Ashley-Tim-Manuscript (3)

Gender Differencesin Early Academics 1
Gender, Academic Achievement, & Early Childhood Experiences
Ashley Weimar*
Tim Jahnke**
Undergraduate Students: Department of Human Development and Family Studies
Advised by: Susan M. Wolfgram, Ph.D.
University of Wisconsin-Stout

Abstract
“Currently, the goal that children achieve skills that seem developmentally significant at
certain ages has replaced and discounted concerns that children engage in developmentally
appropriate behavior, especially in ways of learning (Ranz-Smith, 2007, as cited in Ray & Smith,
2010, p. 5). This nonrandom piolet study investigated 74 male and female college students on
whether their early childhood education experiences impacted their academic achievement. It
was hypothesized that there would be a difference between genders in how their educational
experiences effected their academic achievement through literature and the Social Learning
Theory. Survey data was statistically analyzed using Independent T-tests and Cross tabulations.
Results indicated mixed support for our hypothesis where we found a statistical significant
difference between genders with the majority of males agreeing that sports related extracurricular
activities during elementary school positively impacted their academic achievement.
Implications for practitioners are that it cannot be assumed that academic achievement during
elementary school can be determined by gender based on the participant’s early childhood
education experiences. Future research would benefit greatly from a large national, randomized
sample that would be inclusive of participant’s lived experiences qualitative interviews to
provide helpful information on the relationship between gender and how early childhood
experiences could impact academic achievement.
*Keywords: academic, achievement, students, school, experiences, elementary

Kindergarten was once known as a place where students could use creativity, exploration,
and play to learn. As times have changed education has become less focused on these hands-on
learning opportunities and more focused on strict academic state requirements for students to
demonstrate their achievement (Ray & Smith, 2010). “The importance of early childhood
education cannot be underestimated. Students’ early educational experiences are of interest since
early deficits are difficult, if not impossible, to resolve” (Fradd & Lee, 1999, as cited in Stull,
2013, p. 53). Our research question investigated the relationship between academic achievement,
gender differences, and how they correlate to early childhood education experiences. According
to Ray and Smith (2010) "children's preferred ways of learning appear to be at odds with typical
school practices and structure" (as cited in Cullingford, 2007, p. 5) The conflicting problem
between how children learn best and a school’s way of teaching have been known to have a
negative impact on a child's academic achievement. We are hoping to contribute to our field by
investigating if there are gendered differences on how early elementary experiences have
impacted the surveyed student’s views on education in relation to their academic achievement.
We will be using our findings to provide information to school systems about the importance of
creating a learning environment where all children can thrive and learn the most effectively.
“Parents of the highest achieving kindergarten students expected them to go further than those in
the lower achievement categories, and girls are expected to attain more education than boys”
(Stull, 2013, p. 61). The current literature does not adequately address if there are gender
differences within academic achievement.

Literature Review
There is limited research investigating the gendered differences between elementary early
childhood experiences and future academic achievement. This review was restricted to the
United States and for articles published within the last ten years. The Ebsocohost database was
used to search for articles that related to early childhood experiences and academic achievement.
Many of our articles were representative of all children and how their childhood experiences
impacted their academic functioning. The purpose of the review was to examine the relationship
between the different factors in a child’s surroundings and how their surroundings affected their
academic achievement based on gender. The articles were consistent in reflecting the importance
of family and school involvement, but the authors did not investigate differences in gender.
Family and school involvement are the two themes which were most common within our
articles. Parents who have a relationship with both their child and their child’s school help to
create a thriving learning environment for the child. One study found children who receive
assistance with their homework typically can have a more positive attitude towards their
education. Another study indicates that parents who showed a lack of empathy for their child’s
emotions, had a higher chance of negatively impacting their emotional development. Issues
addressed within our articles were the child’s economic status, lack of parental involvement, and
availability of after school programs. The populations focused on in these studies were adults,
children, and families. Lastly, the studies included recommendations for the improvement on the
social and emotional development of the child while stressing the importance of family and
school involvement (Monti, Pomerantz, & Rosiman, 2014; Stull, 2013; Denham, Bassett, &
Zinsser, 2012; Ray & Smith, 2010; Cosden, Morrison, Gutierrez, & Brown, 2004).

The purpose of the research by Monti et al. (2014) was to evaluate parents’ involvement
in their child’s education and how insensitive parenting can effect a child’s academic
achievement. The authors found that parents’ insensitivity can be directly related to the negative
effects of academic functioning both in the present and future. Insensitive parenting was present
when it was evident that the parents were uninvolved in the child’s education which affected the
child’s classroom engagement and performance on tests. Throughout this study they measured
three forms of the children’s academic functioning which were classroom engagement,
performance on standardized tests, and teacher accounts of academic competencies. They found
that the earlier the mothers displayed insensitivity, the poorer their children performed in each of
these forms of academic functioning. Overall, the researchers discovered that the parent’s
involvement in their children’s early education directly related to helping children achieve
academically.
Stull (2013) studied how a family’s socioeconomic status (SES) affected a child’s
educational achievement. The research focused specifically on Kindergarteners in the United
States. They discovered that the desire a parent has for their children to get a Bachelor’s degree
increases with the family SES. For this a meditation model was used to indicate the direct effects
of the family’s SES score on achievement. Research found that the direct effects were greater.
When looking at parents’ expectations, they found minority student parents were more
ambitious. When comparing boys to girls, they found girls were expected to be more
academically successful. To conclude, Stull provided little information on why girls were
expected to achieve higher than boys academically.
The purpose of the research by Denham et al. (2012) was to explore the different roles
teachers have in the classroom, contributing to the development of young children’s emotional

