Comprehensive Social Media Security Analysis & XKeyscore Espionage TechnologyCSCJournals
Social networks can offer many services to the users for sharing activities events and their ideas. Many attacks can happened to the social networking websites due to trust that have been given by the users. Cyber threats are discussed in this paper. We study the types of cyber threats, classify them and give some suggestions to protect social networking websites of variety of attacks. Moreover, we gave some antithreats strategies with future trends.
The Impacts of Social Networking and Its AnalysisIJMER
International Journal of Modern Engineering Research (IJMER) is Peer reviewed, online Journal. It serves as an international archival forum of scholarly research related to engineering and science education.
International Journal of Modern Engineering Research (IJMER) covers all the fields of engineering and science: Electrical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Civil Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Computer Engineering, Agricultural Engineering, Aerospace Engineering, Thermodynamics, Structural Engineering, Control Engineering, Robotics, Mechatronics, Fluid Mechanics, Nanotechnology, Simulators, Web-based Learning, Remote Laboratories, Engineering Design Methods, Education Research, Students' Satisfaction and Motivation, Global Projects, and Assessment…. And many more.
Towards Decision Support and Goal AchievementIdentifying Ac.docxturveycharlyn
Towards Decision Support and Goal Achievement:
Identifying Action-Outcome Relationships From Social
Media
Emre Kıcıman
Microsoft Research
[email protected]
Matthew Richardson
Microsoft Research
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
Every day, people take actions, trying to achieve their per-
sonal, high-order goals. People decide what actions to take
based on their personal experience, knowledge and gut in-
stinct. While this leads to positive outcomes for some peo-
ple, many others do not have the necessary experience, knowl-
edge and instinct to make good decisions. What if, rather
than making decisions based solely on their own personal
experience, people could take advantage of the reported ex-
periences of hundreds of millions of other people?
In this paper, we investigate the feasibility of mining the
relationship between actions and their outcomes from the
aggregated timelines of individuals posting experiential mi-
croblog reports. Our contributions include an architecture
for extracting action-outcome relationships from social me-
dia data, techniques for identifying experiential social media
messages and converting them to event timelines, and an
analysis and evaluation of action-outcome extraction in case
studies.
1. INTRODUCTION
While current structured knowledge bases (e.g., Freebase)
contain a sizeable collection of information about entities,
from celebrities and locations to concepts and common ob-
jects, there is a class of knowledge that has minimal cov-
erage: actions. Simple information about common actions,
such as the effect of eating pasta before running a marathon,
or the consequences of adopting a puppy, are missing. While
some of this information may be found within the free text of
Wikipedia articles, the lack of a structured or semi-structured
representation make it largely unavailable for computational
usage. With computing devices continuing to become more
embedded in our everyday lives, and mediating an increasing
degree of our interactions with both the digital and physical
world, knowledge bases that can enable our computing de-
vices to represent and evaluate actions and their likely out-
comes can help individuals reason about actions and their
Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for personal or
classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed
for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation
on the first page. Copyrights for components of this work owned by others than the
author(s) must be honored. Abstracting with credit is permitted. To copy otherwise, or
republish, to post on servers or to redistribute to lists, requires prior specific permission
and/or a fee. Request permissions from [email protected]
KDD’15, August 10-13, 2015, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
Copyright is held by the owner/author(s). Publication rights licensed to ACM.
ACM 978-1-4503-3664-2/15/08 ...$15.00.
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1145 ...
The Implementation of Social Media for Educational Objectivestheijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The papers for publication in The International Journal of Engineering& Science are selected through rigorous peer reviews to ensure originality, timeliness, relevance, and readability.
Theoretical work submitted to the Journal should be original in its motivation or modeling structure. Empirical analysis should be based on a theoretical framework and should be capable of replication. It is expected that all materials required for replication (including computer programs and data sets) should be available upon request to the authors.
The International Journal of Engineering & Science would take much care in making your article published without much delay with your kind cooperation
Power no longer resides exclusively (if at all) in states, institutions, or large corporations. It is located in the networks that structure society. Social network analysis seeks to understand networks and their participants and has two main focuses: the actors and the relationships between them in a specific social context.
The social network is a theoretical construct useful in the social sciences to study relationships between individuals, groups, organizations, or even entire societies.
Comprehensive Social Media Security Analysis & XKeyscore Espionage TechnologyCSCJournals
Social networks can offer many services to the users for sharing activities events and their ideas. Many attacks can happened to the social networking websites due to trust that have been given by the users. Cyber threats are discussed in this paper. We study the types of cyber threats, classify them and give some suggestions to protect social networking websites of variety of attacks. Moreover, we gave some antithreats strategies with future trends.
The Impacts of Social Networking and Its AnalysisIJMER
International Journal of Modern Engineering Research (IJMER) is Peer reviewed, online Journal. It serves as an international archival forum of scholarly research related to engineering and science education.
International Journal of Modern Engineering Research (IJMER) covers all the fields of engineering and science: Electrical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Civil Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Computer Engineering, Agricultural Engineering, Aerospace Engineering, Thermodynamics, Structural Engineering, Control Engineering, Robotics, Mechatronics, Fluid Mechanics, Nanotechnology, Simulators, Web-based Learning, Remote Laboratories, Engineering Design Methods, Education Research, Students' Satisfaction and Motivation, Global Projects, and Assessment…. And many more.
Towards Decision Support and Goal AchievementIdentifying Ac.docxturveycharlyn
Towards Decision Support and Goal Achievement:
Identifying Action-Outcome Relationships From Social
Media
Emre Kıcıman
Microsoft Research
[email protected]
Matthew Richardson
Microsoft Research
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
Every day, people take actions, trying to achieve their per-
sonal, high-order goals. People decide what actions to take
based on their personal experience, knowledge and gut in-
stinct. While this leads to positive outcomes for some peo-
ple, many others do not have the necessary experience, knowl-
edge and instinct to make good decisions. What if, rather
than making decisions based solely on their own personal
experience, people could take advantage of the reported ex-
periences of hundreds of millions of other people?
In this paper, we investigate the feasibility of mining the
relationship between actions and their outcomes from the
aggregated timelines of individuals posting experiential mi-
croblog reports. Our contributions include an architecture
for extracting action-outcome relationships from social me-
dia data, techniques for identifying experiential social media
messages and converting them to event timelines, and an
analysis and evaluation of action-outcome extraction in case
studies.
1. INTRODUCTION
While current structured knowledge bases (e.g., Freebase)
contain a sizeable collection of information about entities,
from celebrities and locations to concepts and common ob-
jects, there is a class of knowledge that has minimal cov-
erage: actions. Simple information about common actions,
such as the effect of eating pasta before running a marathon,
or the consequences of adopting a puppy, are missing. While
some of this information may be found within the free text of
Wikipedia articles, the lack of a structured or semi-structured
representation make it largely unavailable for computational
usage. With computing devices continuing to become more
embedded in our everyday lives, and mediating an increasing
degree of our interactions with both the digital and physical
world, knowledge bases that can enable our computing de-
vices to represent and evaluate actions and their likely out-
comes can help individuals reason about actions and their
Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for personal or
classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed
for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation
on the first page. Copyrights for components of this work owned by others than the
author(s) must be honored. Abstracting with credit is permitted. To copy otherwise, or
republish, to post on servers or to redistribute to lists, requires prior specific permission
and/or a fee. Request permissions from [email protected]
KDD’15, August 10-13, 2015, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
Copyright is held by the owner/author(s). Publication rights licensed to ACM.
ACM 978-1-4503-3664-2/15/08 ...$15.00.
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1145 ...
The Implementation of Social Media for Educational Objectivestheijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The papers for publication in The International Journal of Engineering& Science are selected through rigorous peer reviews to ensure originality, timeliness, relevance, and readability.
Theoretical work submitted to the Journal should be original in its motivation or modeling structure. Empirical analysis should be based on a theoretical framework and should be capable of replication. It is expected that all materials required for replication (including computer programs and data sets) should be available upon request to the authors.
The International Journal of Engineering & Science would take much care in making your article published without much delay with your kind cooperation
Power no longer resides exclusively (if at all) in states, institutions, or large corporations. It is located in the networks that structure society. Social network analysis seeks to understand networks and their participants and has two main focuses: the actors and the relationships between them in a specific social context.
The social network is a theoretical construct useful in the social sciences to study relationships between individuals, groups, organizations, or even entire societies.
2. Brandtzæg, P.B. (2012). Social networking sites: their users and social implications – a longitudinal study. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 17 (4), 467-488
a modified weight balanced algorithm for influential users community detectio...INFOGAIN PUBLICATION
In the modern era online users are increasing day by day. Different users are using various social networks in different forms. The behavior and attitude of the users of social networking sites varies U2U (User to User). In online social networking users join many groups and communities as per interests and according to the groups’/Communities’ influential user. This paper consist of 7 sections , first section emphasis on introduction to the community evelotion and community. Second section signify movement between communities ,third section involve related work about the research.. Fourth section includes Problem Definition and fifth section involve Methodology (Proposed Algorithm Process ,Get Community Matrix, Community detetcion).Sixth section involve Implementation. Furthermore implementation include Datasets ,Quantitative performance, Graphical Results, Enhancement in the existing work..Last section include Conclusion and then references. In this paper,we are implementing and proposing the community detection in social media .In the proposed we have deployed a Longest Chain Subsequence metric for finding the number of connections to the kernel community.
APPLYING THE TECHNOLOGY ACCEPTANCE MODEL TO UNDERSTAND SOCIAL NETWORKING ijcsit
This study examines the individuals’ participation intentions and behaviour on Social Networking Sites (SNSs). For this purpose, the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) is utilized and extended in this study through the addition of “perceived social capital” construct aiming to increase its explanatory power and predictive ability in this context. Data collected from a survey of 1100 participants and distilled to 657 usable sets has been analysed to assess the predictive power of proposed model via structural equation modelling. The model proposed in this study explains 56% of the variance in “Participation Intentions” and 55% of the variance in “Participation Behaviour”. Participation of behavioural intention in the model’
explanatory power was the highest amongst the constructs (able to explain 28% of usage behaviour).While, “Attitude” explain around 11% of SNSs usage behaviour. The study findings also show that “Perceived Social Capital” construct has a notable impact on usage behaviour, this impact came indirectly through its direct effect on “Attitude” and “Perceived Usefulness”. Participation of “Perceived Social Capital” in the models' explanatory power was the third highest amongst the constructs. “Perceived Social Capital”, alone explain around 9% of SNSs usage behaviour.
The social networks and the new social order between the individualized socia...INFOGAIN PUBLICATION
The new Social Networks (SN) evolved very quickly. They conquered of wide population as well in the cities as in the campaigns. They pushed aside values, attitudes, behavior…; In countries with strong social culture, they modified these values and modified the social rules formerly considered as unchanging.In this paper, an empirical study concerned the case of the Moroccans and their behavior with regard to the social networks in numerous domains as those of society, economy, consumption, social and societal relationships, information and communication, politics, etc. The traditional conventional social order is today in deep transformation. This paper contributes to the understanding of behavior change currently facing Moroccan society at all levels.The designers of software or applications bound to the social networks have to integrate these new behavior in their strategies.
social networking individual vs. crowd behavior (connected intelligence)INFOGAIN PUBLICATION
The study of Human behavior is much more complicated in various situations, especially on the spectrum of Social Networks. The study of individual behavior cannot be replicated for a group/crowd behavior which can have many social and behavioral dimensions. In the connected world where intelligence is shared among individuals and groups, there exists another kind of complexity which needs to be examined.The complexity of human behaviors as an individual or as a group on the social networks is much more versatile and erratic. The research work studies and analyzes these behaviors in a connected networked intelligent environment and as to how these behaviors are reflected towards Connected Intelligence. Consequently it defines how they can affect the intelligent analytical outcomes. Finally it comes up with a generic model which can be applied in any setup.
