Anatomy of the amygdala

Discuss the anatomy, neural connections and functional role of the amygdala in health and
disease
Kirsty Earley
4H Anatomy
0902100e

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Introduction
The human brain is a complex structure and one of the most important organs of the body. It
is the antero-most part of the central nervous system within the neurocranium of the human
skull, supported by the fibrous layers of meninges. The brain is divided into specific regions;
the left and right hemispheres, forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain. The outer cortex of nervous
tissue is composed of grey matter, mainly consisting of neural bodies and dendrites, with the
inner layer of white matter containing the myelin sheaths insulating the axons.
The general function of the brain is to have complete control of the body, with several
regions of the brain working together via neural connections. However, there are
controversies in the field of neuroscience over the exact definition and function of certain
brain areas, especially those of the Limbic System.
The Limbic System is a group of cortical and subcortical structures situated in the cerebral
hemispheres. Despite there being unclear definitions of the components and functions of this
system (LeDoux, 2000), it is believed to consist of structures such as the hippocampus,
insular cortex, hypothalamus and amygdala. This system is active in emotions,
communication and memory storage.
One of the most complex structures of this system is the Amygdala, an almond-shaped mass
of the forebrain. Since its discovery, there has been dispute over the exact location,
morphology, neural connections and function of the amygdala. With the evolution of more
advanced brain-imaging techniques, there has been extensive insight into these aspects of the
amygdala in health and disease, which will be further discussed.

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Anatomy of the Amygdala
The amygdala was discovered by Burdach as a small group of nuclei in the temporal lobes of
the forebrain (Meyer, 1971). It is situated anteriorly in the medial temporal lobe, with the left
and right amygdalae sitting laterally to the thalami of the midbrain. It is in close relation with
the caudate nucleus, a structure of the basal ganglia, and the hippocampus, a structure
important for the formation of memories (McDonald, 1998). The caudate nucleus is C-
shaped, with the amygdala sitting at the tail of the nucleus.
There are around 13 nuclei of the amygdala, categorised into three subdivisions; the
centromedial, basolateral and cortical nuclear groups. The basolateral group contains three
nuclei; the lateral, basal and accessory nuclei. The cortical nuclear group includes the cortical
nuclei and structures of the olfactory cortex, such as the olfactory tract. The centromedial
nuclear group contains the central and medial nuclei of the amygdala (McDonald, 1998). The
cortical group is superficial, with the nuclei of the basolateral subdivision in the lateral
regions of the amygdalae. The nuclei of the centromedial division are located medially in the
amygdalae (Sah et al., 2003). Terminology for the nuclear groups is not consistent within this
field of research; hence controversies are common.
There are several receptors of the amygdalar neurons including NMDA, opioid, cannabinoid,
glutamate and GABA receptors (Farb & LeDoux, 1997, Foster et al., 2004, Katona et al.,
2001, Walker & Davis, 2002).This means that several molecules can affect the functions of
the amygdala.
The volume of the amygdala is hard to determine- there is no clarity in the anatomical
boundaries of this structure (LeDoux, 2007). The amygdala nuclei fuse with surrounding
structures, making it difficult to distinguish between different areas. Knowing the volume is
useful for research into clinical disorders of this area (Brierley et al., 2002). The amygdalar

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volume varies between each individual, but it is believed that the mean volume is around 1 to
2 cm³ (Brabec et al., 2010), and is larger in men than women (Goldstein et al., 2001). Further
efforts are required to define the exact boundaries of not only the amygdala, but the entire
limbic system.
The amygdala is a heterogeneous structure of the brain because of the groups of nuclei- it is
not a unified mass of grey matter (Mendoza and Foundas, 2008). Not only does this make it
difficult to analyse anatomically, but also functionally (Brabec et al., 2010). To better
comprehend the functions of the amygdala, it is important to determine the connections of the
different nuclei.
Neural Connections of the Amygdala
The amygdala has several sensory and motor connections with different regions of the brain,
giving rise to its many functions (Amunts, et al., 2005).Techniques for visualising neural
connections include tract tracing, where tracer molecules are injected to examine the
pathways (Aggleton et al., 1979). The amygdala receives afferents from areas of the
forebrain, sends efferents to autonomic structures of the brainstem and is involved in a circuit
of forebrain structures that function in behaviour and motivation (Price, 2003).
The amygdala receives sensory inputs from many brain areas including the visual, auditory
and olfactory cortices. The visual and auditory afferents project to the basolateral nuclear
group of the amygdala, as well as the centromedial nuclear group (Bzdok, et al., 2012). Since
the cortical nuclear group contains structures of the olfactory cortex, the cortical nucleus
receives afferents of olfaction (Solano-Castiella et al., 2010, Price, 2003). Hence, this shows
that the amygdala integrates sensory stimuli with emotions.