competence. In addition to the main research the author presents results from previous testing of
the effects of positive role modeling from the caregiver at an early age. This study presented
how important an emotional competent caregiver is. This leads to the positive effects it has on
children’s understanding of proper emotional behavior throughout their pre-school and
elementary school years. The author also explores the teachers in training and how there is a lack
of preparation to encourage emotional competence in the classroom. According to the article
there needs to be more coordinated efforts to understand how teachers can contribute their
knowledge to support children’s emotions.
Ray and Smith (2010) studied a day in kindergarten from the perspective of the whole
child which according to the article is defined as a child’s cognitive and emotional development.
The study reviewed current research on the best practices used in the classroom to help enhance
a child’s academic performance as well as the impact that family and social experiences have on
the child. This study relates how teacher student relationships have positive effects on children
in both their spelling and grammar during their preschool and kindergarten years. The article
concludes with information about the movement to remove an atmosphere filled with play and
exploration such as recess, and instead incorporating more of a learning type of environment.
This research also shows the possible negative outcomes children may face if their early
education is spent on learning instead of exploring their thoughts and becoming more socially
active from childhood play. This is due to strict educational policies that have been put into
place which limits teachers’ freedom of incorporating play into the classroom.
Research by Cosden et al. (2004) studied the effects of homework programs and
extracurricular activities on a child’s academic success. Studies have shown children who
participate in an organized after-school activity have a higher educational outcome. They have

found after-school homework programs provide students with the necessary structure and
direction they need. Students also are provided with assistance in their academics as well as
learning the importance of studying. In conclusion, Cosden et al. (2004) shows through his
research that after school programs can help children achieve academically, build relationships
within their school, reduce stress, and help them to achieve academically.
The literature (Monti et al., 2014; Stull 2013; Denham et al., 2012; Ray & Smith, 2010;
Cosden et al., 2004) has established the importance of the relationship between the child’s
surroundings and the different factors which impact their academic success. One of the
problems these studies have not addressed revolve around these experiences and how they are
different based on the child’s gender. This can affect how successful a child becomes as they
advance through their academic and professional career. This quantitative study examined the
relationship between academic achievements according to early childhood experiences based on
gender in a sample of college students.
Theoretical Framework
The theory used to inform this study was the Social Learning Theory. This theory shows
us that modeled behavior for an individual is displayed by the primary caregiver. These
experiences the child has from the caregiver and/or their family can display either positive or
negative effects depending on how direct or indirect the caregiver and/or family is (Weis, 2005).
This can affect their academic success in their future by not having specific coping mechanisms
because of stress and negative attitudes towards another individual. Children who experience a
disturbed attachment usually have poor supervision from their caregiver and have a lack of
opportunity with basic problem solving skills (Bengtson, Acock, Allen, Dilworth-Anderson, &
Klein, 2005). According to the Social Learning Theory individuals learn from one another by

observing other’s behaviors and attitudes. Through an individual’s observations they in turn
learn how to behave through modeling by the primary caregiver.
Social Learning Theory would be applicable to the early childhood experiences that
affect the child’s academic success either negatively or positively depending on their parent
involvement, social and emotional development, extracurricular activities, and their social class.
Children learn through social media and their relationships with family and peers through
modeling within their society (Bengtson, et al., 2005). Teacher and child relationships can be
viewed as being constructive or destructive in relation to their academic achievement. Gender
differences may have different effects on the child’s academic achievement based on their
relationships with individuals who play an active role in their life. According to Aidan Sammons
(2009), a child is likely to behave more like those that are similar to themselves and it is also
more probable to imitate behavior modeled by people the same sex. Throughout research it has
been known that individuals learn, react, and develop differently and that girls and boys have
different punishments and reinforcements for their behavior. For example Dweck et al. (1978)
found that “teachers reinforced boys for getting things right but reinforced girls for working
neatly” (Sammons, 2009, p. 2). According to Aidan Sammons (2009), there were a number of
studies in US during the 1970’s where the findings did not reflect gender socializations.
Although the studies showed variations, a child’s achievement could benefit their academic
accomplishment while in college if their experiences in their childhood were modeled
appropriately by those who were significant and constant in their life.
Purpose Statement
The purpose of this study was threefold: 1) to examine the gendered relationship between
academic achievement and early childhood elementary experiences in a sample of college

students; 2) to develop a reliable survey instrument which measures college students’ attitudes
towards their early childhood elementary experiences and academic achievement; and 3) to
increase awareness on the issue of gender differences in connection with academic achievement
and an individual’s early childhood experiences so school districts can further enhance a child’s
academic achievement.
The question central to this study was: “Are there gendered differences in how early
childhood experiences during elementary school have impacted academic achievement?” We
predicted we will find a relationship between gender differences and academic achievement in
elementary school based on early childhood experiences. This hypothesis is asked upon evidence
from theory. The Social Learning Theory (Sammons, 2009) states children observe behaviors of
the people who surround them, which some relate to gender. Theory has found that “at a later
time they may imitate the behavior they have observed” and they may do this regardless of
whether the behavior is “gender appropriate” or not but there are a number of processes which
make it more likely that a child will reproduce the behavior the society deems appropriate for its
sex” (Sammons, 2009, p. 1).
Methods
Participants
This study was conducted at a small Midwestern University. Below is a table of our
demographic information for the participants who completed this study.
Demographic Table
Gender Males: 47 Females: 27 Total: 74
Age 18-19: 5 20-21: 29 22-23: 22 24-25: 10 26+: 8
Level of Study Junior: 26 Senior: 43 Sophomore: 5
Major: Human Development &
Family Studies: 27
Electric Engineering
Technology: 23
Other: 24

ResearchDesign
The purpose of this non-random survey research was to evaluate college male and female
students on early childhood elementary experiences and academic achievement. We used a
cross-sectional research design in order to examine the attitudes of the participants on their
experiences in elementary school and how that has impacted their ability to achieve academically
at one point in time. Paper survey questionnaires were used for data collection. The rationale
for using this method is that paper questionnaires were best suited for meeting strict coursework
deadlines due to the rapid nature of our research course, sample data availability, and
convenience.
The population for this study was male and female college students that attend a small
Midwestern University. The sample consisted of 47 males and 27 females. The sampling design
used in this study was non-random and purposive; therefore, we surveyed using a particular
population (college male and female students) at a small Midwestern University that possessed
the relevant information regarding a student’s ability to achieve academically because of their
early childhood elementary school experiences. We did not randomize given that we had a small
sample size and needed every participant as well as being inclusive in the classroom. Secondly,
the study used the snowball sampling design; therefore, we networked through our research
supervisor, previous class instructors for our female dominated courses, and used the university
staff directory to contact two professors with male dominated courses. This study has been
approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB). The ethical protection of human subjects was
provided through the completion of the IRB’s Human Subjects training.

