RemindersDo they change driver seat belt use in europe? Trac Injury Preven-
tion, 9(5):446449, 2008.
[Parasuraman and Riley(1997)] R. Parasuraman and V. Riley. Humans and automation: Use, misuse,
disuse, abuse. Human Factors, 39(2), 1997.
[Patten et al.(2004)Patten, Kircher, Östlund, and Nilsson] C. J.D Patten, A. Kircher, J. Östlund, and
L. Nilsson. Using mobile telephones: cognitive workload and attention resource allocation. Accident
analysis prevention, 36(3):341350, 2004.
[Young et al.(2007)Young, Stanton, and Harris] M. S Young, N. A Stanton, and D. Harris. Driving au-
tomation: learning from aviation about design philosophies. International Journal of Vehicle Design,
45(3):323338, 2007.
5