The social network analysis (SNA), branch of complex systems can be used in the construction of multiagent
systems. This paper proposes a study of how social network analysis can assist in modeling multiagent
systems, while addressing similarities and differences between the two theories. We built a prototype
of multi-agent systems for resolution of tasks through the formation of teams of agents that are formed on
the basis of the social network established between agents. Agents make use of performance indicators to
assess when should change their social network to maximize the participation in teams.
Mining and Analyzing Academic Social NetworksEditor IJCATR
Academics establish relationships by way of various interactions like jointly authoring a research paper or report, jointly
supervising a thesis, working jointly on a project, etc. Some of these relationships are ubiquitous whereas other are hard to keep track
of. Of all types of possible academic and research collaborations, co-authorship is best documented. In this paper we analyze the coauthorship
based academic social networks of computer science engineering departments of Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) as
evidenced from their research publications produced during 2011 and 2015. We use social network analysis metrics to study the
collaboration networks in four leading IITs. From experimental results it can be concluded that IIT Delhi and IIT Kharagpur have a
close knit collaboration network whereas the collaboration network of IIT Kanpur and IIT Madras is fragmented. However, the
collaboration networks of all the four IITs exhibit similar network properties as expected from any other collaboration network
2010 Catalyst Conference - Trends in Social Network AnalysisMarc Smith
Review of trends related to social network analysis in the enterprise. Presented at the 2010 Catalyst Conference in San Diego, CA july 29, 2010. Presented with Mike Gotta, Gartner Group.
As a human resources manager, you need to advise top leadership (CEO.docxrossskuddershamus
As a human resources manager, you need to advise top leadership (CEO, Vice Presidents, and Senior Managers) information on the importance of leadership style in creating a culture that embraces diversity. Create a PowerPoint presentation to compare and contrast how the different styles of CEO leadership can affect team building, so that cultural diversity can be used to a competitive advantage in the workplace. Provide ideas for how to effectively build a team that supports and embraces cultural diversity, and recommend the leadership styles that encourages the creation of a culture of diversity.
Incorporate appropriate animations, transitions, and graphics as well as “speaker notes” for each slide. The speaker notes may be comprised of brief paragraphs or bulleted lists. Support your presentation with at least five (5) scholarly resources. In addition to these specified resources, other appropriate scholarly resources may be included. Be sure to include citations for quotations and paraphrases with references in APA format and style where appropriate.
Length: 12-15 slides (with a separate reference slide).
Notes Length: 100-150 words for each slide.
.
As a homeowner, you have become more concerned about the energy is.docxrossskuddershamus
As a homeowner, you have become more concerned about the energy issue facing our communities. You want to see your neighbors become more involved in energy conservation efforts, but your attempts to gain support on your own have failed. You have decided to propose an Energy Resource Plan to your HOA for approval at the next meeting. Your goal is to convince the HOA to support and endorse your Energy Resource Plan.
Review
the following Energy Resource Plan outline
:
·
Introduction
o
Provide information about why conserving energy is important.
·
Renewable versus nonrenewable
o
Briefly distinguish between these types of energy.
·
Methods to conserve and help the environment
o
What may each member do, personally, to conserve energy and help the environment at the same time?
o
Provide at least three methods.
·
Government efforts
o
How may the government be involved in conservation efforts?
·
Conclusion
o
Wrap up the meeting with a brief summary of your main points.
o
Provide some motivation for conserving energy with a memorable slogan, statement, or song, for example.
Write
a 350- to 700-word paper that includes all elements of the outline.
Post
your paper as an attachment.
.
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2. Brandtzæg, P.B. (2012). Social networking sites: their users and social implications – a longitudinal study. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 17 (4), 467-488
a modified weight balanced algorithm for influential users community detectio...INFOGAIN PUBLICATION
In the modern era online users are increasing day by day. Different users are using various social networks in different forms. The behavior and attitude of the users of social networking sites varies U2U (User to User). In online social networking users join many groups and communities as per interests and according to the groups’/Communities’ influential user. This paper consist of 7 sections , first section emphasis on introduction to the community evelotion and community. Second section signify movement between communities ,third section involve related work about the research.. Fourth section includes Problem Definition and fifth section involve Methodology (Proposed Algorithm Process ,Get Community Matrix, Community detetcion).Sixth section involve Implementation. Furthermore implementation include Datasets ,Quantitative performance, Graphical Results, Enhancement in the existing work..Last section include Conclusion and then references. In this paper,we are implementing and proposing the community detection in social media .In the proposed we have deployed a Longest Chain Subsequence metric for finding the number of connections to the kernel community.
APPLYING THE TECHNOLOGY ACCEPTANCE MODEL TO UNDERSTAND SOCIAL NETWORKING ijcsit
This study examines the individuals’ participation intentions and behaviour on Social Networking Sites (SNSs). For this purpose, the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) is utilized and extended in this study through the addition of “perceived social capital” construct aiming to increase its explanatory power and predictive ability in this context. Data collected from a survey of 1100 participants and distilled to 657 usable sets has been analysed to assess the predictive power of proposed model via structural equation modelling. The model proposed in this study explains 56% of the variance in “Participation Intentions” and 55% of the variance in “Participation Behaviour”. Participation of behavioural intention in the model’
explanatory power was the highest amongst the constructs (able to explain 28% of usage behaviour).While, “Attitude” explain around 11% of SNSs usage behaviour. The study findings also show that “Perceived Social Capital” construct has a notable impact on usage behaviour, this impact came indirectly through its direct effect on “Attitude” and “Perceived Usefulness”. Participation of “Perceived Social Capital” in the models' explanatory power was the third highest amongst the constructs. “Perceived Social Capital”, alone explain around 9% of SNSs usage behaviour.
The social networks and the new social order between the individualized socia...INFOGAIN PUBLICATION
The new Social Networks (SN) evolved very quickly. They conquered of wide population as well in the cities as in the campaigns. They pushed aside values, attitudes, behavior…; In countries with strong social culture, they modified these values and modified the social rules formerly considered as unchanging.In this paper, an empirical study concerned the case of the Moroccans and their behavior with regard to the social networks in numerous domains as those of society, economy, consumption, social and societal relationships, information and communication, politics, etc. The traditional conventional social order is today in deep transformation. This paper contributes to the understanding of behavior change currently facing Moroccan society at all levels.The designers of software or applications bound to the social networks have to integrate these new behavior in their strategies.
social networking individual vs. crowd behavior (connected intelligence)INFOGAIN PUBLICATION
The study of Human behavior is much more complicated in various situations, especially on the spectrum of Social Networks. The study of individual behavior cannot be replicated for a group/crowd behavior which can have many social and behavioral dimensions. In the connected world where intelligence is shared among individuals and groups, there exists another kind of complexity which needs to be examined.The complexity of human behaviors as an individual or as a group on the social networks is much more versatile and erratic. The research work studies and analyzes these behaviors in a connected networked intelligent environment and as to how these behaviors are reflected towards Connected Intelligence. Consequently it defines how they can affect the intelligent analytical outcomes. Finally it comes up with a generic model which can be applied in any setup.
The social network analysis (SNA), branch of complex systems can be used in the construction of multiagent
systems. This paper proposes a study of how social network analysis can assist in modeling multiagent
systems, while addressing similarities and differences between the two theories. We built a prototype
of multi-agent systems for resolution of tasks through the formation of teams of agents that are formed on
the basis of the social network established between agents. Agents make use of performance indicators to
assess when should change their social network to maximize the participation in teams.
Mining and Analyzing Academic Social NetworksEditor IJCATR
Academics establish relationships by way of various interactions like jointly authoring a research paper or report, jointly
supervising a thesis, working jointly on a project, etc. Some of these relationships are ubiquitous whereas other are hard to keep track
of. Of all types of possible academic and research collaborations, co-authorship is best documented. In this paper we analyze the coauthorship
based academic social networks of computer science engineering departments of Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) as
evidenced from their research publications produced during 2011 and 2015. We use social network analysis metrics to study the
collaboration networks in four leading IITs. From experimental results it can be concluded that IIT Delhi and IIT Kharagpur have a
close knit collaboration network whereas the collaboration network of IIT Kanpur and IIT Madras is fragmented. However, the
collaboration networks of all the four IITs exhibit similar network properties as expected from any other collaboration network
2010 Catalyst Conference - Trends in Social Network AnalysisMarc Smith
Review of trends related to social network analysis in the enterprise. Presented at the 2010 Catalyst Conference in San Diego, CA july 29, 2010. Presented with Mike Gotta, Gartner Group.
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As a human resources manager, you need to advise top leadership (CEO, Vice Presidents, and Senior Managers) information on the importance of leadership style in creating a culture that embraces diversity. Create a PowerPoint presentation to compare and contrast how the different styles of CEO leadership can affect team building, so that cultural diversity can be used to a competitive advantage in the workplace. Provide ideas for how to effectively build a team that supports and embraces cultural diversity, and recommend the leadership styles that encourages the creation of a culture of diversity.
Incorporate appropriate animations, transitions, and graphics as well as “speaker notes” for each slide. The speaker notes may be comprised of brief paragraphs or bulleted lists. Support your presentation with at least five (5) scholarly resources. In addition to these specified resources, other appropriate scholarly resources may be included. Be sure to include citations for quotations and paraphrases with references in APA format and style where appropriate.
Length: 12-15 slides (with a separate reference slide).
Notes Length: 100-150 words for each slide.
.
As a homeowner, you have become more concerned about the energy is.docxrossskuddershamus
As a homeowner, you have become more concerned about the energy issue facing our communities. You want to see your neighbors become more involved in energy conservation efforts, but your attempts to gain support on your own have failed. You have decided to propose an Energy Resource Plan to your HOA for approval at the next meeting. Your goal is to convince the HOA to support and endorse your Energy Resource Plan.
Review
the following Energy Resource Plan outline
:
·
Introduction
o
Provide information about why conserving energy is important.
·
Renewable versus nonrenewable
o
Briefly distinguish between these types of energy.
·
Methods to conserve and help the environment
o
What may each member do, personally, to conserve energy and help the environment at the same time?
o
Provide at least three methods.
·
Government efforts
o
How may the government be involved in conservation efforts?
·
Conclusion
o
Wrap up the meeting with a brief summary of your main points.
o
Provide some motivation for conserving energy with a memorable slogan, statement, or song, for example.
Write
a 350- to 700-word paper that includes all elements of the outline.
Post
your paper as an attachment.
.
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In a paper of 750-1,000 words please discuss the following:
What is their function/medical training?
In what type of setting can each profession be found traditionally? Is this changing today?
Discuss how the expanding roles of allied health in health care delivery have affected each profession.
How has the health care workforce shortage affected each profession?
Provide a minimum of two references.
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As a future teacher exposed to the rising trend of blogs and advocacy pages on the Internet, it is important to identify credible, scholarly resources as the basis of best practices in the classroom.
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Describe how the resource can be used to support your selected issue.
Include a description of why that source would benefit your future classroom.
Describe what types of information is available at that source.
Use APA format to cite resources.
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What organism produces this disease and how?
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As a fresh research intern, you are a part of the hypothetical National Anthrax Eradication Program. Your first task is to present a detailed summary of this lethal disease.
Using
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1. What organism produces this disease and how?
2. What are the four different locations where an anthrax infection can occur? Describe each of these locations. What are the reasons why these locations allow the infection to occur?
3.What are the different scientific methods that have been tried, tested, and implemented towards Anthrax prevention and cure in the past decade?
4.Why is Anthrax such a potent weapon of bioterrorism? What are the characteristics that make it so?