Date Collection Instrument
The survey was designed to examine college male and female student’s perspectives of
their early childhood elementary education experiences and the impact it had on their academic
achievement. The survey included a brief description of the study, definition of any terms not
commonly known, risks and benefits, time and commitment, confidentiality, voluntary
participation, our contact information as well as our supervisor’s contact information, and
instructions for completing the survey.
The survey consisted of four demographic questions regarding the participants’ gender,
age, level of study, and major, as well as eleven closed-ended statements based on a 6-point
Likert scale. The Likert scale was used to measure the intensity of the participants’ perspectives
ranging from one (strongly disagree) to six (strongly agree). Statements and questions for the
survey were developed by reviewing early childhood experiences, academic achievement, and
theory. For sample questions, please refer to Appendix A.
The survey instrument had both face validity and content validity. Face validity refers to
the concept that there is a logical correlation between the survey statements and the research
question as well as correlation between the survey statements and the reviewed literature. The
survey demonstrated face validity since the statements and questions on the survey were
produced from having reviewed the literature; thus these questions evaluated college male and
female student’s perspectives on their early childhood elementary experiences and how they
have impacted their academic achievement. Content validity refers to the extent to which the
survey statements and questions address the concepts reviewed within the literature. The survey
statements and questions addressed early childhood elementary education experiences including;
value of education growing up, positive experiences in the classroom, extracurricular activities,

parent involvement, socioeconomic status, and overall satisfaction with their academic
achievement. The survey was piloted to our research supervisor to assess the clarity and
relevance of the statements. The supervisor cleared the survey for distribution.
Procedure
The survey process began when we emailed the four professors to explain our research
and ask if they would be willing to collaborate with us and allow their students to be surveyed.
The four professors responded to our email with permission to survey their students and we then
set up specific dates and times to distribute the surveys. We did not attempt to randomize our
sample because we were inclusive in the classroom and we needed every participant. Data
collection began November 10th and ended on November 17th, 2015.
The survey questionnaire was distributed to the classes and was administered to the male
and female students by us. After introducing ourselves we gave a brief description of our study
and its purpose, making it clear that their participation in our survey was completely voluntary.
The implied consent was thoroughly read by us and included; a description of our study, risks
and benefits, time commitment, confidentiality, right to withdraw, and IRB approval. The
students were then given time to complete the surveys after the professor and ourselves left the
room giving the student’s time to complete the survey without any distractions or influence
which may impact their responses. After completing the survey, the students placed them
directly into an envelope that was then sealed by us after all of the participants were finished.
The completed surveys were kept securely in one of our homes until data analysis could be
completed.

Data Analysis Plan
The data was first “cleaned” and checked for missing data. The “cleaned” surveys were
then coded using acronyms for each variable. All demographic questions were given a three
letter acronym: Gender of the participants (GEN); age of the participants (AGE); level of study
(LOS); major (MAJ). Each survey statement was also given a three letter acronym: My early
childhood elementary school experiences have impacted my current academic achievement
(EXP); Growing up education was valued in my family (EVF); My academic achievement was
high in elementary school (AHE); My experiences in a classroom during elementary school were
positive (ECP); I have positive experiences overall with my elementary school teachers (PET);
Sports related extracurricular activities during elementary school positively impacted my
academic achievement (SPA); Non-sports related extracurricular activities during elementary
school positively impacted my academic achievement (NSP); My parents or members of my
family were actively involved in my academics during elementary school (PAI); My parents or
members of my family encouraged me to achieve in elementary school (PEA); My
socioeconomic status affected my academic achievement in elementary school (SSA); I am
currently satisfied with my academic achievement (CSA).
The data was analyzed using computer program Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences (SPSS). The individual was used as the level of analysis. Since we will be comparing
groups, our research will involve descriptive statistics: frequencies, cross-tabulations, mean
comparisons and Independent T-Tests, as well as Cronbach’s Alpha reliability analysis.
Results
The investigated in this study was: Are there gendered differences in how early childhood
experiences during elementary school have impacted student’s academic achievement? The

computer program Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to analyze the
descriptive statistical data. We will report the results for hypothesis testing in this section and
include the review of other results in the Discussion. Independent T-tests were conducted and
reliability testing was also completed.
All variables were subjected to frequency distribution analysis. Results indicated that
there was no missing data.
Hypothesis #1: We predicted we would find a relationship between gender and academic
achievement in elementary school based on early childhood experiences in all of our variables.
We found mixed support for our hypothesis in that we found a statistically significant difference
between the genders with the majority of males agreeing with the statement: sports related
extracurricular activities during elementary school positively impacted my academic
achievement. The mean comparison for this variable was 4.36 for males and 3.30 for females.
This support is provided in the Individual T-tests, Table 3 below. Mixed support was also found
for our hypothesis showing gender differences in six of our variables (EXP, SPA, NSP, PAI,
SSA, and CSA) in the Cross-Tabulations table. These will be further discussed in our discussion
(please see appendices for Cross-Tabulations, Table 1 and Compare Means, Table 2).
Table 3
Independent T-tests
Gender
Variable
Males Females t df Sig.
SPA 4.36 3.30 3.032 72 *0.003
(1.36) (1.61)
Note. (SPA)=Sports relatedextracurricular activities duringelementaryschool positively impactedmy academic achievement.
*significant @ p<=.05, two tailed. Standarddeviations appear in parens belowmeans.

