The study investigated the relationships between high parental expectations, adolescents' academic performance, and depression in Hong Kong. It found that high parental expectations were positively associated with academic performance but also positively associated with depression. The relationships were partially mediated by adolescents' value of academic success, self-efficacy, and social support from parents and school. The findings suggest parental expectations can have both benefits and costs for adolescents and social support may play a role in the effects of expectations.

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Journal of Family Issues
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DOI: 10.1177/0192513X18755194
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Article
The Role of High
Parental Expectations in
Adolescents’ Academic
Performance and
Depression in Hong Kong
Ying Ma1, Angela Siu1, and Wai Shing Tse2
Abstract
Extensive research has demonstrated the positive relationship between
parentalexpectationsandadolescents’academicperformance.However,little
attention has been paid to the negative influence of parental expectations on
adolescents’ emotion well-being. The present study investigated the effects
of high parental expectations on both academic performance and depression
of adolescents. In addition, it also explored whether these relationships
could be mediated through adolescents’ value of academic success, self-
efficacy, and supports from parents and school. The sample consisted of
872 adolescents from secondary schools in Hong Kong and the results
revealed that high parental expectations were positively associated with
adolescents’ academic performance and also positively associated with their
depression. The mediating roles of adolescents’ value of academic success
and school support frequency were also confirmed. This study provides
some implications for parenting practice by clarifying the complex roles of
parental expectations and the need for social support for adolescents.
1The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR
2Tung Wah College, Kowloon, Hong Kong, SAR
Corresponding Author:
Angela Siu, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Ho Tim Building, Shatin, NT, Hong Kong.
Email: afysiu@cuhk.edu.hk
755194JFIXXX10.1177/0192513X18755194Journal of Family IssuesMa et al.
research-article2018

2. 2 Journal of Family Issues 00(0)
Keywords
parental expectations, academic performance, depression, adolescents
Introduction
Parental expectations are generally defined as parents’ beliefs and judgments
about their children’s future achievements as reflected in course grades, how
far their children will go in school, expected highest level of education, and
so forth (e.g., DiBartolo & Rendón, 2012; Neuenschwander, Vida, Garrett, &
Eccles, 2007). Many previous studies have shown that parental expectations
are positively associated with children’s high academic performance
(Danişman, 2017; Yamamoto & Holloway, 2010; Zhan, 2006) and parental
expectations may have a significant long-term effect on children’s academic
achievement from childhood until the period of adolescence (Froiland,
Peterson, & Davison, 2013). However, relatively few studies focused on the
influence of high parental expectations beyond the realm of adolescents’aca-
demic performance to investigate issues such as their depressive symptoms
(Supple & Cavanaugh, 2013). Adolescence is a highly significant period
accompanied by physical, psychological, and social transformations, and is
also characterized with increased vulnerability to depression (Petersen et al.,
1993). As adolescents face multifarious types of stressors, depressive symp-
toms may occur if they are unable to adequately cope with such stressors.
When high parental expectations cannot be fulfilled, parents may respond
critically to their children’s failures, which in turn may induce stress and
depression in adolescents (Ang & Huan, 2006; DiBartolo & Rendón, 2012).
Studies have demonstrated that high parental expectations are associated
with high parental criticism (DiBartolo & Rendón, 2012; Madjar, Voltsis, &
Weinstock, 2015), which may result in adolescents’ negative emotions, such
as depression.
Overall, high parental expectations may be a double-edged sword in terms
of adolescents’development. On the one hand, high parental expectations are
positively associated with adolescents’ academic performance. On the other
hand, high parental expectations may serve as a stressor and induce depres-
sion of adolescents. Given that few researchers have simultaneously consid-
ered both the positive and negative effects of parental expectations, the
present study addresses this gap by examining the associations of high paren-
tal expectations with adolescents’ academic performance, as well as their
depression. In addition, the mechanisms underlying these relationships would
also be investigated in this study.