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To process the afferent information received from different brain areas, the nuclear groups
must intercommunicate (Sah et al., 2003). The lateral nucleus obtains connections from the
basolateral and centromedial complex, and the central nucleus has interconnections with the
majority of the amygdaloid nuclei (Pitkӓnen et al., 2000).
The amygdala has an influence on responses of the autonomic nervous system (ANS), for
example an increased heart rate in anxiety (Tillfors et al., 2002). Efferents project from the
central, medial and accessory nuclei to the hypothalamus via the amygdalofugal pathway and
stria terminalis. They have the ability to terminate in any brainstem area that is linked to the
ANS, using GABA as the neurotransmitter (Price, 2003, Swanson and Petrovich, 1998).
As well as receiving afferents from the forebrain, the amygdalar nuclei send efferents back to
these areas. The basolateral nuclear group sends efferents to the cortical areas like the
prefrontal cortex and the medial temporal lobe (Sah, et al., 2003). These projections are
active when the amygdala links emotions to memories of past experiences (Del Arco &
Mora, 2009), and use glutamate as the neurotransmitter (Swanson and Petrovich, 1998).
Better understanding of neural connections of the amygdala enables researchers to better
comprehend the functions of this structure.
Function of the Amygdala
As with several structures of the brain, the function of the amygdala has been understood
through lesions studies- however human subjects with amydalar lesions are uncommon
(Amaral et al., 2003). Brain-imaging techniques are another way of determining during which
activities the amygdala is active. Functional magnetic resonance imaging is the measure of
activity of a brain area by the proportion of blood flowing to that area. It is an accurate
method of brain-imaging, but only enables researchers to visualise the gross anatomy of the

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amygdala- not the separate neurons (Brierley et al., 2002). As previously mentioned, the
amygdala is part of the limbic system playing a role in emotions (Papez, 1937), facial
expression recognition and memory storage.
The specific role of the amygdala in emotions has been linked to the delivery of emotion
from fear to anger to pleasure (Burt, 1992). The first study to suggest that the amygdala had
neural control in emotions was that of Klüver and Bucy. Rhesus monkeys are commonly used
as models for the analysis of the human brain, having similar anatomical features to humans.
It was found that after inducing bilateral lesions of the amygdala, the monkeys were not
fearful of stimuli that they previously avoided as well as a decreased emotional response in
general (Klüver and Bucy, 1939). This suggests that the amygdalae must be intact to have
normal emotional responses to the environment. The symptoms that the monkeys expressed
are those of Klüver-Bucy syndrome (Marlowe et al., 1975). Humans can have this condition
(Hooshmand et al., 1974), resulting in a decrease in learning, tendency to examine objects
with the mouth and altered sexual orientation.
Evidence has been provided for the importance of the amygdala in sexual behaviour
(Hamann et al., 2004). Where ablation of the amygdala results in irregular sexual behaviour,
an increased amygdalar volume signifies increased sexual activity (Baird et al., 2004). The
amygdala is active during arousal responses to sexual stimuli, with men having larger
activations than women to the same stimulus (Hamann et al., 2004). Sexual orientation can
also be traced back to neural pathways of the amygdala; homosexual men and heterosexual
women have similar neural connections of the amygdala- the same is seen in homosexual
women and heterosexual men (Swaab, 2008).
Fear conditioning is a type of learning where the subject gradually learns to avoid harmful
stimuli in the environment (Maren, 2001). Reactions to a threat can include “freezing”, where