A reliability analysis was run to indicate if the eleven variables (EXP, EVF, AHE, ECP,
PET, SPA, NSP, PAI, PEA, SSA, CSA) were a reliable index to measure the major concept: The
relationship between gender, academic achievement, and early childhood elementary
experiences. Cronbach’s Alpha is a measure of reliability and in this analysis was 0.798. This
value indicated that the survey questions were a reliable measure of the major concept.
Qualitative comments were received at the end of a few of our surveys. The qualitative
comments were not substantive and will not be further analyzed.
Discussion
Existing research has established that education and early childhood experiences have an
impact on the students’ academic achievement. Preceding studies have revealed that “Parents of
the highest achieving kindergarten students expected them to go further than those in the lower
achievement categories, and girls are expected to attain more education than boys” (Stull, 2013,
p. 61). Research on early elementary childhood experiences and a students’ academic
achievement has not gone in depth with whether or not there are specific gender differences. Due
to this, the relationship between gender and the effects of childhood experiences in relation to
academic achievement is a question in need of more exploration. Our hypothesis, stating that
there would be a difference between genders in how their past educational experiences have
effected their current academic achievement, found mixed support through our data. Analysis
across the variables will be evaluated using Independent T-tests and Cross-tabulations. Out of the
eleven questions in the survey we found only one of them to have a significant gender difference
within our Independent T-test tables and six variables within our Cross-tabulations. Limitations
to this study; implications for practitioners and future research; and the conclusion will be further
deliberated.

Our hypothesis, predicting that males and females would differ based on their past
educational experiences and how that has impacted their current academic achievement, was
developed considering a review of both the literature and the Social Learning Theory.
Considering that past research can only tell us so much regarding gender differences in relation
to their academic achievement, our assessment of literature was a start to understand how early
elementary childhood school experiences can affect each child in a positive way. Seeing that our
data presented mixed support we were not surprised by our findings that with some experiences
males and females differed when asked how their early elementary childhood experiences
impacted their academic achievement. We found support for our hypothesis through our
Independent T-tests that shows there was one variable with a significant statistical gender mean
difference. This variable was (SPA), which evaluated whether or not the participant’s sports
related extracurricular activities during elementary school had a positive impact on the
participant’s academic achievement. A higher percentage of females strongly disagreed that
sports related extracurricular activities during elementary school positively impacted their
academic achievement when compared to males. The mean difference between genders was an
average answer of 4.36 for males and 3.30 for females. The Social Learning Theory states that
“the main way that gender behaviors are learned is through the process of observational
learning” and “men are consistently found to be more aggressive than women, regardless of
culture” (Summons, 2009, p. 1-2). In the past sports-related activities have been dominated by
the male population. Although times have changed and females are offered similar opportunities
in sports-related activities, biases still exist. Sports-related extracurricular activities can have a
positive effect on a student’s overall academic achievement. Cosden (2004) mentions that
students who are a part of extracurricular activities, which include sports, service clubs, and art

activities are less likely to drop out of school and more likely to have a higher academic
achievement than their peers. Students who are participating in sporting activates learn these
skills at a faster rate than their peers, which helps support their academic achievement and
ultimately changes how they view their educational experience.
We found gender differences in six variables through our Cross Tabulations. The variable
(EXP) assessed whether or not the participants’ early childhood elementary school experiences
impacted their current academic achievement. Our data from this variable did support our
hypothesis showing differences between genders. Denham et al. (2012) reported that
encouraging responses from teachers would help children become more tolerating and regulating
to emotions. This literature suggests that teachers put more emphasis on responding to children
in the classroom in an encouraging way. Teachers in general have diverse relationships with
each of their students’. Through our data we see that there was a higher percent of females who
strongly agreed with this variable. This may be due to the type of feedback that teachers give to
female students when compared to male students. According to Social Learning Theory, research
has shown that for different behaviors girls and boys do not receive the same reinforcements and
punishments (Sammons, 2009). “While it is clear that teacher-child relationships in kindergarten
should focus on fostering warmth and trust to support all children’s early school adjustment and
subsequent long-term academic success, it appears that this is easier with some children than
with others” (Ray & Smith, 2010, p. 9).
The following variable (NSP) assessed whether the participants non-sports related
extracurricular activities during elementary school positively impacted their academic
achievement. Our data from this variable did support our hypothesis as a difference between the
genders did exist. It shows that a higher percentage of males slightly disagreed that non-sports

related extracurricular activities during elementary school positively impacted their academic
achievement when compared to females. “Participation in after-school homework programs can
help students maintain their academic standing, feel more bonded to their school, reduce family
stress, and develop attitudes and skills that would facilitate their success in school after the
program is over” (Cosden et al., 2004, p. 224). These structured activities illustrations how being
involved helps students learn the techniques of budgeting time between classwork and other
activities. Having a difference between males and females shows how both genders have
different viewpoints on how non-sports related extracurricular activities can impact their
academic success. Our data also shows us that the time spent outside of school with sports and
non-sports related extracurricular activities differs by gender.
The next variable (PAI) assessed weather or not the participant’s parents or members of
their family were actively involved in their academics during elementary school. Our data from
this variable did support our hypothesis as a difference between the genders did exist. It shows a
higher percentage of males slightly agreed that the participant’s parents or members of their
family were actively involved in their academics during elementary school when compared to
females. Monti et al. (2014) describes that parents who were not as involved in their child’s
education between 1st and 5th grade were more likely to not be as engaged in the classroom. This
problem has implications for the child’s academic achievement because the literature shows
having a lack of parenting decreases positive test scores for their child. We were not surprised
by our findings because any child who is not getting the assistance from home is not going to
perform as well during their early childhood preschool and elementary school years than what
they are capable of. Even though males slightly agreed more than females on this statement,
there was a higher percentage of females who strongly agreed that their parents or members of