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The method conducted for the concept analysis on EDLOS was the Walker and Avant approach. They were able to research a way of measuring the concept empirically by identifying all concepts used. (Andersson et al., 2020) Nurses can use the Walker and Avant approach when there are limited concepts available to a nurse to explain a problem area. The process of concept analysis for nurses first transpired in 1986. (McEwen & Wills, 2019) Walker and Avant specifically designed an approach to concept analysis to help graduate nurses explain methods to examine phenomena that interests them. (McEwen & Wills, 2019) The basic concept analysis approach by Walker and Avant is as follows; 1. Select a concept 2. Determine the aims or purposes of the analysis. 3. Identify all the concept possible uses possible. 4. Determine the defining attributes. 5. Identify the model case. 6. Identify any borderline, related contrary, invent, and illegitimate cases. 7. Identify the antecedents and consequences. 8. Define the empirical referents. (McEwen & Wills, 2019, Tables 3-2)
Authors Aim and Purpose
As a former Emergency Department Nurse, I find it fascinating how the author chose to do the concept analysis on this topic. According to the author, when patients are forced to stay for extended lengths of time in the emergency department, this leads to poor patient outcomes, overcrowding, and an overall inefficient organization. (Andersson et al., 2020) I recall when a febrile child was left in the Emergency Department for a long time. The child became so agitated their respiratory status worsened. The authors aim to clarify the meaning of long EDLOS and identify the root causes of an emergency department length of stay of more than six hours. (Andersson et al., 2020)
Defining Attributes on the Concept Examined
In the emergency department, length of stay (LOS) is a widely used measurement. Emergency department length of stay (EDLOS) is defined as the time interval between a patient's arrival to the ED to the time the patient physically leaves the ED. The defining attributes discovered that waiting in a crowded emergency department was just that, waiting. Waiting was the most acknowledged attribute associated with EDLOS. (Andersson et al., 2020) If the patients didn't have to wait, they wouldn't be a problem/complaint and had no time targets.
Another attrib.
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As a doctorally prepared nurse, you are writing a Continuous Quality Improvement project plan on
Reducing readmission/hospitalization rates for patients with Heart Failure
;
1.
Describe how the Quality program is measured, data is collected, monitored, and analyzed.
2.
Determine performance measures, and develop indicators to measure performance, core measures, etc.
3.
Discuss a data collection plan including data collection methods such as chart review, etc. Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA) policies must be followed.
4.
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HCQA Health Plan Employer Data and Information Set (HEDIS) measures
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Document this assignment in 6 pages document and include 5 References.
.
As a consumer of information, do you generally look for objectivity .docxrossskuddershamus
As a consumer of information, do you generally look for objectivity in news reporting or do you also want opinions? Why?
During the past election, did you follow a political story or candidate on the Internet? Did you follow similar stories on candidates through television or in your local paper? What were are differences between Internet reporting and television and newspaper reporting? From your observations, what do you think are the general effects of the Internet on politics?
200 words
.
As a center of intellectual life and learning, Timbuktua. had ver.docxrossskuddershamus
As a center of intellectual life and learning, Timbuktu
a. had very little intellectual life.
b. was a major point of congregation, bringing together knowledge from around the Muslim world. Correct
c. grew to be strong in spite of opposition from Malian kings.
d. was second only to Mogadishu in the number of universities.
.
ary AssignmentCertified medical administrative assistants (CMAAs) .docxrossskuddershamus
ary Assignment
Certified medical administrative assistants (CMAAs) need to be aware of the many medical options that are available in their community.
For this assignment, develop a document that contains the community resources for breast cancer patients.
Discuss the steps that will be taken to gather and present the information.
Include a procedure to update the information on a regular basis.
.
As (or after) you read The Declaration of Independence, identify.docxrossskuddershamus
As (or after) you read
The Declaration of Independence
, identify three examples of each of the three elements in Aristotle's Triad: ethos, pathos, and logos. That means you need to provide a total of
nine
examples in the form of direct quotes from
The Declaration of Independence. Also, be sure to clearly label which element (ethos, pathos, or logos)
.
ARTWORK Markus Linnenbrink HOWTOSURVIVE, 2012, epoxy resin .docxrossskuddershamus
ARTWORK Markus Linnenbrink
HOWTOSURVIVE, 2012, epoxy resin
on wood, 13" x 17"
Spotlight
64 Harvard Business Review July–August 2014
SPOTLIGHT ON THE NEW MARKETING ORGANIZATION
Aditya Joshi is a partner at
Bain & Company, a leader in
the Customer Strategy and
Marketing practice, and the
head of the firm’s Marketing
Excellence area.
Eduardo Giménez is a
partner at Bain and a
member of the firm’s
Consumer Goods practice
in Europe, with a focus on
marketing organizations.
Decision-Driven
Marketing
Good decision processes break down silos
and improve performance. by Aditya Joshi
and Eduardo Giménez
Marketers have always had to build brands, create demand, promote sales, and help their companies earn custom-ers’ loyalty. But today’s turbulent environment means they must play critical new roles: They must be strate-gists, allocating scarce resources to support company priorities and increasing return on investment. They must be technologists, tracking and capitalizing on the most useful of the sophisticated technologies that are flooding their field. And they must be scientists, because the future of their business may not look much like the
HBR.ORG
July–August 2014 Harvard Business Review 65
requires a new mind-set for all the parties concerned
and a shared commitment to rethinking how deci-
sions are made and work is done. To be sure, some
companies will find that they need to consider orga-
nizational changes as well. But the decision perspec-
tive helps them establish a firmer foundation for any
restructuring and drives progress in the interim.
Typically, three categories of marketing-related
decisions cross organizational seams:
Strategy and planning decisions involve aligning
marketing goals with business and customer strat-
egies and aligning the priorities of marketing and
sales. These decisions typically address questions
such as:
• On which customer segments and product lines
should we focus marketing support?
• What is the optimal level of spending, and what
is the right allocation among vehicles and channels?
• What is the testing and learning plan?
Execution decisions, the marketer’s traditional
purview, are more challenging than they used to
be. A proliferation of marketing vehicles and digital
technologies has vastly increased the complexity of
creating and delivering messages and offers in an en-
vironment where ever-faster execution and relent-
less budget pressure are the norm. These decisions
include issues such as:
• Which product features should we highlight in
our marketing efforts?
• What incentives should we give customers to
get them to try or buy our offerings?
• What is the right mix of traditional and digital
marketing vehicles?
Operations and infrastructure decisions cover
all the new capabilities that are increasingly impor-
tant to marketing’s success. They address questions
such as:
• How will new marketing technologies and tools
be evaluated, boug.
arugumentative essay on article given belowIn Parents Keep Chil.docxrossskuddershamus
arugumentative essay on article given below
In “Parents Keep Child’s Gender Secret”, Jayme Poisson writes an article about the true story of a Canadian couple raising their child without ever revealing the child’s gender (keeping it secret from anyone not in their immediate family). This has incited many strong reactions from readers and locals alike. Poisson’s piece allows us to form our own opinions about this subject and forces us to examine why we consider gender so important to the development of a child.
Kenji Yoshino writes about the term covering. ‘Covering’, as Yoshino uses it, means to ‘tone down a disfavored identity to fit into the mainstream’ (552), and Yoshino argues that though Americans value the idea of the melting pot as a model for our culture, that ideal can have unintended negative consequences. Despite our avowed appreciation for multiculturalism, the unstated public expectation is still for people of all genders, sexual orientations and races to conform to rigid expectations.
Prompt:
Yoshino discusses the pressures we face to “cover”. Apply this concept and cross-reference Poisson’s piece and the decision Storm’s parents have made to keep their child’s gender a secret. In what ways is it a strategy to resist covering? Is it an effective one? Is some measure of covering necessary in our society? Make an argument about how cultural expectations and individual (or parental) choices should affect or does affect gender identity.
Essay Guidelines:
Quote the assigned readings to support your answer. Do not do additional research. Be sure to demonstrate your comprehension of the pieces by quoting and discussing relevant passages to support your thesis. Essays that draw support solely upon personal experience will not receive a passing grade. Additionally, make sure that you are not merely summarizing the readings
.
artsArticleCircling Round Vitruvius, Linear Perspectiv.docxrossskuddershamus
arts
Article
Circling Round Vitruvius, Linear Perspective, and the
Design of Roman Wall Painting
Jocelyn Penny Small †
Department of Art History, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA; [email protected]
† Mail: 890 West End Avenue, Apartment 4C, New York, NY 10025-3520, USA.
Received: 1 April 2019; Accepted: 2 September 2019; Published: 14 September 2019
����������
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Abstract: Many scholars believe that linear perspective existed in classical antiquity, but a fresh
examination of two key texts in Vitruvius shows that 1.2.2 is about modularity and symmetria,
while 7.Pr.11 describes shading (skiagraphia). Moreover, these new interpretations are firmly based on
the classical understanding of optics and the history of painting (e.g., Pliny the Elder). A third text
(Philostratus, Imagines 1.4.2) suggests that the design of Roman wall painting depends on concentric
circles. Philostratus’ system is then used to successfully make facsimiles of five walls, representing
Styles II, III, and IV of Roman wall painting. Hence, linear perspective and its relatives, such as
Panofsky’s vanishing vertical axis, should not be imposed retrospectively where they never existed.
Keywords: linear perspective; skenographia; skiagraphia; Greek and Roman painting; Roman fresco;
Vitruvius; Philostratus
Two systems for designing Pompeian wall paintings have dominated modern scholarship: a
one- or center-point perspective and a vanishing vertical axis.1 Neither method works for all the
variations seen on the walls of Styles II–IV. The vanishing vertical axis is considered a precursor of
linear perspective, whereas center-point construction is a form of linear perspective. Many scholars
believe that linear perspective was invented by the Greeks, only to be forgotten during the Middle
Ages and “reinvented” in the Renaissance.2 In contrast, I propose that linear perspective was not
known in any form in antiquity but, rather, was an invention of the Renaissance, which also created its
putative ancient pedigree.
1. Background
1.1. Definitions
First, it is important to define four key terms.
“Perspective” applies loosely to a wide range of systems that convert a three-dimensional scene
to two dimensions. Most scholars, however, mean “linear perspective” when they use the unqualified
term “perspective”. No standard definition exists for linear perspective, but only linear perspective
obeys the rules of projective geometry. Formal definitions refer to “station points” (the point or
place for the “eye” of the “viewer” and/or “artist”), vanishing points, horizon lines, and picture
planes, among other aspects. Horizontal lines converge to the “center point” or, in the case of
1 This topic is remarkably complex with a massive bibliography. Small (2013) provides a reasonable summary of the
scholarship to its date of publication. Since then, I have realized that the standard interpretations of key texts and objects
needs to be totally rethought. This artic.
ARTS & NATURE MARKETING PROJECT OF SHEFFIELDYang yux.docxrossskuddershamus
ARTS & NATURE
MARKETING PROJECT OF SHEFFIELD
Yang yuxuan(b8047004) Li zedong(b8035381)
Hu xujia(b8047009) Yan Qihan(b8047013) Liang yaoztu(b8047027)
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ibaotu.com
1
Microsoft Office 用户 (Office) -
Our company is a professional marketing agency with a lot successful experience in different marketing area. The company was found in 1998 and since then we are always be the first choice of many big company.
About our company
Company
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ibaotu.com
Our company is a professional marketing agency with a lot of successful experience in different marketing area. The company was founded in 1998 and since then we are always the first choice of many big companies.
2
Control & budget of objects.
Baker
The design of the marketing objects
William
The idea of the hook
Jason
Collection of data and information
Frank
The design of the marketing objects
Allen
01
02
03
04
05
Members
Thanks these members for their contributions
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ibaotu.com
There are 5 people in our team: Baker, he is responsible for the control & budget of our objects. Frank, he is responsible for the collection of data and information that we can use. William and Allen are responsible for the design of the marketing objects. And then Jason, he is responsible for the idea of the “hook” .