3. Ma et al. 3
Parental Expectations and Academic Performance
Although many previous studies have confirmed a positive relationship
between parental expectations and their children’s academic performance,
little empirical evidence has been provided to explain the mechanisms under-
lying this relationship. Yamamoto and Holloway (2010) have proposed that
parental expectations may influence children’s academic performance
through four aspects, including children’s motivation, self-efficacy beliefs,
parental involvement, and teachers’positive evaluations. In the present study,
the mechanism underlying the relationship between high parental expecta-
tions and adolescents’ academic performance is explored based on these four
proposed aspects.
To begin with, high parental expectations indicate that parents place high
value on their children’s achievements. Based on the ecological systems the-
ory (Bronfenbrenner, 1979) and expectancy-value theory (Wigfield & Eccles,
2002), it can be determined that adolescents’ expectations and values are
influenced by their parents. Adolescents tend to internalize parental expecta-
tions and incorporate them into their own expectations for success, which in
turn may contribute to their academic achievement (Zhang, Haddad, Torres,
& Chen, 2011). Previous studies have supported the idea that parental aca-
demic expectations are positively associated with adolescents’ academic
expectations (Froiland et al., 2013; Yeung et al., 2010). Research has also
shown that parental expectations are associated with children’s engagement
and motivation to achieve academic success, which in turn help enhance their
academic performance (Lazarides, Viljaranta, Aunola, Pesu, & Nurmi, 2016;
Long & Pang, 2016; Yeung et al., 2010). Consistent with previous studies, the
present study proposes that high parental expectations are associated with
adolescents’ academic performance through the mediating role of adoles-
cents’ value of academic success.
Parental expectation is also associated with children’s self-efficacy
(Simpkins, Fredricks, & Eccles, 2012). Researchers have posited that adoles-
cents’ self-concept of ability can be cultivated by the context of feedback,
especially feedback from important individuals around them such as parents
(Gniewosz, Eccles, & Noack, 2015; Pesu,Aunola, Viljaranta, & Nurmi, 2016).
Adolescents with higher parental expectations tend to have higher level of
self-efficacy, since their parents are more likely to give encouragement and
positive feedback about their abilities, which may contribute to adolescents’
self-concept of ability (Gniewosz et al., 2015; Simpkins et al., 2012). For
example, the research of Neuenschwander et al. (2007) has shown that the
relationship between parents’ expectations and adolescents’ achievement can

4. 4 Journal of Family Issues 00(0)
be mediated by adolescents’self-concept of ability. In addition, some previous
studies have also shown that self-efficacy is positively associated with adoles-
cents’ academic performance (e.g., Bong, 2001; Zuffianò et al., 2013).
Therefore, the positive relationship between high parental expectations and
adolescents’ academic performance seems to be mediated by adolescents’
self-efficacy.
Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological model can provide a framework to
identify the interactions between individuals and the entire ecological system
in which they grow. Parental expectations may facilitate adolescents’ aca-
demic performance through the involvement of parents and teachers. Parents
with higher expectations are more likely to set higher standards for their chil-
dren’s performance, be involved in their children’s studies, and provide more
supportive resources than parents with lower expectations (Yeung et al.,
2010; Zhan, 2006). Prior studies have reported that parents with high expec-
tations are more likely to engage in their children’s achievement-related
activities and provide their children with more support, such as helping with
their homework and monitoring their academic progress, or providing more
educational resources for their children (Englund, Luckner, Whaley, &
Egeland, 2004; Long & Pang, 2016; Simpkins et al., 2012). Moreover, chil-
dren may also receive more school support resources through high parental
involvement, such as parental communication with teachers and parents’
attendance at school activities and meetings (Miedel & Reynolds, 2000;
Shumow & Miller, 2001). Schools and teachers may hold high expectations
and provide more support for children whose parents have high expectations
for their academic success (Yamamoto & Holloway, 2010). It has been con-
firmed that supports from both parents and teachers are positively associated
with adolescents’ academic performance (Malecki & Demaray, 2006;
Rosenfeld, Richman, & Bowen, 2000). Therefore, high parental expectations
seem to facilitate frequent support from parents and schools that, in turn help
improve adolescents’ academic performance.
Parental Expectations and Depression
There is hardly any debate among researchers and educators about the fact
that parental expectations are pivotal to adolescents’ academic success.
However, research about the relationship between high parental expecta-
tions and adolescents’ depression is still rare. The ecological systems theory
(Bronfenbrenner, 1979), which is used in the present study, shows how the
systems that may influence adolescents’ development range from the family
context to the entire surrounding culture, and that these have the potential to
significantly shape the adolescents’ psychological development. The