their family were actively involved in their education. It is important to consider why these
gender difference exist. We must look at the different relationships that both males and females
have with their parents or members of their family. Males may feel less obligated to have their
parents or members of their family be actively involved in their academics during elementary
school and females may feel that it is vital for them to achieve academically.
The fifth variable (SSA) evaluated whether the participant’s socioeconomic status
affected their academic achievement in elementary school. “In a nationally representative sample
of students enrolled in grades 6 through 12 in US schools, Lippma et al. (2008) found that the
higher the parental income, the greater the percentage of parents who expected their children to
finish college” (Stull, 2013, p. 57). Our data from this variable did support our hypothesis as a
difference between the genders did exist. It showed that a higher percent of females slightly
agreed that while in elementary school their socioeconomic status did affect their academic
achievement when compared to males. “Parents of the highest achieving kindergarten students
expected them to go further than those in the lower achievement categories, and girls are
expected to attain more education than boys” (Stull, 2013, p. 61). It is important to consider the
differences in the male and females responses to this variable. Females often put a great deal of
value on education, which could be due to the negative views in the past of female achievement
in education. “Until the middle 1970’s, when other scholars sought to extend the Wisconsin
model to females and/or minority (largely African American) populations, researchers tacitly
assumed that their findings, based predominantly on white males, could be generalized to all
students at all grade levels, not just those white male students attending high school” (Stull,
2013, p. 54). It is important to be aware that by assessing one population, that assumptions must
not be made for other populations. As a result researchers began to express concern that there is a

lack of understanding the different patterns of achievement of different populations such as
females (Rigsby et al., 1997, as cited in Stull, 2013). Women have proven that education can be
highly important to them as well as achieving academically to show the world that education can
be valued by all, which brings us into our next variable.
The sixth variable (CSA) assessed whether the participants were currently satisfied with
their academic achievement. Our data from this variable did support our hypothesis as a
difference between genders also did exist. The data showed that a higher percent of females
strongly agreed that they are currently satisfied with their academic achievement when compared
to males. “Regardless of the form of intervention, it is clear that students at-risk of reading
difficulties who receive intervention in kindergarten tend to be more successful in literacy in the
future, achieving better scores at the end of the year and becoming better readers by the end of
first grade” (Simmons et al. 2007, as cited in Ray & Smith, 2010, p. 7). From our literature our
understanding is that when comparing girls and boys, girls are expected to attain more education.
This in turn shows us why females may be currently satisfied with their academic achievement.
The high expectation is a source of motivation to females and we can assume that our results
reflect this expectation.
From the elven variables that we provided within this study there were five from our
Cross-tabulations that showed little difference and in turn did not support our hypothesis. The
following variables explain their relation to the research study and why the variables may not
support our hypothesis. The seventh variable (EVF) assessed if education was valued in the
participant’s family when growing up. “In a study of early adolescents, 84 percent of whom were
economically disadvantaged and 42 percent of whom were African American, Guttman and
Mcloyd (2000) found that parents of high achievers used more specific strategies to help with

homework and had more supportive conversations” (Stull, 2013, p. 57). According to our data
this variable did not support our hypothesis as it showed little difference between the genders
existed. While this variable did not support our hypothesis, it is important not to overlook the
value of education when growing up and how that can impact academic achievement. “Dearing
and colleagues (2006) found that achievement disparities between children of less versus highly
educated mothers were moderated by parents’ involvement in children’s education” (Monti et al.,
2014, p. 860). It is crucial to consider the factor of the parent’s education and what type of
education they have received. It is important to note that both genders can likewise be impacted
by this variable.
The next variable (AHE) evaluated whether or not the participant’s academic
achievement was high in elementary school. Our data from this variable also did not support our
hypothesis showing little differences between genders based on their academic achievement in
elementary school. It is still imperative that we not overlook the importance of our participant’s
views on their academic achievement in elementary school. “Currently, the goal that children
achieve skills that seem developmentally significant at certain ages has replaced and discounted
concerns that children engage in developmentally appropriate behavior, especially for ways of
learning” (Ranz-Smith, 2007, as cited in Ray & Smith, 2010, p. 5). When discussing
participant’s academic achievement during this time in school there can be many influences
associated with high attainment for both genders. “To understand how experiences not directly
related to the classroom impact kindergarten achievement, the transition to kindergarten, parent
involvement, and retention also are analyzed” (Ray & Smith, 2010, p. 6). Not only are
experiences outside of the classroom imperative to academic achievement for both genders, so
are the experiences that one has in the classroom environment.

The following variable (ECP) assessed whether the participant’s experiences in the
classroom during elementary school were positive or not. Our data from this variable did not
support our hypothesis showing that there was little difference between genders based on the
participant’s positives experiences in a classroom during elementary school. . “Positive
kindergarten teacher-student relationships can make the transition to formal schooling more
constructive and promote social and emotional health in young learners” (Murray et al., 2008, as
cited in Ray & Smith, 2010, p. 9). Experiences in the classrooms when it comes to academic
achievement is significant even if little gender differences were found. From our data we found
that large percent’s of both male and female participants agreed or strongly agreed with this
variable. “As children work and play together, they create their own culture. This culture is a
results of sharing materials and routines, as well as forming values and attitudes about their
environment” (Ray & Smith, 2010, p. 9). The classroom environment for all students’ can play a
vital role in specifically both gender’s abilities to achieve academically.
The succeeding variable (PET) weighed the participant’s feelings about whether they
have positive experiences overall with their elementary school teachers. From our data
associated with this variable we see that it did not support our hypothesis showing little
difference between genders. Once again although we did not see any relation with gender
differences and having positive experiences overall with the participant’s elementary school
teachers, it is still imperative to not overlook teacher-child relationships. Males and females look
to their teacher for support and guidance. “Teacher-child relationships in both preschool and
kindergarten were found to have small but significant effects on all aspects of children’s 1st grade
academic competence except vocabulary development (Pianta and Stuhlan, 2004, as cited in Ray
& Smith, 2010, p. 9). From our data we found that for both males and females the percentages