3
Introduction
Situation Analysis
Marketing Communication Objectives
Marketing Communication Strategy
CONTENTS
Marketing Communication Tactics
Action
Control
Reference
2
1
3
7
5
8
4
6
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ibaotu.com
for this presentation, we will introduce our awesome ideas to make Sheffield a more popular place. Here is the content, we will talk about the situation of Sheffield, marketing communication objectives, marketing communication steategy and tactics. And the last part is action and control.
4
02
Situation Analysis
This part will complete situation analysis of Sheffield.
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ibaotu.com
5
W
T
O
S
Lesser culture connotation
WEAKNESSES
1. Development of economy
2. Change in ideology of society
OPPORTUNITIES
Strong tourism competitors around Sheffield, for example Nottingham and Leeds
THREATS
1. Good geographic position.
2. Strong art atmosphere
STRENGTHES
SWOT
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ibaotu.com
In this part I will complete Situation Analysis of Sheffield by mainly using SWOT analysi
6
As a tourism city, one recent survey placed Sheffield 26th in a table of the best UK tourist city.
Tourism City
Sheffield lies in the most southerly part of Yorkshire, it is the meeting point of .
A
R
TI
G
O
O
R
IG
IN
A
L
Revista Científica da Ordem dos Médicos www.actamedicaportuguesa.com 31
RESUMO
Introdução: A violência no local de trabalho é um dos principais fatores de risco no mundo do trabalho. Os trabalhadores da saúde
apresentam um risco superior. O nosso estudo teve como objetivo caracterizar a violência física e verbal num hospital público e definir
estratégias de prevenção e vigilância em saúde ocupacional.
Material e Métodos: Estudo observacional transversal monocêntrico, conduzido num hospital público em Lisboa com trabalhadores
da saúde. Foi realizado um inquérito qualitativo com entrevistas em profundidade a seis trabalhadores e um inquérito quantitativo
com questionários a 32 trabalhadores. Aceitou-se um nível de significância de 5% na avaliação das diferenças estatísticas. O teste de
Mann-Whitney e o teste exato de Fisher foram usados para calcular os valores de p.
Resultados: Os principais resultados são: (1) 41 episódios reportados na fase quantitativa; (2) 5/21 [23,81%] vítimas notificaram o in-
cidente; (3) 18/21 [85.71%] vítimas reportaram estados de hipervigilância permanente; (4) 22/28 [78,57%] participantes não conheciam
ou conheciam mal os procedimentos de notificação; (5) 24/28 [85,71%] consideravam possível minimizar o problema.
Discussão: A violência é favorecida pelo acesso livre às zonas de trabalho, ausência de agentes de segurança e polícia ou falta da
respetiva intervenção. A baixa notificação contribui para a ausência de medidas organizacionais. O estado de hipervigilância relatado
reflete o efeito prejudicial da exposição a fontes de stress e ameaça.
Conclusão: A violência no local de trabalho é um fator de risco relevante, com impacto negativo na saúde dos trabalhadores e merece
uma abordagem individualizada no âmbito da saúde ocupacional, cujas áreas e estratégias prioritárias foram definidas neste estudo.
Palavras-chave: Fatores de Risco Profissionais; Prevenção; Saúde Ocupacional; Trabalhadores da Saúde; Violência no Local de
Trabalho
Workplace Violence in Healthcare: A Single-Center Study
on Causes, Consequences and Prevention Strategies
A Violência no Local de Trabalho em Instituições
de Saúde: Um Estudo Monocêntrico sobre Causas,
Consequências e Estratégias de Prevenção
1. Escola Nacional de Saúde Pública. Universidade NOVA de Lisboa. Lisboa. Portugal.
2. Emergency Department. Hospital Professor Doutor Fernando da Fonseca. Amadora. Portugal.
3. CISP - Centro de Investigação em Saúde Pública. CHRC - Comprehensive Health Research Center. Escola Nacional de Saúde Pública. Universidade NOVA de Lisboa. Lisboa.
Portugal.
4. Occupational Health Department. Centro Hospitalar Universitário de Lisboa Central. Lisboa. Portugal.
Autor correspondente: Helena Sofia Antão. [email protected]
Recebido: 22 de outubro de 2018 - Aceite: 10 de julho de 2019 | Cop.
Artist Analysis Project – Due Week 61)Powerpoint project at le.docxrossskuddershamus
Artist Analysis Project – Due Week 6
1)
Powerpoint project at least 10 slides.
2)
3 or more cited references from journals, magazines, newspapers, not all websites, not Wikipedia
3)
An analysis is a scholarly review of a famous artist and his or her work, not just whether we liked it or not.
4)
Use vocabulary and terms you learned in this class and apply them to your art choice.
5)
Try focusing your topic on one aspect of the art, i.e.
a.
Pick an artist/movie director/dancer/singer/novelist/actor etc. and research that person. Read reviews and critiques of their work, read or watch biographies (YouTube), you might choose to compare two of their works, or compare and contract two artists in the same field, learn about the art technique and why it is used, what it represents, what it tells us about our humanity, etc.
I need this back by 3:00 p.m. today and will check copyscape.
.
Artist Research Paper RequirementsYou are to write a 3 page double.docxrossskuddershamus
Artist Research Paper Requirements
You are to write a 3 page double spaced paper in 12 point font using Microsoft word.
You are to choose 3 digital artists who’s work is available to view on the internet.
Do not use any of the old masters like Picasso, Rembrandt, etc….. this needs to be a modern artist working in the digital arts and design field.
At least one of the artists must be from a country other than the United States.
You are to cover the following areas for each artist:
Biography who they are and where they studied,
Things that influenced their work and inspired them,
The artists philosophy on their work,
Artistic genres, or movements that their work fits into or is associated with.
You are to write about their work – provide url links to images of their work on line. Write about what you see in their work, how it impacts and influences your own design artistic ideas.
Write about the composition, color, scale, and other aesthetics of their art.
.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...
Are You Feeling Lonely The Impact ofRelationship Characteri.docx
1. Are You Feeling Lonely? The Impact of
Relationship Characteristics and Online
Social Network Features on Loneliness
SABINE MATOOK, JEFF CUMMINGS, AND HILLOL BALA
SABINE MATOOK is a senior lecturer of information systems
at the UQ Business
School, University of Queensland, Australia. She received her
Ph.D. from the
Technische Universität Dresden, Germany. Her research
interests include the IT
artifact, social media, and agile IS development. Her work has
appeared in the
European Journal of Information Systems, Information and
Management, MISQ
Executive, Decision Support Systems, Journal of Strategic
Information Systems, and
other journals. She has served or is currently serving as an
associate editor and track
chair for major information systems conferences, including the
International
Conference on Information Systems and European Conference
on Information
Systems.
JEFF CUMMINGS is an assistant professor of information
systems and operations
management in the Cameron School of Business at University of
North Carolina,
Wilmington. He received his Ph.D. from Indiana University. His
research interests
2. include the impacts of social media on the organization, health-
care IT, and virtual
team collaboration. His work has been published or is
forthcoming in Business
Horizons and Journal of the American Society for Information
Science and
Technology.
HILLOL BALA is an assistant professor of information systems
and Whirlpool
Corporation Faculty Fellow in the Kelley School of Business at
Indiana
University, Bloomington. He received his Ph.D. from the
University of Arkansas.
His research interests include IT-enabled business process
change and management,
IT use, adaptation and impacts, and use of IT in health care. His
work has been
published or is forthcoming in Information Systems Research,
Journal of
Management Information Systems, MIS Quarterly, Management
Science,
Production and Operations Management, Decision Sciences,
Information Society,
Communications of the ACM, MISQ Executive, and other
journals. He has served or
currently serves on the editorial boards of Information Systems
Research and
Decision Sciences, and as a track chair, an associate editor, or a
program committee
member of major information systems conferences, such as the
International
Conference on Information Systems, the Pacific Asia
Conference on Information
Systems, and others.
4. features (i.e., active or passive) on perceived loneliness. Our
findings show that OSN
can be linked to both more and less perceived loneliness, that
is, individuals’
relationship orientation significantly affects their feelings of
loneliness, which are
further moderated by their degree of self-disclosure within the
OSN. Furthermore,
how users engage in the OSN (either actively or passively)
influences their percep-
tions of loneliness. Practical implications regarding perceived
loneliness include
recommendations for firms to encourage mobile workers to
utilize OSNs when
separated from others, for education providers to connect with
their new students
before they arrive, and for users to utilize OSNs as a social
bridge to others they feel
close with.
KEY WORDS AND PHRASES: social media, online social
networks, loneliness, relationship
management, communal orientation, social exchange theory,
self-disclosure,
networking ability.
In recent years, individuals have become increasingly mobile,
and in doing so travel
significant distances from their homes to reside at the target
destination for an
extended period of time [30]. Consequently, individuals are
separated from the
social environments that are both familiar and comforting to
them [58]. Prior
research in sociology has suggested that this separation leads to
negative social
5. outcomes, including feelings of loneliness [66, 82]. It is
assumed that lonely people
desire human attachment that can be achieved through creating
new or nurturing
existing relationships [7].
Prior research has produced mixed findings regarding the
impact of technology,
especially online social networks (OSNs), on feelings of
loneliness [78]. Whereas
some studies point to a negative association between OSN use
and loneliness [31],
others show the opposite [19]. When loneliness is reduced
because OSNs engage
users in relationships with their social network contacts [31],
the technology serves
as an outlet that captivates and helps users to buffer their social
separation [60]. In
contrast, other studies have shown that OSN use increases
loneliness. Some users
who only consume information that others share have developed
feelings of envy,
emotional withdrawal, and loneliness [50]. Indeed, studies
showed that individuals’
life satisfaction and well-being decreased when using Facebook
intensively because
they compared their lives with their impressions of others in the
OSN [52]. Because
of these mixed findings, it is not clear whether OSNs alleviate
or exacerbate
perceived loneliness, and a more comprehensive and
theoretically grounded account
is needed.
IMPACT OF ONLINE SOCIAL NETWORK FEATURES ON
LONELINESS 279
6. The current study seeks to address this gap by focusing on the
primary purpose of
OSNs as relationship tools. OSNs are uniquely suited for
managing relationships
because users can virtually replicate their social network of
relationships [34].
However, not everybody uses the OSN in the same way nor do
they have the
same approach to how they manage their relationships. We thus
propose that (1) a
user’s OSN feature use, (2) the user’s relationship orientation
moderated by their
degree of self-disclosure, and (3) a user’s networking ability
have an impact on their
loneliness. As the overarching theory for this study, we draw on
the loneliness
literature and insights from theories of social exchange,
communication, and poli-
tical skills to develop our model, and we test the model in the
context of students’
use of OSNs. While all three theories center around human
relationships and are
core parts of human interactions, social exchange theory from
the relationship
literature enables us to theorize about relationship norms and
how benefits between
relationship partners (e.g., OSN users) are given and received.
Communication
theories are used to explain different forms of communication—
either direct or via
broadcasting—whereas the management theory on personal
influences and political
skills illuminates the OSN user’s ability to create and maintain
7. relationships.
This paper contributes to information systems (IS) research by
enhancing our
understanding of OSN use and the impact it has on users’
perceived loneliness.
This research expands the relationship literature by examining a
user’s approach to
relationship management in OSNs and extends theory in social
psychology, in
particular the body of knowledge of loneliness. We further add
to the theoretical
understanding of on self-disclosure in virtual settings by
proposing it as a moderator
between relationship orientation and loneliness. Finally, we
contribute to manage-
ment research by demonstrating the importance of networking
for an OSN user to
ease feelings of loneliness. This research also provides practical
insights about how
organizations, such as firms and education providers, can help
alleviate loneliness
experienced by those they are responsible for.