5. Ma et al. 5
consequences of parenting can also vary across different cultures (Darling,
2007). Research has found that Asian American children are more likely to
have poor psychological and social adjustment, despite their high levels of
educational achievement compared with other ethnic groups (Choi, Kim,
Kim, & Park, 2013; Qin, 2008), and parental expectations may serve as an
external stressor for adolescents. Specifically, in the Asian context, both
adolescents’ self-expectations and expectations from others, such as parents
and teachers, are particularly associated with academic stress (Ang & Huan,
2006). If adolescents’ own expectations and the expectations of significant
others are unable to be met, it may cause them significant amounts stress and
potentially result in decreased self-confidence and loss of face among their
families, eventually leading to depression (Ang & Huan, 2006). It has been
demonstrated that Asian American parents are more likely to hold higher
expectations than parents from other ethnic groups, and higher parental
expectations are associated with more outstanding academic performance
among Asian Americans as compared with other ethnic groups (DiBartolo &
Rendón, 2012; Qin, 2008).
In Chinese culture as practiced in Hong Kong, adolescents are generally
more collectively minded and obedient to their parents, and in order to meet
parental expectations they often work hard to get high grades and avoid dis-
appointing their parents (Chen & Lan, 1998). Chinese traditional Confucian
beliefs emphasize parental responsibility for training children and having
them achieve success in terms of academic performance, and parents who fail
to help their children succeed are often considered to be irresponsible and
incapable (Chao, 1994; Kwok & Wong, 1999). Chinese parents tend to have
high expectations of their children’s academic performance and be more con-
trolling and restrictive, and all of these aspects of parenting may be associ-
ated with adolescents’ stress and negative emotions (Borelli, Margolin, &
Rasmussen, 2014; Kwok & Wong, 1999). A study in China found that adoles-
cents place high value on their studies and put great effort into enhancing
their academic performance, and if they are unable to meet their parental
expectations, they may develop feelings of shame, hopelessness, and worth-
lessness, which are associated with depression (Wang, Fan, Xue, & Zhou,
2015). It is thus reasonable to assume that the high expectations of Chinese
parents would be associated with a high incidence of depression among
Chinese adolescents.
The mechanisms underlying the relationship between high parental
expectations and adolescents’ depression are also explored in the present
study based on the four mechanisms proposed by Yamamoto and Holloway
(2010). Although adolescents’ value of academic success may positively
relate to their academic performance, the relatively high value of academic

6. 6 Journal of Family Issues 00(0)
success and related high self-expectations may also bring adolescents a
considerable amount of academic stress, which then induces depression.
Sideridis (2005) has posited that a performance orientation may create a
vulnerability to depression in the case of repeated failure. Thus, higher
value of academic performance among adolescents may be associated with
higher levels of depression. Regarding the mediating role of self-efficacy,
many previous studies have confirmed that self-efficacy is negatively asso-
ciated with adolescents’ negative emotions such as anxiety and depression
(e.g., Muris, 2002; Vieno, Santinello, Pastore, & Perkins, 2007). With refer-
ence to the mediating roles of support from parents and schools, it has been
widely demonstrated that types of social support, including parent and
teacher supports, are negatively associated with adolescents’ depression
(e.g., Chu, Saucier, & Hafner, 2010; Vieno et al., 2007). Therefore, it is
reasonable to propose that the four mechanisms of adolescents’ value of
academic performance, self-efficacy, parent support, and school support
could also serve as mediators between high parental expectations and ado-
lescents’ depression.
The Present Study
This study has three major objectives. The first objective is to examine the
relationship between high parental expectations and adolescents’ academic
performance. The second is to investigate the relationship between high
parental expectations and adolescents’ depression. It is proposed that high
parental expectations are positively associated with adolescents’ academic
performance and also positively associated with their depression. The third
objective is to identify the indirect effects of high parental expectations on
adolescents’ academic performance and depression through the mediating
roles of adolescents’ value of academic success, self-efficacy, parental sup-
port, and school support.
Method
Participants and Procedure
Data were collected from seven secondary schools in Hong Kong and mainly
based on convenience sampling. A total of 929 questionnaires were distrib-
uted, with 872 completed questionnaires returned (437 females, 435 males),
resulting in a return rate of 94%. Among this sample of 872, the mean age of
the participants was 15.65 years (SD = 1.42), with ages ranging from 12 to
18 years.