for agreed or strongly agreed were both high for this variable showing us that teacher-child
relationships were important during elementary school.
The final variable (PEA) considered the parents and members of the participant’s
family’s encouragement for them to achieve during elementary school. According to our data
this variable did not support our hypothesis showing that there was little difference between
genders. Our data shows us that there are high percentages that agreed or strongly agreed that the
participant’s parents or members of their family encouraged them to achieve in elementary
school. “In particular, family positivity seems to promote emotion knowledge, perhaps through
affecting children’s receptivity to learning. Although exposure to well-modulated negative
emotion can be positively related to emotion knowledge” (Garner et al., 1994, as cited in
Denham et al., 2012, p. 139). Although this variable showed little difference based on gender it
is still vital to know how this variable impacts our research. From our literature we see that when
there is a high percentage of parent involvement and encouragement this can lead to a higher
percentage of academic achievement no matter the gender. Parental “involvement may highlight
the value of learning to children, which may heighten their engagement in school, thereby
enhancing their achievement” (Epstein, 1988, Grolnick & Slowiaczek, 1994, as cited in Monti et
al., 2014, p. 860).
Participants were asked if there was anything else that they would like us, the
investigators, to know. We asked them to right their comments on the back of the survey. The
qualitative comments did not show a consistent theme, so therefore we were unable to use them
in our research.

Limitations
The greatest limitation to this study was the nonrandom sample where we used a
particular population which prevented us from generalizing our findings to a larger population.
This study was conducted at a small Midwestern University where we primarily focused on four
courses and two specific majors dominated by male and female students. Additionally, this study
shows a limited variation on a 1-6 scale. This shows that when the participant’s responded there
was a boundary to how clear their response could be. Furthermore, our results showed mixed
support for our hypothesis. Due to this, we believe that by having a larger sample of students it
would have made the support or non-support of our hypothesis more evident to the gender
difference in early elementary education experiences. It is important to consider the amount of
male and females that participated in our study. From our data we see that the genders were not
balanced and had a higher number of male participants. We believe that if there was a more
balanced number of genders then our study might have shown more or less support for our
hypothesis. One last lamination is that this study was conducted over a fifteen week university
course. This meant that research had to be conducted within a strict timeframe that did not allow
much flexibility.
Implications for Practitioners
Practitioners must be aware, first and foremost, that it cannot be assumed that academic
achievement during early elementary school can be determined by gender. This is due to our
results which showed mixed support for our hypothesis. The mixed support for our hypothesis
shows that with specific variables there is gender differences. Our data shows us that gender
differences exist in sports related extracurricular activities, non-sports related extracurricular
activities, parent involvement, and socioeconomic status. Despite gender academic expectations,

awareness of these positive effects of early elementary school childhood experiences needs to be
addressed to the school systems as well as the student’s parents/care givers. It is important that
the school systems are aware of a positive learning environment where each child can thrive and
their needs are being met. Practitioners, specially school administrators and educators should be
informed about the importance of their students achieving academically while they are young,
but also being aware of how their elementary school experiences can impact their future
academic achievement. Many students who learn best by the experiences such as social and
emotional needs, parent involvement, extracurricular activities, and social class will be able to
use these experiences to help themselves and enhance their future. Additionally, it is crucial to
conduct further research and present statistical data on this subject to increase the awareness of
other professionals in the Family Studies field. More training for the school systems on how
these experiences can impact student’s while in elementary school could result in higher
academic achievement for both their present and future students.
Implications for Future Research
Future research on the topic of gender differences in early elementary school experiences
and how that impacts a student’s academic achievement would benefit greatly from a large
national, randomized sample that would be inclusive of participant’s lived experiences
qualitative interviews. It is recommended that future research is continued on this topic as there
is little to no research on the gender differences that may exist in academic achievement while in
elementary school. Additionally, it would be necessary to explore this topic further by
broadening the age range of this study. This would allow researchers to learn effects of early
childhood elementary school experiences and the impacts they have on academic achievement
throughout the history of education. This could examine this research problem longitudinally and

explore the evolution of these experiences throughout the lifespan of an individual. One other
way to get a larger perspective would be to do a universal study that would be culturally diverse.
A study of this extent would help to generalize whether or not there are gender differences in
early childhood experiences that impact academic achievement around the world.
Conclusion
Our research is just a building block within our field for future research on this topic to
provide more data on whether or not there are gender differences between elementary school
experiences and academic achievement. The mixed support for our hypothesis leads us to believe
that this is a complex issue that needs to be studied from countless angels and perspectives. In
order for a more clear view of this subject to be established, a mixed methods approach of both
qualitative and quantitative data would be most beneficial. The addition of qualitative responses
would help researchers understand what important experiences during elementary school are
vital to a student’s academic achievement. The need for education and training when it comes to
the student’s academic achievement must become a priority for those who educate our future
students. Education is the foundation of an individual’s career. This being said it is important to
put great value on early elementary school experiences knowing that they can affect the future
academic achievement of our students.