Background
This section presents prior research on OSNs and perceived
social loneliness that is
relevant to our study.
Online Social Networks
An OSN, such as Facebook or Google+, is a web-based
technology that allows users
to exchange social information with others who may be near or
far, including
8. friends, family, colleagues, and teammates [56]. Kane et al. [46,
p. 279] summarized
the unique characteristics of OSNs by describing how they
enable users to “(1) have
a unique user profile that is constructed by them, members of
their network, and the
platform; (2) access digital content through and protect it from
various search
mechanisms provided by the platform; (3) articulate a list of
other users with
280 MATOOK, CUMMINGS, AND BALA
whom they share a connection; and (4) view and traverse their
connections and those
made by others within the system.”
An OSN’s relationship management capability is enabled
through features avail-
able in most OSNs, including the ability to list contacts, share
social information
(including photos, videos, text via microblogging [79]),
send/receive private mes-
sages, social search engines, and express support to others (e.g.,
“Likes” on
Facebook) [11]. Through these features, user-generated content
is created that facil-
itates both active engagement with one’s network and passive
consumption of
content [64]. Social search engines help in finding contacts as
well as filtering
user-generated content [28].
In OSNs, self-disclosure is a common behavior [69]. Self-
disclosure is defined as
9. “any message about the self that a person communicates to
another” [87, p. 338]. In
OSNs, disclosed information includes personal details such as
interests, preferences,
relationship status, and habits [85]. People self-disclose to
others they like and trust,
allowing for a relationship to become more intimate [59].
Reciprocal self-disclosure
leads to a “you tell me, I tell you” behavior whereby disclosed
information increases
in depth and breadth [54, p. 170]. Indeed, research on bloggers’
online behavior has
demonstrated the importance of reciprocity for knowledge
sharing [17]. Research
has shown that self-disclosure plays an important role in
relationship growth, leading
to a closer, high-quality relationship, especially for friendships
[15]. Consequently,
OSNs are apt for relationship creation (i.e., to form new and to
revive neglected
relationships) and relationship maintenance (i.e., to nurture and
foster existing
relationships) to impact perceived loneliness [70].
Perceived Social Loneliness
Loneliness results from a perceived absence of satisfying
relationships and a deficit
in an individual’s social network [39, 66]. According to the
belongingness hypoth-
esis, human beings have “a pervasive drive to form and
maintain at least a minimum
quantity of lasting, positive, and significant interpersonal
relationships” [7, p. 497].
The loneliness literature differentiates between two types of
10. loneliness: emotional
and social [86]. Emotional loneliness is associated with a lack
of intimate ties and a
deficit in intimate attachments, particularly in romantic
relationships. Conversely,
social loneliness “results from the lack of a network of social
relationships in which
the person is part of a group of friends who share common
interests and activities”
[74, p. 1314]. Given that we are interested in the perceived
loneliness of people who
are geographically separated from their familiar social network,
we focus on social
loneliness.
Social loneliness is thought to be the result of social isolation
because an indivi-
dual is not able to have repeated interactions with the same
contacts [7]. The
network of lonely individuals tends to be smaller, which gives
them the impression
that they do not belong to a group [39]. Research reports that
social loneliness comes
from infrequent interactions with friends [27], as well as less
supportive behaviors
IMPACT OF ONLINE SOCIAL NETWORK FEATURES ON
LONELINESS 281
and unhelpfulness from one’s networks in times of need [80].
To compensate
for feelings of social loneliness, prior research stipulates active
relationship manage-
11. ment [86].
Hypothesis Development
This section presents hypotheses on the impacts of relationship
characteristics
(relationship orientation, self-disclosure and networking ability)
and OSN features
(active and passive features) on social loneliness. Our
theoretical foundation is based
on human relationships and its core focuses on human
interactions. We therefore
build on the relationship literature using social exchange theory
to theorize about
self-disclosure in relationships as well as norms and benefits
given and received
between relationship partners (e.g., OSN users). We use
communication theories to
explain different forms of communicating via OSN networks.
Furthermore, we use a
management theory on personal influences and political skills to
explain an OSN
user’s ability to proactively create and maintain interpersonal
relationships. The
research model is presented in Figure 1 at the end of the
section.
Relationship Orientation
Two social exchange theorists, Clark and Mills [21, 23], have
shown that different
norms govern a person’s behavior when creating and
maintaining a relationship.
These norms affect individuals’ orientations toward
relationships and their under-
standing of how benefits are given and received. In general,
12. individuals maintain
relationships only when the comparison between given and
received benefits is
perceived to be satisfactory, but individuals differ in how they
judge the extent of
Exchange Orientation
Relationship Orientation
Communal Orientation
Self-Disclosure
Social
Loneliness
Networking Ability
Passive Features
OSN Features
Active
Features
H 1a
H 4a
H 3
H 2bH 2a
H 1b
13. H 4b
Broadcasting
Direct
Communication
H 4c
Figure 1. Research Model
282 MATOOK, CUMMINGS, AND BALA
reciprocity required [26]. This leads to two different
orientations toward relation-
ships: an exchange orientation and a communal orientation [21].
According to Clark
and Mills, these two relationship types represent two distinct
concepts and not a
continuum that can vary in strength.
An individual with an exchange orientation is concerned with
equal reciprocity
and maintains a relationship with others only for instrumental
reasons [22]. An
exchange relationship orientation is characterized by giving
benefits “with the
expectation of receiving a comparable benefit in return or as
repayment for a benefit
received previously” [21, p. 684]. These individuals carefully
record obligations and
keep score of “give and take.” In contrast, a communal
relationship orientation is
characterized by giving benefits “in response to needs or to
demonstrate a general
14. concern for the other person” [21, p. 684]. A communal-
oriented individual gen-
erally has no expectations of immediate repayment of a supplied
benefit, but shows a
concern for the other’s welfare [22]. While these two types of
relationship orienta-
tion are general in nature, they can be translated into an OSN
environment. In such a
context, they manifest as different social-emotional benefits
that stem from the user-
generated content. The benefits one can give and receive in
OSNs include an initial
posting on a contact’s profile page, responding to a posting
(textual or via a “like it”
function), gift giving, sending private messages, and initiating
chats.
Communal relationship orientation: Within OSNs, we argue that
users with a
communal relationship orientation behave in such a way that
results in lower degrees
of perceived social loneliness. These users undertake OSN
activities to please others
and without expectation of immediate repay. For example, a
communal-oriented user
would post a comment on a contact’s OSN profile (i.e., give a
benefit) because he/
she sees the contact is in need or he/she cares about that contact
(e.g., when the
contact posted about a lost wallet or a canceled flight). As these
OSN postings are
undertaken without the expectation of receiving anything in
return, the communal-
oriented person might post on a contact’s profile multiple times
without receiving a
comment back. Posting continuously when a need is observed
15. (i.e., providing the
benefit), however, stimulates reciprocity because the receiver
may eventually return
the comment. In doing so, the interaction frequency between the
two OSN contacts
increases and the user feels more integrated in the social
network. Simply engaging
in the act of giving may also lead the communal-oriented user to
feel more
connected. For both reasons, perceptions of loneliness should
decrease, and we
thus expect that users who are more communal-oriented will
feel less lonely.
Hypothesis 1a: A user’s communal relationship orientation is
negatively asso-
ciated with perceived social loneliness.
Exchange relationship orientation: Within OSNs, we argue that
users with an
exchange-relationship orientation exhibit behaviors that result
in increased perceived
loneliness. Exchange oriented individuals expect their OSN
activity to be recipro-
cated equally and on a timely basis. For example, if the user
posts on a contact’s
profile, a returning post is soon expected. If the user gives a
virtual gift, then the
IMPACT OF ONLINE SOCIAL NETWORK FEATURES ON
LONELINESS 283
expectation is that the other returns a gift. If the gift is not
returned, the exchange-
16. oriented user refrains from giving a gift to this contact again
[77]. Contacts who fail
to reciprocate may even be removed from the user’s OSN
network [9]. Because of
an exchange-oriented user’s “scorekeeping,” the user knows of
the failed reciprocity,
and would stop giving benefits to contacts who do not
reciprocate. In this case, the
number of contacts with whom the user interacts becomes
smaller, resulting in the
user being more disconnected from the social network. Instead
of feeling integrated,
an exchange-oriented individual may feel isolated [16] and thus
experience social
loneliness [83]. Consequently, we would expect an OSN user
who only gives
benefits in expectation of equal and timely reciprocity to
experience a higher degree
of perceived social loneliness.
Hypothesis 1b: A user’s exchange-relationship orientation is
positively asso-
ciated with perceived social loneliness.
Self-Disclosure as a Moderating Factor
Prior research has studied the relationship between self-
disclosure and loneliness,
with ambiguous results. Some studies report that self-disclosure
affects loneliness
[53, 73], whereas other studies suggest the reverse [3, 45].
Despite mixed findings,
these studies agree that self-disclosure is important because of
its role in facilitating
the deepening of relationships. We draw on this insight to argue
that self-disclosure
17. could be an important moderator in our study, in that it could
alter the way in which
a user’s relationship orientation affects loneliness.
For a communal-oriented OSN user, we expect that higher self-
disclosing behavior
will reduce perceived loneliness by strengthening the
relationship between commu-
nal orientation and loneliness. When a communal-oriented OSN
user increases
disclosure of social information, more opportunities for the
user’s contacts to
reciprocate emerge. As a result, the extent of the returning self-
disclosure also
increases [34], albeit not necessarily proportional to the giving.
Because the com-
munal-oriented user is not concerned with equal reciprocity, a
lack of it would
therefore not stop the user’s future self-disclosure, that is, the
communal-oriented
user would continue disclosing social information. Indeed, as
communal-oriented
individuals are more focused on giving than on receiving, and
thus, an increase in
giving would make the user feel close to his/her network,
especially as no “scores”
are kept on how frequently the network reciprocates. Moreover,
continuing disclo-
sure will most likely result in more reciprocated self-disclosure
that will in turn
diminish the communal-oriented user’s loneliness.
Consequently, in the presence of
increased self-disclosure, the negative relationship between
communal orientation
and perceived social loneliness is strengthened.
18. Hypothesis 2a: Self-disclosure moderates the relationship
between communal-
relationship orientation and perceived social loneliness such
that the relation-
ship becomes stronger when there are higher levels of self-
disclosure.
284 MATOOK, CUMMINGS, AND BALA
For an exchange-oriented OSN user, we expect that a higher
degree of self-
disclosure will strengthen the relationship between exchange
orientation and lone-
liness, that is, more self-disclosing behavior for this type of
user will result in more
feelings of loneliness. An exchange-oriented OSN user expects
higher self-disclo-
sure to receive, in return, disclosed information of the same
extent (e.g., based on
novelty or interestingness, media richness or message length).
However, recipients
of disclosed information may only be a small number of OSN
contacts—those who
have proved to reciprocate. Because these OSN contacts are
already having to
reciprocate the “normal” information (e.g., postings made or
photos sent), sending
them additional information (through self-disclosure) could
result in information
overload [35, 48]. To ease this overload, these contacts may
well ignore or hide
information, further reducing reciprocity [9]. The exchange-
oriented user is likely to
feel that his/her calls are falling on increasingly deaf ears. This
19. effect is likely to
increase feelings of disconnectedness (i.e., reduced
belongingness) that in turn
stimulate perceptions of social loneliness [83]. Consequently, in
the presence of
higher self-disclosure, the positive relationship between
exchange orientation and
perceived social loneliness is strengthened.
Hypothesis 2b: Self-disclosure moderates the relationship
between exchange-
relationship orientation and perceived social loneliness such
that the relation-
ship becomes stronger when there are higher levels of self-
disclosure.