7. Ma et al. 7
After receiving ethics approval from the researchers’ university, question-
naires were distributed to the schools via class teachers. All participants com-
pleted their questionnaires on a voluntary basis. The questionnaire took
approximately 15 minutes to complete. All completed questionnaires were
then returned to the researchers via the school.
Measures
High Parental Expectations. High Parental Expectations (HPE; Fuligni, 1997)
is a four-item scale used to assess adolescents’ perceptions of the extent to
which their parents have high expectations of their academic performance.
Participants were asked to rate each item on a 5-point scale ranging from 1
(almost never) to 5 (almost always). Items include statements such as “My
parents expect me to be one of the best students in my class,” “My parents
would be disappointed if I did not get mostly A’s on my report card,” and
“My parents would not be satisfied if I received a B+ on a test.” This scale
has good internal consistency, with a Cronbach’s alpha of .77 (Fuligni, 1997).
The Cronbach’s alpha in the present study was .80.
Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale for Children. The Center
for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale for Children (CES-DC) is a
20-item scale commonly used for screening depressive symptoms in chil-
dren and adolescents. Each item is a short and simple statement about the
emotional, cognitive, and behavior-related components of depression. This
scale is based on a pool of items from the Center of Epidemiologic Studies
Depression Scale (CES-D) for adults developed by Radloff (1977) and
modified for children. For example, the CES-D item “I felt like everything
I did was an effort” was modified to “I felt like I was too tired to do things.”
The items are evaluated on a 4-point Likert-type scale in relation to one’s
incidence during the previous week. Each item is scored from 0 (rarely or
none of the time) to 3 (most or all of the time). Higher scores indicate more
symptoms relating to depression. The psychometric properties of the CES-
DC are good and there is adequate internal consistency, with Cronbach’s
alphas ranging from .71 to .91 (Barkmann, Erhart Schulte-Markwort, &
BELLA Study Group, 2008). In the present study, the Cronbach’s alpha of
this scale was .84.
Adolescents’Value of Academic Success. Adolescents’ value of academic suc-
cess (AVAS) was determined using a modified version of the Parents’ Value
of Academic Success (PVAS; Fuligni, 1997), with the target individuals
being changed from the parents to adolescents themselves. For example,