Reference List
Bengston,V.L.,Acock,A.C.,Allen,K.R.,Dilworth-Anderson,P.,Klein,D.M.,(2005). Sourcebookof family
theoryand research. SagePublications,Inc.
Chibucos,T.R.,Leite,R.W.(2005). Readingsinfamilytheory. SagePublications,Inc.
Cosden,M.,Morrison,G., Gutierrez,L.,& Brown,M. (2004). The effectsof homeworkprogramsand
after-school activitiesonschool success. Theory Into Practice,43(3), 220-226.
Denham,S.,Bassett,H.,& Zinsser,K.(2012). Earlychildhoodteachersassocializersof youngchildren's
emotional competence. Early Childhood Education Journal,40(3),137-143. doi:10.1007/s10643-
012-0504-2
Monti,J. D., Pomerantz,E.M., & Roisman,G. I. (2014). Can parents'involvementinchildren'seducation
offsetthe effectsof earlyinsensitivityonacademicfunctioning? JournalOf Educational
Psychology,106(3),859-869. doi:10.1037/a0035906
Ray, K.,& Smith,M. (2010). The kindergartenchild:Whatteachersandadministratorsneedtoknowto
promote academicsuccessinall children. Early Childhood Education Journal,38(1),5-18.
doi:10.1007/s10643-010-0383-3
Stull,J.C. (2013). Familysocioeconomicstatus,parentexpectations,andachild's
achievement. Research In Education,9053-67.
Summons,A.(2009). Gender:social learningtheory.DevelopmentalPsychology.Retrievedon
November8th
,2015, from
http://psychlotron.org.uk/newResources/developmental/AS_AQB_gender_SLTBasics.pdf
Yelgün,A.a.,& Karaman,İ. i.(2015). What are the factorsreducingthe academicachievementina
primaryschool locatedina neighborhoodwithalow socioeconomicstatus?. Education &
Science / Egitim Ve Bilim, 40(179), 251-268. doi:10.15390/EB.2015.2331

Appendix A
Title: The Relationship between Gender, Academic Achievement, & Early Childhood
Elementary Experiences
Investigators:
Ashley Weimar weimara@my.uwstout.edu
Tim Jahnke jahnket0184@my.uwstout.edu
Description:
We are currently students in HDFS 420: Family Research and Methodology at UW-Stout,
supervised by our Professor, Susan Wolfgram, Ph.D. As part of course requirements, we are
doing a research study on the relationship between academic achievement, gender differences
and how they correlate to early childhood education experiences. According to Ray and Smith
"children's preferred ways of learning appear to be at odds with typical school practices and
structure" 2010 (as cited in Cullingford 2007, p. 5). There is a body of research which studied the
impact of early childhood experiences in relation to academic achievement, but there is a lack of
information focused on gender differences. The purpose of our study is to observe the
relationship of gender and early childhood elementary school experiences that affect their
 Academic achievement- the skills developed in courses taught in schools and determined
with the scores given by teachers and the expression of the acquired knowledge (Carter &
Good, 1973). Academic achievement can also be expressed as behavioral changes in all
program areas falling outside the psychomotor and sensory development of individuals”
(Yelgun & Karaman, 2015, pg. 251).
Risks and Benefits:
The risks of taking our survey are minimal. You can withdraw from taking the survey at any
time. If support is needed, please contact the Counseling Center on campus: X2468, 410
Bowman Hall.
The main benefit of taking the survey is that you will allow us to gain the knowledge of what the
relationship is between gender and early childhood elementary school experiences that affected
your academic achievement. With this information we will be able to increase the awareness of
creating an environment where each child can thrive to their full potential academically. Our
research will contribute to the educational field by applying the knowledge we find to help
school administrators and curriculum directors take further action to prepare teachers for how
important it is to create the best learning environment for their students to achieve academically.

Time Commitment:
This survey should take no more than 5-10 minutes of your time.
Confidentiality:
Your name will not be included on any documents; each survey has a number only. We do not
believe that you can be identified from any of the information that is obtained.
Right to Withdraw:
Your participation in this study is entirely voluntary. You may choose not to participate without
any adverse consequences to you. However, should you choose to participate and later wish to
withdraw from the study, there is no way to identify your anonymous document.
IRB Approval:
This study has been reviewed and approved by The University of Wisconsin-Stout's Institutional
Review Board (IRB). The IRB has determined that this study meets the ethical obligations
required by federal law and University policies. If you have questions or concerns regarding this
study please contact the Investigator or Advisor. If you have any questions, concerns, or reports
regarding your rights as a research subject, please contact the IRB Administrator.
Investigators: Supervising Professor:
Ashley Weimar Susan Wolfgram, Ph.D.
weimara@my.uwstout.edu 715-232-4091
wolfgrams@uwstout.edu
Tim Jahnke
Jahnket0184@my.uwstout.edu IRB Administrator
Elizabeth Buchanan, Director, Research Services
152 Vocational Rehabilitation Bldg.
UW-Stout
Menomonie, WI 54751
715-232-2477
buchanane@uwstout.edu
Statement of Consent: By completing the following survey, I am agreeing to participate in
the study entitled:

The Relationship between Gender, Academic Achievement, & Early Childhood Elementary
Experiences
*PARTICIPANTS MUST BE 18 YEARS OLD
The Relationship between Gender, Academic Achievement, & Early Childhood
Elementary Experiences
No. ___
Gender: ___ (Male)
___ (Female)
______________ (Self-identify gender)
Age: ___ 18-19 ___ 0-21 ___ 22-23 ___ 24-25 ___ 26+
Level of Study: ___ Junior ___ Senior
Major: ________________________________________
Please respond to the following statements by circling the number that BEST represents your
attitudes towards early childhood elementary experiences and academic achievement.
Strongly Disagree-1 Disagree-2 Slightly Disagree-3 Slightly Agree-4 Agree-5 Strongly Agree-6
My early childhood elementary school experiences have impacted my current academic
achievement.
1 2 3 4 5 6
Growing up, education was valued in my family.
1 2 3 4 5 6
My academic achievement was high in elementary school.
1 2 3 4 5 6
My experiences in a classroom during elementary school were positive.
1 2 3 4 5 6
NEXT PAGE PLEASE