Networking Ability
Networking is the proactive creation and maintenance of
interpersonal relationships
with the objective of leveraging these relationships at some
point [29]. Networking
ability is defined as an individual’s “capacity to identify and
develop a diverse group
of contacts” [55, p. 691]. Building on the theory of political
skill [36], networking is
a human skill leveraged for understanding and influencing
others in professional
settings to achieve personal and organizational objectives.
Individuals with a strong
networking ability find it easy to develop friendships, alliances,
and coalitions [36].
Furthermore, these individuals master, effortlessly, the creation
and maintenance of
large and diverse networks to take advantage of the
opportunities that emerge from
20. these relationships. Yet, networking ability is just a personal
trait; rather, it represents
a social resource and an informational asset that stems from
having access to the
social network [10].
Networking ability is also an important factor in OSNs because
it allows users to
create a large OSN network [34]. Users skilled in networking
can also employ the
OSN’s communication features to interact with their contacts
and thereby deepen
existing relationships [42]. These contacts in the OSN can
provide social support
(e.g., expressing concern and sharing news), and contribute to
feelings of belonging
and lower feelings of social loneliness. Individuals who feel
integrated within a
social network show reduced feelings of social loneliness
because their desire for
IMPACT OF ONLINE SOCIAL NETWORK FEATURES ON
LONELINESS 285
attachment is satisfied [32]. When lacking networking ability,
the OSN user may
wait for others to initiate an OSN interaction instead of
proactively approaching
them. Missing out on interaction opportunities, a user with
lower networking ability
may feel disconnected, which is associated with feelings of
loneliness [72].
Consequently, OSN users who possess the ability to proactively
create and maintain
21. interpersonal relationships experience lower feelings of social
loneliness.
Hypothesis 3: Networking ability of an individual is negatively
associated with
perceived social loneliness.
Use of Active and Passive OSN Features
OSNs are used to create and consume user-generated content
[47]. Content is
produced through active engagement with a user’s contacts, for
example, in the
form of status updates or by sharing photos, videos, or links.
Communication
theorists differentiate active engagement as direct
communication (one-to-one) and
broadcasting (one-to-many) [12]. In addition, viewing user-
generated content is
referred to as “passive consumption,” also known as “social
surveillance” [45].
The rich architecture of OSNs provides features for performing
both active engage-
ment and passive consumption [11].
OSN users experience social isolation when they passively
consume user-gener-
ated content because of their lack of interaction [51].
Furthermore, passive con-
sumption restricts individuals in creating and managing
relationships [66]. The
literature has linked passive consumption to feelings of
disconnectedness and lone-
liness [4]. For instance, passive content consumption on
Facebook creates feelings of
envy that reduce a user’s life satisfaction through social
22. comparison between the
user and their contacts [50]. These researchers showed that
reading about the travel
and leisure experiences of OSN contacts led users to feel envy,
dissatisfaction, and
loneliness. Consequently, we propose that the use of OSN
features for observing
others (i.e., passive consumption) creates perceptions of social
loneliness because
users do not engage with their OSN network. By only using
passive OSN features,
the user misses out on interactions that could create a sense of
belonging.
Hypothesis 4a: The use of passive OSN features is positively
associated with
perceived social loneliness.
The creation of user-generated content and, as such, the active
engagement with
one’s OSN network, stimulates mutual content sharing among
OSN contacts [69].
Active engagement is achieved through the use of active OSN
features, where
repeated interactions strengthen a user’s social integration and
create a sense of
belonging [7]. The enhanced sense of social belonging is related
to feeling lower
degrees of social loneliness [31]. Active OSN features that use
either direct com-
munication or broadcasting “may have dramatically different
outcomes” on lone-
liness perceptions [12, p. 572] because of the number of
recipients, and thus the
number of potential interaction encounters.
23. 286 MATOOK, CUMMINGS, AND BALA
In direct communication, the user communicates with one or
more recipients
whereas in broadcasting no specific recipient exists and the
content is shared with
a larger audience. This greater number of recipients provides
more opportunities for
social interactions than direct communication. Nevertheless,
actively engaging with
one’s network contacts creates a sense of belonging and it is
expected to result in
lower degrees of social loneliness.
Hypothesis 4b: The use of active OSN features that facilitate
broadcasting is
negatively associated with perceived social loneliness.
Hypothesis 4c: The use of active OSN features that facilitate
direct communica-
tion is negatively associated with perceived social loneliness.
Methodology
Participants
For the study, OSN users were recruited from a master’s
program in a business
school at a major Australian university. We invited students
from a large manage-
ment information systems (MIS) course in which 205 students
were enrolled. Prior
studies on social media have repeatedly used student samples to
test their hypothesis
24. [see, e.g., 49, 54]. Students are particularly appropriate sample
subjects for social
media research because they represent the typical OSN user
population based on age
and gender [56]. Our decision to use a student sample is further
supported by criteria
and recommendations put forward by Compeau et al. [24] who
posit that one can
generalize from student samples when the intended population
is clearly identified
and a rationale for the use of students is provided.
The sample of our study includes 61 percent females with an
average age of 25 years.
Participants had substantial experiences with OSNs and had an
OSN account for 5.5
years on average. Among the participants, 62 percent logged in
at least once a day and
64 percent spent at least 30 minutes a day in their OSN. On
average, participants spent
about 55 minutes per day at their OSN. The OSN sites varied
across participants, with
Facebook being the primary site used (32 percent), followed by
two Chinese OSNs,
RenRen (27 percent) and QQ (20 percent), and various other
OSNs (21 percent).
The participants were first-semester students, mainly
international students (92
percent Asian, 5 percent Australian, 1.5 percent European, and
1.5 percent South
American) who had arrived in Australia two to three weeks
prior to the data
collection. Thus, the majority of students had recently been
taken out of their
familiar environment and, therefore, the country and the
25. university were unfamiliar
to them. Hence, we assume that these students were
experiencing at least some level
of social loneliness. Our assumption was supported by a
research study reporting
that social loneliness is a concerning but common phenomenon
among university
students [27]. We also believe that the students used their OSN
for relationship
management and to maintain relationships with their familiar
network of people
from their home country. It should be noted that the majority of
students (66 percent)
IMPACT OF ONLINE SOCIAL NETWORK FEATURES ON
LONELINESS 287
came from China where access to Facebook is blocked. This
number corresponds
roughly to the percentage of participants who indicated that
RenRen and QQ are
their main OSNs. This is not a problem for our study, however,
because we do not
study Facebook specifically, but rather the features available in
Facebook and other
OSNs. We only refer to Facebook to introduce OSN features
because it is a well-
known OSN.
Data Collection
Participants were provided with an online questionnaire at the
beginning of the study
that included instructions to answer the questions regarding past
26. OSN experience.
Participants were informed that the questions concerned their
OSN usage behavior.
Specifically, they were asked to evaluate the questions in the
context of how they
currently participate in OSN.
We undertook three rounds of data collection as illustrated in
Figure 2. To facilitate the
tracking of participant responses over time, each participant was
given a unique
identification number. Participation in the study was voluntary.
Responses varied
cross the different data collection waves. Of the 205 students,
185 (20 missing
responses), 178 (27 missing responses), and 169 (36 missing
responses) students
responded to the questionnaire at T1, T2, and T3, respectively.
Only one student
dropped the course and was removed from the sample. After
deleting responses of
those who did not participate all three times, we arrived at a
final sample of 166
participants (final response rate 81 percent).
Various measures were utilized to incentivize participation to
achieve a high
response rate and to minimize dropouts, including
prenotification of the data collec-
tion, endorsement of the research project by the lecturer,
participation reward
through nonfinancial tokens, and the assurance of privacy and
anonymity for all
participants. We kept the survey length reasonably short by
collecting different
constructs at different time periods. For example, communal and
27. exchange orienta-
tions were collected at T3 because these two relationship
orientations are relatively
stable individual traits [21].
Figure 2. Data Collection Procedure
288 MATOOK, CUMMINGS, AND BALA
In survey research, common method bias has the potential to
inflate the data
collected [68]. As outlined in Appendix B, we followed prior
research guidelines
for procedural and statistical remedies to mitigate threats of
common method biases
[68]. Procedural remedies to address these issues included
temporal, proximate, and
methodological separation of the measurements. A temporal
separation was
achieved by collecting the independent and dependent variables
at different time
points. Proximate separation was achieved by distributing the
questions on different
pages of the online survey. A methodological separation was
achieved by mixing
different scales (Likert scale or binary) throughout the
questionnaire [68].
Our statistical remedies relate to three different statistical
analyses, such as
Harman’s single factor test, a partial correlation procedure
(e.g., marker variable
technique), and controlling for effects of an unmeasured latent
method factor (i.e.,
28. single-common-factor method). All three tests, as detailed in
Appendix B, produced
results that suggest no major threat of common method bias. In
particular, our
Harman’s single factor test did not reveal a single factor with
more than 50 percent
variance explained. Further, the partial correlation approach did
not indicate any
significant correlations. Finally, the single-common-factor-
method results did not
significantly load on an unobserved method factor. Overall, the
results of the
procedural and statistical remedies suggested that common
method bias was not a
major concern.
Measures of Survey Constructs and Control Variables
For the survey, we adapted existing scales from the literature
wherever possible. All
constructs were multi-item measures with fixed answer
categories. Except for the
OSN feature-related constructs, which were operationalized as
formative constructs,
all the other constructs were operationalized as reflective
constructs (see Appendix
A). For the reflective constructs, shorter scales with fewer
indicators were used. One
of the important characteristics of reflective indicators is their
substitutability [67]. In
other words, an indicator may substitute another indicator of the
same construct, and
hence allow shorter scales. In addition, prior research has
suggested that it is often
practical and psychometrically viable to include a short version
of a scale to manage
29. the length of a survey [8]. In the IS literature, Venkatesh et al.
[84] used short scales
to operationalize the constructs. The important consideration is
construct validity
and reliability. If a reflective construct demonstrates
psychometrically acceptable
characteristics using a short scale, it is often useful to keep the
short scale to reduce
the length of the survey. In our study, we found strong
psychometrical properties
(e.g., reliability, factor loadings, convergent validity, and
discriminant validity) for
our constructs using a short scale during the pilot study. Hence,
consistent with prior
research, we kept the short scale for operationalizing the
constructs in our study.
Perceived social loneliness: This construct was measured as a
reflective construct
via seven items of the Revised UCLA Loneliness Scale [75],
which has become the
IMPACT OF ONLINE SOCIAL NETWORK FEATURES ON
LONELINESS 289
standard scale to determine social loneliness for younger
populations [76]. The scale
ranged from 1 (never) to 5 (very often).
Relationship orientation: This was measured as two reflective,
independent con-
structs which is consistent with the way that communal and
exchange relationship
orientation are measured in the literature [21]. First, we
30. measured communal orien-
tation via a three-item scale based on the original communal
orientation scale [23].
Second, we measured exchange orientation via a three-item
scale based on the
revised versions of the exchange orientation scale [61]. The
scale for both subcon-
structs ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
Networking ability: This construct was measured as a reflective
construct via four
items of the political skill inventory [36]. The scale ranged
from 1 (strongly
disagree) to 7 (strongly agree).
OSN features: This variable was measured as three separate and
independent
constructs, which is consistent with the way that prior research
distinguishes these
different forms of communication. In particular, we
differentiate the degree to which
OSN users actively create and passively consume user-
generated content that man-
ifests as different forms of communication behavior. To
determine an OSN user’s
communication behavior, we listed a number of OSN activities.
The choice of
activities translates as either active or passive OSN feature use.
We measured the
use of active OSN in the form of broadcasting and direct
communication via three
items each based on [12, 13]. We measured the use of passive
OSN features via five
item that were also based on [12, 13]. Participants indicated
their frequency of each
activity; the scale ranged from 1 (never) to 5 (every time).