8. 8 Journal of Family Issues 00(0)
items were changed to statements such as “I do well in school” and “I get an
‘A’ on almost every test.” Each item is rated on a 5-point scale ranging from
1 (not important) to 5 (extremely important) to reflect how important aca-
demic success was to the participant. Fuligni (1997) reported good internal
consistency for the AVAS items, with a Cronbach’s alpha of .86. The Cron-
bach’s alpha in the present study was .88.
General Perceived Self-Efficacy Scale. The General Perceived Self-Efficacy
Scale (GPSES; Schwarzer, 1993) consists of 10 items and assesses a general
sense of perceived self-efficacy on a 4-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1
(not at all true) to 4 (completely true). The scale assesses belief in one’s capa-
bility to handle new and difficult tasks in a variety of different domains.
Scholz, Doña, Sud, and Schwarzer (2002) reported that the internal consis-
tency coefficient for a variety of samples and countries ranged from .75 to
.91. In the present study, the Cronbach’s alpha was .82.
Child and Adolescent Social Support Scale. The Child and Adolescent Social
Support Scale (CASSS; Malecki, Demaray, & Elliott, 2000) is a scale that
measures perceived social support. Each subscale corresponds to one of the
four types of support (emotional, informational, appraisal, and instrumen-
tal). There are 12 items pertaining to each type, with 3 items tapping each
of the 4 types of support. The CASSS offers a comprehensive measurement
of five sources (parent, teacher, classmate, friend, school) for each of the
four different types of support. For the purposes of this study, only the par-
ent and school support sources were explored. Example statements include
“My parent(s) help(s) me make decisions.” Frequency ratings are based on
a 6-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (never) to 6 (always). Reliability
analysis has provided evidence that scores on the CASSS demonstrate a
strong internal consistency among subscale scores, with internal consis-
tency ranging from .92 to .96 (Malecki et al., 2000). In the present study,
the Cronbach’s alphas for the parent and school support subscales were .92
and .83, respectively.
Academic Performance. Academic performance in the present study was mea-
sured using the participants’ self-reported overall average score on the recent
exam. The item question was “What is the average score you received on
your recent exam?” Participants were asked to do the mental calculation and
come up with the average mark based on the recent exam. For the purposes
of the present study, scores were classified into the five categories of 1 (50 or
below), 2 (51-60), 3 (61-70), 4 (71-80), and 5 (81 or above).

9. Ma et al. 9
Data Analyses
The mean values and standard deviations for each variable were analyzed
using the SPSS 20.0 software, and this was followed by analysis of the inter-
correlations of variables. Path analysis was applied to calculate the relation-
ships among variables using a maximum likelihood estimator. Additionally, a
bootstrapping procedure was used to analyze indirect effects. The path analy-
sis and bootstrapping procedure were conducted using Amos 21.0.
Results
Descriptive statistics and correlations among variables are shown in Table 1.
High parental expectations, value of academic success, self-efficacy, parental
support frequency, and school support frequency were all positively associ-
ated with academic performance. The correlations ranged from low (.08) to
moderate (.23). In addition, high parental expectations and adolescents’value
of academic success were both positively associated with depression. Self-
efficacy, parental support frequency, school support frequency, and academic
performance were all negatively associated with depression, with the correla-
tions ranging from −.11 to −.20.
Figure 1 shows the empirical estimations of the proposed theoretical
model (standardized estimates reported). Age and gender were controlled in
path analysis of the proposed model, and the fitness of the model was found
to be acceptable (χ2/df = 2.56, root mean square error of approximation =
0.04, comparative fit index = 0.98, Tucker–Lewis index = 0.93). The results
demonstrated that high parental expectations were positively associated with
adolescents’ value of academic success and school support frequency. In
addition, adolescents’ value of academic success and school support fre-
quency were both positively associated with academic performance. High
parentalexpectationswerepositivelyassociatedwithdepression.Adolescents’
self-efficacy, parental support frequency, and school support frequency were
negatively associated with depression, whereas the value of academic suc-
cess was positively associated with depression.
A bootstrapping procedure of 5,000 samples was used to assess indirect
effects. If zero is not included within the lower and upper confidence inter-
vals (CIs), the indirect effects can be considered significant. The total effect
of high parental expectations on academic performance was significant (β =
.09, bootstrap 95% CI = [.02, .15]), and the indirect effect on academic per-
formance (β = .10, bootstrap 95% CI = [.06, .13]) was also significant.
However, the direct effect of high parental expectations on adolescents’ aca-
demic performance was not significant (β = −.01, bootstrap 95% CI = [−.08,

10. 10
Table1. Means,StandardDeviations,andCorrelationsAmongVariables.
VariablesMSD12345678
1.Highparentalexpectations9.963.34—
2.Valueofacademicsuccess12.253.580.40**—
3.Self-efficacy14.515.720.060.13**—
4.Parentsupportfrequency39.0911.990.040.21**0.21**—
5.Schoolsupportfrequency34.049.600.09**0.17**0.22**0.33**—
6.Academicperformance2.131.090.09**0.23**0.09**0.08*0.22**—
7.Depression23.1610.400.22**0.10**−0.15**−0.19**−0.20**−0.11**—
8.Age15.651.42−0.01−0.05−0.03−0.05−0.10**−0.32**0.09**—
9.Gender1.500.500.010.10**−0.19**0.050.28**0.23**0.03−0.04
*p<.05.**p<.01.