I had positive experiences overall with my elementary school teachers.
1 2 3 4 5 6
Sports related extracurricular activities during elementary school positively impacted my
1 2 3 4 5 6
Non-sports related extracurricular activities during elementary school positively impacted my
1 2 3 4 5 6
My parents or members of my family were actively involved in my academics during elementary
school.
1 2 3 4 5 6
My parents or members of my family encouraged me to achieve in elementary school.
1 2 3 4 5 6
My socioeconomic status affected my academic achievement in elementary school.
1 2 3 4 5 6
I am currently satisfied with my academic achievement.
1 2 3 4 5 6
For Everyone: Is there anything else that you would like us to know? If so, please add your
comments on the back.
*Thank you so much for participating in our research study

Appendix B
Table 2
Compare Means
GEN EXP EVF AHE ECP PET
Male:
Mean: 4.00 5.15 4.55 4.89 4.85
SD: 1.37 1.22 1.18 1.07 1.10
Range: 5.00 4.00 5.00 4.00 5.00
Female:
Mean: 4.48 5.26 4.74 4.56 4.93
SD: 1.28 0.94 1.20 1.31 1.04
Range: 5.00 4.00 5.00 5.00 4.00
GEN SPA NSP PAI PEA SSA
Male:
Mean: 4.36 4.13 4.64 5.11 3.64
SD: 1.36 1.26 1.29 1.11 1.55
Range: 5.00 5.00 5.00 4.00 5.00
Female:
Mean: 3.30 4.30 4.22 5.07 4.00
SD: 1.61 1.32 1.91 1.24 1.36
Range: 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00

GEN CSA
Male:
Mean: 4.89
SD: 1.01
Range: 4.00
Female:
Mean: 5.19
SD: 1.14
Range: 4.00
Note. (GEN)=Gender; (EXP) = Early childhood elementary schoolexperiences impacted my current academic
achievement; (EVF) = Education was valued in my family; (AHE) = Academic achievement high in elementary
school; (ECP) = Classroom experiences were positive in elementary school; (PET) = Positive experiences with
teachers in elementary school; (SPA) = Sports related extracurricular activities during elementary schoolpositively
my academic achievement; (NSP) = Non-sports related extracurricular activities during elementary school impacted
my academic achievement; (PAI) = Parents or members of family were involved in my academics during
elementary school; (PEA) = Parents or members of family encouraged me to achieve in elementary school; (SSA) =
My SES affected my academic achievement in elementary school; (CSA) = Currently satisfied with my academic
achievement.

Appendix C
Table 1
Cross-Tabulations
EXP
GEN SD D SLD SLA A SA Total
Male 8.5% 4.3% 17.0% 29.8% 29.8% 10.6% 100.0%
Female 3.7% 3.7% 7.4% 37.0% 22.2% 25.9% 100.0%
EVF
Male 0.0% 8.5% 4.3% 2.1% 34.0% 51.1% 100.0%
Female 0.0% 3.7% 0.0% 11.1% 37.0% 48.1% 100.0%
AHE
Male 2.1% 4.3% 10.6% 21.3% 42.6% 19.1% 100.0%
Female 3.7% 0.0% 7.4% 25.9% 33.3% 29.6% 100.0%
ECP
Male 0.0% 4.3% 4.3% 23.4% 34.0% 34.0% 100.0%
Female 3.7% 3.7% 11.1% 22.2% 33.3% 25.9% 100.0%
PET
Male 2.1% 4.3% 0.0% 21.3% 44.7% 27.7% 100.0%
Female 0.0% 3.7% 7.4% 11.1% 48.1% 29.6% 100.0%
SPA
Male 4.3% 8.5% 6.4% 29.8% 29.8% 21.3% 100.0%
Female 18.5% 14.8% 14.8% 37.0% 0.0% 14.8% 100.0%
NSP
Male 4.3% 4.3% 19.1% 34.0% 23.4% 14.9% 100.0%
Female 7.4% 3.7% 3.7% 37.0% 33.3% 14.8% 100.0%
PAI
Male 4.3% 2.1% 8.5% 25.5% 29.8% 29.8% 100.0%
Female 14.8% 11.1% 7.4% 7.4% 22.2% 37.0% 100.0%
PEA
Male 0.0% 6.4% 2.1% 10.6% 36.2% 44.7% 100.0%
Female 3.7% 0.0% 7.4% 11.1% 29.6% 48.1% 100.0%

SSA
Male 10.6% 14.9% 19.1% 25.5% 14.9% 14.9% 100.0%
Female 3.7% 11.1% 14.8% 40.7% 11.1% 18.5% 100.0%
CSA
Male 0.0% 2.1% 8.5% 17.0% 42.6% 29.8% 100.0%
Female 0.0% 3.7% 7.4% 11.1% 22.2% 55.6% 100.0%
Note. (GEN)=Gender of participant;(EXP) =My early childhood elementary school experiences have impacted my current
academic achievement; (EVF) =Growing up, education was valued in my family. (AHE) =My academic achievement was high in
elementary school; (ECP) =My experiences in a classroom during elementary school were positive;(PET) =I had positive
experiences overall with my elementary school teachers; (SPA) =Sports related extracurricular activities during elementary
school positively impacted my academic achievement; (NSP) =Non-sports related extracurricular activities during elementary
school positively impacted my academic achievement; (PAI) =My parents or members of my family were actively involved in
my academics during elementary school; (PEA) =My parents or members of my family encouraged me to achieve in elementary
school; (SSA) =My socioeconomic status affected my academic achievement in elementary school; (CSA) =I am currently
satisfied with my academic achievement.

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