31. These three subconstructs
were measured as formative constructs.
Self-disclosure: This was measured as a reflective construct
with a five-item sub-
scale of the self-disclosure index [59]. On a scale from 1 (no
information) to 5 (very
detailed information), the degree of information disclosed on
their OSN was rated.
Control variables: Studies have shown that the degree to which
users feel competent
to use computers in diverse situations impacts their usage
behaviors [57]. It is reason-
able to assume that how competent users feel using OSNs may
impact their perceived
social loneliness. Thus, computer self-efficacy was introduced
as a control variable. It
was measured as a reflective three-item subset of a construct
developed by Compeau
and Higgins [25]. The scale ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to
7 (strongly agree).
We also included age, gender, and home country as control
variables.
A preliminary survey was first pilot tested for
comprehensiveness, clarity, lan-
guage usage, and face validity with a small sample of 20 OSN
users and 3
experienced researchers in information systems, as
recommended by Churchill
[20]. The pilot test identified that some questions were difficult
to understand and
subsequently, wording was changed prior to launching the main
study. For example,
we had originally phrased all questions about Facebook only
32. assuming that this is
the major OSN for our target participants. However, this was
not the case and we
revised the questions to “on Facebook or the social networking
site that you use the
most.” Furthermore, we provided additional instructions in our
surveys to ensure that
participants knew to answer questions in the context of their
OSN use. We also
290 MATOOK, CUMMINGS, AND BALA
revised the scales for several constructs from the traditional
Likert scale (strongly
disagree to strongly agree) to other scales that were more
appropriate for those
constructs. For example, we used a five-point extent scale (no
information to very
detailed information) to measure self-disclosure. Finally, the
networking ability scale
had the qualifier “at work.” We removed this qualifier and
adapted the items to the
context of OSN (see Appendix A).
Data Analysis and Results
Partial least squares (PLS), a component-based structural
equation modeling (SEM)
technique, was used to analyze the data. PLS provides reliable
estimates for complex
structural models when the sample size is not large, by placing
less importance on
model fit and more importance on prediction [18, 37]. Further,
PLS is considered an
33. appropriate data analytic approach for a research model such as
ours that has
formative construct(s) and a moderator [67]. We used SmartPLS
Version 2 as our
statistical software application to test the various PLS models
[71].
Measurement Model
The measurement model for the reflective constructs was
assessed for both reliability
and validity [5]. In order to assess reliability and validity for
the reflective constructs
in our model, we followed the guidelines suggested by Fornell
and Larcker [37],
which include internal consistency reliability, convergent
validity, and discriminant
validity. Internal consistency reliabilities (ICRs) were evaluated
using Cronbach’s
alpha to ensure that model items reliably measured the proposed
constructs. ICRs
were greater than the recommended value of .70 for all
constructs at all time periods
[62] (see Table 1). From these results, we can assume
acceptable internal consistency
of our measures.
Convergent validity was assessed using indicator loadings and
average variance
explained (AVE) (see Table 1). As suggested by Hair et al. [40]
and Bagozzi [6],
indicator loadings were examined to confirm that factor
loadings were greater than
.70 on their intended constructs with minimal (less than .30)
cross-loading on other
constructs. Indicator loadings for our model were greater than
34. .70 for all constructs
at all time periods (except for LONL3 being slightly below .70),
with cross-loadings
being lower than .30, suggesting convergent validity of the
structural model. In
addition to indicator loadings, AVE was also examined to
ensure that the variance
explained by the construct is higher than variance from
measurement error [37].
AVE for all constructs either met or exceeded .50, further
suggesting convergent
validity for the current model. Given these results, convergent
validity can be
assumed for the proposed model.
We assessed discriminant validity by examining the square roots
of the shared
variance between the constructs and their measures (see Table
2). The diagonal
elements are the square root of the shared variance between the
constructs and their
IMPACT OF ONLINE SOCIAL NETWORK FEATURES ON
LONELINESS 291
T
ab
le
1
.
Q
u
al
86. en
ts
.
294 MATOOK, CUMMINGS, AND BALA
measures; off-diagonal elements are correlations between
constructs. For discrimi-
nant validity, diagonal elements should be larger than off-
diagonal elements [37]. We
found all diagonal elements to be higher than the correlations
across constructs,
hence supporting discriminant validity.
To determine the quality of the formative construct of OSN
features, we inspected
the item weights and their multicollinearity (see Table 1). For
all items, the weights
are significant (p < .01). We examined multicollinearity because
it can destabilize
the model [67]. The variance inflation factor (VIF) statistic was
used to determine
whether the formative measures were too highly correlated. We
did not find any
major multicollinearity issues with all VIFs below the strict
threshold of 3.3.
Structural Model: Hypotheses Testing
Following the examination of the measurement model, we then
tested the structural
model to assess the significance of the proposed hypotheses
using a bootstrap
87. procedure of 1,000 resamples [38]. As presented in Table 3, we
ran three structural
models to test our hypotheses: Model 1 included only the
control variable, Model 2
Table 3. Structural Model Results for Perceived Social
Loneliness
Predictors Model 1 Model 2 Model 3
Control variables
Gender (female = 1) –.12* –.03 –.06
Age .04 .06 .09
Country of origin (China = 1, other countries = 0) .19** –.11
.04
Computer self-efficacy [T1] –.17** –.09 –.09
Direct/indirect effects
Communal orientation [T3] –.34*** –.21**
Exchange orientation [T3] .22** .16**
Networking Ability [T1] –.32*** –.28***
Passive OSN features [T2] .24** .23**
Active OSN features: Broadcasting [T2] –.14* –.12*
Active OSN features: Direct communication [T2] –.05 –.04
Moderator
Self-disclosure [T1] –.09 –.03
Moderating effectsa
Communal orientation [T3] × Self-disclosure [T1] –.33***
Exchange orientation [T3] × Self-disclosure [T1] .29***
R2 .07 .44 .56
ΔR2 .37*** .12**
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.
88. aWe included other second-order interaction terms in Model 3.
Given that these were nonsignificant
and did not change the overall model estimates substantially, we
excluded these terms from this
table for brevity and parsimony.
IMPACT OF ONLINE SOCIAL NETWORK FEATURES ON
LONELINESS 295
included the main effects (H1a/b, H3, H4a/b/c),and Model 3
(H2a/b) included both
main and interaction effects. To assess the incremental variance
explained by the
interaction terms, a comparison of the R2 between these models
was conducted using
the guidelines suggested in the literature when testing for
interaction effects [2, 18,
43]. Following these guidelines, variables at the indicator level
were mean-centered
prior to creating the interaction terms.
We hypothesized that communal orientation would have a
negative influence
(i.e., decrease) on perceived social loneliness (H1a) and
exchange orientation
would have a positive influence (i.e., increase) on perceived
social loneliness
(H1b). As per Table 3, communal orientation had a negative
influence on per-
ceived loneliness (Model 3: β = –.21, p < .01) and exchange
orientation had a
positive influence on perceived loneliness (Model 3: β = .16, p
< .01), thus
supporting H1a and H1b.
89. Self-disclosure was hypothesized to moderate the relationships
between communal
and exchange orientation on perceived social loneliness such
that the relation would
be stronger when self-disclosure is high (H2a and H2b). We
found support for both
hypotheses. Perusal of Figure 3 indicates that the relationship
between communal
orientation and loneliness was found to be moderated by self-
disclosure such that for
OSN users with high self-disclosure, communal orientation had
a stronger negative
effect on perceived social loneliness (Model 3: β = –.33, p <
.01). In other words,
self-disclosure and communal orientation will work in tandem
such that when both
are high, individuals will feel less lonely. Alternatively, as
shown in Figure 4,
exchange-oriented individuals displayed greater loneliness when
they exercised
high levels of self-disclosure (Model 3: β = .29, p < .01). In
other words, if an
individual with high self-disclosure is exchange-oriented, he or
she will feel even
lonelier. In the presence of both, loneliness will increase. Table
3 shows that the
addition of the interaction terms increases R2 significantly.
Overall, the interaction
model explained 56 percent of the variance in perceived social
loneliness compared
to 44 percent without the interaction terms, which is
significantly different.
Networking ability was hypothesized to negatively influence (or
decrease) per-
90. ceived social loneliness (H3). As per Table 3, network ability
had a significant
negative influence on perceived social loneliness in both models
(Model 3: β = –.28,
2
2.5
3
3.5
Low Communal Orientation High Communal Orientation
P
er
ce
iv
ed
S
oc
ia
l
L
on
el
in
es
91. s
Low Self-
disclosure
High Self-
disclosure
Figure 3. Moderating Effect of Self-Disclosure on Communal
Orientation and Loneliness
296 MATOOK, CUMMINGS, AND BALA
p < .001), suggesting that individuals who had a high degree of
proclivity to connect
with others are less likely to be lonely. Thus, H3 was supported.
OSN feature use was also hypothesized to impact perceived
social loneliness. We
hypothesized that the use of passive features would positively
influence (or increase)
loneliness (H4a). Results of Table 3 indicate that passive
features used had a
significant positive influence on feelings of loneliness (Model
3: β = .23, p < .01),
supporting H4a. The use of active features in the form of
broadcasting was hypothe-
sized to negatively influence (or decrease) loneliness (H4b). We
found that broad-
casting had a strong negative influence on loneliness (Model 3:
β = –.12, p < .05). In
addition, direct communication was hypothesized to negatively
influence (or
decrease) loneliness (H4c). However, we found no support for
92. active direct com-
munication on perceived social loneliness (Model 3: β = –.04,
ns.), rejecting H4c.
Table 4 summarizes the hypothesized relationships including
the path coefficients
for those relationships.
2
2.5
3
3.5
Low Exchange Orientation High Exchange Orientation
P
er
ce
iv
ed
S
oc
ia
l
L
on
el
in
93. es
s
Low Self-
disclosure
High Self-
disclosure
Figure 4. Moderating Effect of Self-Disclosure on Exchange
Orientation and Loneliness
Table 4. Summary of Results as per Model 3 from Table 3
Path
Path
coefficient
Supported/
rejected
H1a Communal orientation → Perceived social loneliness –
.21** Supported
H1b Exchange orientation → Perceived social loneliness .16**
Supported
H2a Self-disclosure × Communal orientation → Perceived
social loneliness
–.33*** Supported
H2b Self-disclosure × Exchange orientation → Perceived
social loneliness
.29*** Supported
94. H3 Network ability → Perceived social loneliness –.28***
Supported
H4a Passive OSN features → Perceived social loneliness .23**
Supported
H4b Active OSN features: Broadcasting → Perceived social
loneliness
–.12* Supported
H4c Active OSN features: Direct communication → Perceived
social loneliness
–.04 Rejected
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.
IMPACT OF ONLINE SOCIAL NETWORK FEATURES ON
LONELINESS 297
Discussion
The research aimed to determine how using an OSN can impact
feelings of lone-
liness. To this end, we used the literature on loneliness as our
overarching theory to
examine the influence of relationship characteristics (i.e.,
relationship orientation
moderated by self-disclosure and networking ability) and active
versus passive OSN
features on perceived loneliness. The study shows how OSNs
can be associated with
both more and less perceived loneliness. Specifically, loneliness
increased for
individuals who were involved in passive feature use and for
95. those who had
exchange-relationship orientation and high degrees of self-
disclosure. However,
loneliness was reduced when a user had increased networking
ability and used
active OSN features for broadcasting and when a user with a
communal relationship
orientation had high degrees of self-disclosure. Yet, active OSN
features via direct
communication was not associated with feelings of social
loneliness. We elaborate in
the following on the theoretical and practical implications of the
study.