11. Ma et al. 11
.07]). With respect to depression, the total effect of high parental expectations
on depression was significant (β = .22, bootstrap 95% CI = [.15, .28]), while
high parental expectations also had a direct positive effect on depression (β =
.21, bootstrap 95% CI = [.14, .28]). The indirect effect of high parental expec-
tations on depression, however, was not significant (β = .01, bootstrap 95%
CI = [−.03, .04]).
Overall, the results showed that high parental expectations had a positive
total effect on academic performance. As the direct effect of high parental
expectations on academic performance was not significant, it was found that
the relationship between high parental expectations and academic perfor-
mance could be fully mediated by the mediating variables of adolescents’
value of academic success and school support frequency. Additionally, high
parental expectations also had a positive total effect on depression. The rela-
tionship between high parental expectations and depression could not be
mediated by the proposed mediating variables in the present study, whereas
the direct effect of high parental expectations on depression was significant.
Discussion
The present study has explored an integrative model linking high parental
expectations to adolescents’ academic performance and depression through
the mediating roles of adolescents’ value of academic success, self-efficacy,
Figure 1. Path diagram of the studied variables.
Note. The estimates are standardized. Age and gender are controlled in the path analysis.
Solid lines indicate that estimates are significant. Dashed lines indicate that estimates are not
significant.
*p < .05. **p < .01.

12. 12 Journal of Family Issues 00(0)
parental support frequency, and school support frequency. The results mainly
showed that, on the one hand, high parental expectations were positively
associated with adolescents’ academic performance through adolescents’
value of academic success and school support frequency, while on the other
hand, high parental expectations were directly and positively associated with
adolescents’ depression.
As expected, the results showed that high parental expectations could
have an indirect effect on academic performance, mainly through adoles-
cents’ value of academic success and school support frequency. Based on the
expectancy-value theory, parental expectations may be internalized by their
children, which in turn might help improve adolescents’ value of academic
success (Zhang et al., 2011). In addition, high parental expectations may lead
to improved involvement of teachers. The increased school support frequency
could help adolescents improve their academic performance (Shumow &
Miller, 2001). However, the results of the present study showed that the
effects of high parental expectations on adolescents’ self-efficacy and paren-
tal support frequency were not significant. A previous meta-analysis has
shown that there are some cultural differences concerning the influence of
parental expectations. For Asian cultures such as Chinese and Japanese,
parental expectations may not be significantly associated with children’s self-
efficacy and parents’ involvement (Yamamoto & Holloway, 2010). A possi-
ble explanation may be that, in Asian cultures, although parents generally
have high expectations for their children’s academic performance, they are
less likely to provide direct help, such as by discussing their children’s school
experiences or assisting them with their school work, as compared with other
cultural groups (Peng & Wright, 1994). Another reason may be that, in
Chinese cultures, parents tend to directly express their expectations and val-
ues, but express their love and support less directly, so that their children may
perceive less warmth from their parents as compared with what the parents
actually feel (Wu & Chao, 2011). Furthermore, in the present study, because
parental support frequency was measured from the adolescents’ perceived
perspective, adolescents may underestimate the support frequency of their
parents due to their parents’ relative lack of direct expression in Chinese cul-
ture. The results also reported that the self-efficacy of adolescents could not
predict academic performance. This finding is in line with previous research
suggesting that self-efficacy is not associated with high achievement of ado-
lescents in Asian cultures, and that their fear of failure is associated with
academic performance (Yamamoto & Holloway, 2010). Additionally, parents
with high expectations in Chinese culture may exert more control and express
criticism rather than direct support toward their children, which in turn might
not contribute to their children’s self-efficacy (Eaton & Dembo, 1997;