Theoretical Implications and Contributions
This research contributes to the literature in several ways. First,
the study contributes
to IS research on OSN use regarding an individual’s social
loneliness when sepa-
rated. Prior research has produced contradicting results on the
relationship between
OSN use and loneliness, specifically, there is disagreement
whether OSN use
reduces or increases loneliness feelings [31, 52, 78]. This study
suggests that the
relationship between OSN and loneliness depends how OSNs
are used. Many prior
works treated OSNs as monolithic without much consideration
that these platforms
offer diverse features and functionalities [63]. We extended
prior research by
examining OSNs at a feature level and differentiated between
active and passive
features of an OSN. Our findings demonstrate that loneliness is
impacted by the use
96. of both active and passive OSN features. Loneliness is reduced
when the active
features related to broadcasting are used, but the use of only
passive features leads to
an increased level of loneliness.
Using OSNs for broadcasting to all contacts facilitates sharing
information with
the entire network, which in turn attracts reciprocity. As such,
our study shows that
features to support mass communication within OSNs can lower
social loneliness by
creating feelings of belonging. Broadcasting is a time-efficient
approach to distribute
social information, especially when the user is busy, something
not uncommon in
today’s fast-paced society.
In contrast, our findings also show that passive content
consumption expressed
through the use of certain OSN features (e.g., reading postings)
increases loneliness.
The fact that such passive behavior is labeled “social
surveillance” strongly suggests
isolation because the user takes on an observer role, hence
monitoring others from a
distance but carefully avoiding interaction.
Finally, for direct communications, we did not find a significant
impact on lone-
liness. One explanation for the insignificant results could be the
misalignment of the
298 MATOOK, CUMMINGS, AND BALA
97. OSN design goals compared to its use. When directly
communicating, OSN users
commit their full attention to one person; however, the
approached OSN contact may
not be willing or able to reply, leaving the sent messages
unanswered. Given that
OSNs are designed to support a network approach, with a
broadcasting functionality
in mind, in which messages spread through the entire social
network, the private
one-to-one communication does not align with this design
purpose and may lead to
ineffective use of the technology [14]. Other systems, such as e-
mail and chat rooms,
or even the old-fashioned phone, might be better suited for one-
to-one communica-
tion. Further, directly communicating requires more effort to
reach the same number
of people compared to broadcasting, and users might feel that
the benefits of direct
communication do not outweigh the costs. Based on this
imbalance, Thibaut and
Kelley’s [81] exchange theory suggests that a user would refrain
from directly
communicating via OSNs and, as such, may not be able to ease
perceived social
loneliness. In sum, this study contributes to IS by suggesting
that theorizing about
OSNs and how they can affect social outcomes needs to
investigate this relationship
at the feature level because the different technology features
allow for different
outcomes.
Second, we contribute to the relationship literature and
especially to research on
98. interpersonal relationships. Prior research has indicated that
people have different
understandings of the degree of reciprocity in creating and
maintaining relationships
[21]. Our study now shows that users benefit differently from
OSNs, depending on
their relationship orientation. More importantly, a communal
orientation is a bene-
ficial characteristic because these users will naturally perform
OSN-related activities
that are associated with lower degrees of perceived social
loneliness, if any. Hence,
users with a communal orientation (e.g., where benefits are
given in response to
needs or to show general concern for a user’s OSN contacts) are
able to create a
sense of belonging that makes them feel less lonely when
compared to exchange-
oriented users. Although an exchange orientation can be
successful in professional
environments, our findings illustrate that this tit-for-tat
behavior in OSNs leads to
increased feelings of loneliness.
The third contribution relates to the identification of self-
disclosure as a moderat-
ing factor. Extensive research has examined the direct influence
of self-disclosure in
social media [54, 69]. In contrast, this study demonstrates the
interaction effects of
self-disclosure on the relationship between a user’s relationship
orientation and
loneliness. The impact on social loneliness for both exchange-
oriented and commu-
nal-oriented users becomes stronger as their self-disclosure
99. increases. Sharing social
information increases liking and leads to closer relationships
[49, 69], and our
findings support this for communal-oriented users. When they
increase self-disclo-
sure, improved social outcomes (such as reduced loneliness) are
the result. However,
for exchange-oriented users, increased self-disclosure does not
have such positive
effects. Indeed, for these users, their disclosing behavior may
be perceived as
excessive, and recipients experience information overload. As
hypothesized, our
findings may be an example showing that increased levels of
self-disclosure burden
the relationship between exchange orientation and loneliness.
Thus, exchange-
IMPACT OF ONLINE SOCIAL NETWORK FEATURES ON
LONELINESS 299
oriented users might fare better by not increasing their
disclosure because their
contacts may not be able to keep up with reciprocating. Yet, if
they fail to return
the information, the user may discard the contact for future
interactions. This means
that for exchange-oriented users, prior research findings that
higher self-disclosure
leads to reduced loneliness do not apply. We find a similar
theoretical association of
“less is more” in prior research on electronic word of mouth. A
study on the
optimal number of online product recommendations has shown
100. that after three
recommendations, wear-out effects manifest, causing future
recommendations to
be ignored, even if the recommendations are still valuable [1].
Consequently,
OSNs provide various possibilities for self-disclosure, but
increased levels of sharing
user-generated content can impose, even indirectly, detrimental
effects, namely, that
users feel more lonely.
Fourth, we contribute to the management literature on personal
influences and
political skills via networking abilities. Our results demonstrate
that within OSNs the
ability to establish interpersonal relationships is a crucial factor
as to why people feel
and likely remain lonely. In the literature on workplace
influences networking ability
was deemed as a key aspect to improving social capital that
resides in a relationship
[36]. Our study illustrates that networking abilities are also
valuable for an OSN
user because these relationships can be leveraged for creating
and maintaining
relationships resulting in feelings of belonging thereby reducing
social loneliness
perceptions.
Fifth, this research contributes to theory in social psychology,
in particular to the
body of knowledge of loneliness and the factors impacting these
feelings. Loneliness
has been extensively researched in psychology in offline
settings and exemplary in
an online context, however, this study is the first we know of
101. that shows which
factors affect perceived social loneliness in the technology-
mediated environment of
OSNs. Most important, our research explains loneliness from a
relationship point of
view whereas prior research to date has examined individual
characteristics (e.g.,
personality or self-esteem), which are only loosely related to
relationships. However,
the literature on loneliness stresses the qualitative and
quantitative deficits of
relationships as a key reason for a person to be in a lonely state
[66]. Hence, this
study highlights the theoretical importance of relationship
management factors to
understand social loneliness perceptions of OSN users.
Implications for Practice
A number of practical implications arise from this research for
firms and OSN users.
For firms, our findings help to highlight how they can utilize
OSNs to support their
workers. Corporate managers should be mindful of how heavy
travel demands can
disrupt workers’ personal relationships and how they can use
OSNs to reduce
feelings of loneliness. In modern workplaces, travel is often
unavoidable and
many individuals work in remote locations or in foreign
countries for an extended
period of time. Thus, firms should actively seek ways to address
the negative
300 MATOOK, CUMMINGS, AND BALA
102. implications of perceived social loneliness. Allowing and
endorsing the use of an
OSN can be a promising strategy. Prior research has shown that
firms often use
technology internally for networking, collaboration, and
knowledge sharing [33].
Our study points to the potential benefits a firm can gain
through the “private” use of
OSN by their employees during work times. This research
suggests that firms focus
on usage policies that encourage positive outcomes for the
employee and the firm
rather than prohibiting OSN use at work [41].
Our study participants were university students, which makes
our findings directly
relevant to education providers, many of which have large
international student
cohorts. This research suggests that a university should actively
approach its stu-
dents through an OSN while the students are still in their home
country. The
objective of the university should be to establish personal ties
with the students
and to connect with them before their arrival at the university.
In this way, the OSN
can be actively used prior to any development of social
loneliness in an unfamiliar
environment, and can be used further to help education
providers to develop
relationships once the student has arrived in the foreign
country.
And finally, the findings are also valuable for individuals who
are the focus of the
103. study—hose who are physically separated and away from home.
Parents, family
members, couples, and close friends need to understand OSNs
as a social tool that
allows them to comfort and communicate with meaningful
people in their lives. If
OSNs can ease feelings of loneliness, these technologies should
be used in a way
that allows for bridging temporal and spatial separation and
making the contact
person feel connected, for example, by uploading photos,
posting related comments,
and using the “like it” option more often.
Limitations and Future Research
A number of study limitations should be discussed. First, there
are limitations in
regard to sampling and data collection. Data collected from
university students might
raise issues of generalizability to other populations that are
separated from their
familiar social environments. The majority of the students in
this study had just
moved to Australia, and thus the participants were away from
home in an unfamiliar
environment and we assumed that they experienced social
loneliness. We believe
that our findings could be generalized to other student or
organizational settings, but
further empirical work would be necessary. We suggest two
settings that are
particularly interesting and valuable to study: industries that
utilize “fly-in-fly-out”
workers (such as the mining industry) and industries in which
104. staff (and often their
immediate families) regularly move from base to base (e.g., a
country’s armed
forces). It would be valuable in such studies to control for age
and life stage, the
use intensity of OSNs, and whether and how social loneliness
may be experienced
differently.
A second limitation refers to the evolving nature of OSN. The
active and passive
features OSN users can employ today will most likely change in
the future as
IMPACT OF ONLINE SOCIAL NETWORK FEATURES ON
LONELINESS 301
technology develops. Yet we believe the nature of such features
will not change
because there will always be features that support more active
use or more passive
use. Furthermore, we did not restrict our research to one
particular OSN (i.e.,
participants responded to questions in relation to their main
OSN site), and hence,
we focused on features available across popular OSNs (e.g.,
Facebook, RenRen).
Another study might want to explore variations in features
across different OSNs
and what impact the variations have on OSN use and loneliness.
In the same light, one might want to develop a taxonomy of
OSN features to
classify different OSNs. In doing so, OSN features can be
105. differentiated at a more
fine-grained level than our active–passive distinction. In
addition, future research
can examine the extent to which active and passive features
impact other factors, for
example, interpersonal influence (word of mouth) and the
benevolence of users.
Furthermore, we have exclusively focused on perceived social
loneliness and dif-
ferent antecedents in the virtual world. A future research study
might undertake a
comparison between the virtual world and the physical world to
determine whether
people would react differently and to what extent relationship
orientation, self-
disclosure, and networking ability affect perceived social
loneliness. Finally, prior
research has highlighted the importance of privacy in relation to
OSN users’ self-
disclosure [54]. Thus, future research might want to examine
the extent to which
privacy concerns affect a user’s relationship management,
because these concerns
could restrict self-disclosure or active use of OSN features to an
extent that it may
increase perceived loneliness.
Conclusion
This research aimed at explaining the impact of relationship
characteristics and OSN
features on feelings of social loneliness within an OSN. We
have drawn on the
literature of loneliness and integrated theories of social
exchange, communication,
and political skills to study the phenomenon. We find that an
106. OSN user’s communal-
relationship orientation moderated by self-disclosure, use of
active OSN features,
and networking ability are negatively associated with perceived
social loneliness,
whereas an exchange orientation and use of passive OSN
features are positively
associated with these feelings. Our study highlights how and
why creating and
maintaining interpersonal relationships in the OSN influences
perceived social lone-
liness. The findings enhance our understanding of OSNs and
their ability to bridge
distances of time and place and thus, enhance users’ sense of
well-being, connect-
edness, and human attachment.
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120. APPENDIX A: Constructs and Measurement Items
Instructions were given to participants to answer the
questionnaire in the context of
their OSN experience, we stated especially on the title page that
the goal of the
survey is to find out more about participants’ online social
networks and how they
use it or have used it in the past.
306 MATOOK, CUMMINGS, AND BALA
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