13. Ma et al. 13
Yamamoto & Holloway, 2010). Overall, the results of the present study are in
line with the ecological systems theory, which emphasizes that outside envi-
ronment systems, such as family, school, and culture, and the complex inter-
actions of these systems may exert a significant influence on adolescent
development (Bronfenbrenner, 1979).
With regard to depression among adolescents, the results found that high
parental expectations were positively associated with adolescent depression.
Adolescents’ value of academic success was also positively associated with
depression, while parental support frequency, school support frequency, and
self-efficacy of adolescents were all negatively associated with adolescents’
depression. These results are consistent with previous studies, which suggest
that high parental expectations may lead to adolescents’ stress and cause
depressed moods (Qin, 2008). And social support is an important resource
that can help reduce adolescents’ depression (Vieno et al., 2007). The direct
effect of high parental expectations on adolescents’ depression was signifi-
cant, but the indirect effect was not. These results suggest that certain vari-
ables, such as adolescents’ self-efficacy, parental support frequency, and
school support frequency, did not serve as mediating roles between high
parental expectations and adolescents’ depression. A possible reason for this
result may be that parents in Chinese culture who have higher expectations of
adolescents’ academic performance may not simultaneously provide suffi-
cient support, and instead may be more critical toward adolescents if their
expectations are not met. Perception of parental criticism is likely to induce
adolescents’ own self-criticism and worries about mistakes, which may in
turn lead to depression (Madjar et al., 2015). It is thus necessary to note that,
although the positive aspects of high parental expectations may facilitate
adolescents’ academic performance, the negative aspects of high parental
expectations especially in Chinese culture may also result in high level of
depression among adolescents.
Limitations and Implications of the Study
Overall, this study contributes to the existing literature in terms of several
aspects. First, it simultaneously investigated the effects of high parental
expectations on adolescents’ academic performance and depression. The
results supported the idea that high parental expectations exist as a double-
edged sword, which might facilitate adolescents’ academic performance and
induce their depression at the same time. Second, the present study is an
important step in examining the mediating roles, such as adolescents’ value
of academic success and school support frequency, between high parental
expectations and adolescents’ academic performance and depression, which

14. 14 Journal of Family Issues 00(0)
helps elucidate the underlying mechanisms of high parental expectations on
adolescents’ development. Additionally, from a practical perspective, clari-
fying the different effects of high parental expectations on adolescents’ aca-
demic performance and depression may have implications for educators and
parents, revealing not only that parental expectations might help adolescents
achieve success for academic performance but also that the potential nega-
tive impact of high parental expectations on adolescents’ emotional well-
being should be taken into consideration. Together with high parental
expectations, more social supports should also be provided toward adoles-
cents at the same time.
Some limitations and future implications of the present study should
also be noted. First, this study only relied on self-report data from adoles-
cents. Future research should include ratings from parents, teachers, and
peers. Additionally, in the present study, measurements of academic per-
formance were taken from adolescents’ self-rated recent exam scores.
Future research should utilize a more standardized test or assessment to
measure academic performance. Second, with the cross-sectional study
design, the causal relationships between variables could not be determined
in the present study. Future research is necessary to engage in a longitudi-
nal study to clarify causal relationships. Third, the sample of the present
study depends on convenience and voluntary participation, which may
induce some self-selected sampling bias. To improve the generalizability
of the current results, research on a more random sample is needed to con-
firm the results. Since this study was conducted in Hong Kong, and its
results therefore may only be relevant to this region and not to other coun-
tries in Asia or even to Mainland China. Another limitation is that this
study only investigated the meditating mechanisms of high parental expec-
tations from positive perspectives, including self-efficacy, parent and
school support frequency, and adolescents’ value of academic success,
which are more strongly associated with academic performance. Future
research should also take into account variables such as parental criticism
and adolescents’ perceived stress to explore in depth the mechanisms
underlying the relationship between high parental expectations and ado-
lescents’ depression. In general, the findings of this study indicate that
parents should be advised to set high expectations, while at the same time
providing more supports for adolescents.
Authors’ Note
The author, “Ying Ma” is now affiliated with Shaanxi Normal University, China,
Shaanxi.

15. Ma et al. 15
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publi-
cation of this article.
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