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the organism stays still to cause the predator to move on. Freezing is an action during which
the amygdala is firing (LeDoux, 1996), with an increase in firing of neurons in the central
amygdala (Duvarci et al., 2011). This response is thought to be caused by the activity of the
ANS (Davis et al., 1994) as a “fight or flight” mechanism for survival.
The amygdala is also functional when interpreting dangerous stimuli, especially when trying
to determine facial expressions of other people (Adolphs et al, 1998). The amygdala neurons
increase their firing when processing an angry face compared to a happy face (Morris et al.,
1996). Furthermore, when conversing with someone, each individual has a certain distance of
separation that they are comfortable with (Kennedy et al., 2009). An invasion of one’s
“personal space” can make them uncomfortable, linking fear and social interaction. This
discomfort caused by someone standing in a close proximity is triggered by the amygdala.
This not only provides evidence that the amygdala plays a role in the fear response, but also
in social situations (Adolphs, 2003). One study suggested that larger sizes of amygdala
signified a greater extent of social interaction (Bickart et al., 2011). A lesion of the amygdala
may cause difficulty with communication and/or detection of danger.
When remembering specific events in life, the ones that are more easily recalled are related to
strong emotions experienced in that event (Kensinger, 2004). This recollection of experiences
related to strong emotions is a function of the amygdala. However, the amygdala plays no
role in the storage of memory- this occurs in other brain areas such as the hippocampus (Paré,
2003).
The above descriptions of the amygdala can be found in the average healthy subject, but the
amygdalar structure, function and neural connections are known to differ in certain
neurological disorders and diseases.

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Amygdala in Disease
Due to the many neural connections and functions of the amygdala, several disorders can
result from abnormalities of this structure. Disorders may involve abnormal neuronal
activities, loss of tissue, abnormal development, etc. The amygdala is unlikely to be damaged
by impact to the skull as it is situated deep in the medial temporal lobe- damage is normally
induced surgically.
Recall that the amygdala is active during fear conditioning. Abnormalities of the neurological
pathways of fear conditioning can result in the development of anxiety disorders, such as
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and phobias (Rauch et al., 2003). The amygdala is activated in
the phobic response, even if the exposure to the stimulus is very short (Alpers et al., 2009).
Amygdalar neurons fire irregularly- rapidly when determining the stimulus, diminishing after
a short time (Larson et al., 2006). Anxiety disorders are hard to diagnose, but early diagnosis
could prevent future mental disorders, such as depression (Milham et al., 2004).
Depression is a mental disorder more common in women than men, with frequent unpleasant
thoughts, loss of interest in activities, and a variety of other symptoms (Hamann, 2005). In
this condition, the amygdala differs from normal composition and activity; amygdala neurons
fire too frequently and the left amygdala is more active- especially in response to threatening
facial expressions (Peluso et al., 2009, Sheline et al., 2001). The amygdala may also be
significantly larger in depressed individuals (Lange & Irle, 2004). Depression has been
linked to hormonal imbalances, thus amygdalar abnormalities cannot be considered the sole
cause.
Autism is a neuropsychological disorder where the individual finds it challenging to interact
with other people and the environment (Baron-Cohen et al., 2000). Considering the evidence
that the amygdala plays a role in social interaction, is the difficulty autistic people have with

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socialising due to an irregularity of the amygdala? Social interaction problems in autism may
not be due to the amygdala, but an amygdala abnormality may cause the anxiety problems in
autism (Amaral & Corbett, 2003). The neurological causes of autism have not been fully
understood, with several brain areas hypothesised to be involved. It is unsure if the amygdala
is damaged at all, possibly due to the problems with defining the boundaries of this region
(Schumann et al., 2004).
Despite the fact that bilateral lesions of the amygdala in humans are rare, they have been
linked to the genetic condition, Urbach-Wiethe Disease. This condition can affect the organs
of the body, (Rallis et al., 2006), and has been known to damage the temporal lobes of the
brain (Siebert et al., 2003). Regions of the temporal lobe become calcified resulting in
bilateral lesions of the amygdala (Appenzeller et al., 2006). Damage to the amygdala
produces the incapability of experiencing fear, despite all other emotions still being intact
(Feinstein et al, 2011). Having no fear response prevents an individual from recognising
dangerous situations. For example, the awareness of a normal “personal bubble” space
diminishes with damage to the amygdala (Kennedy et al., 2009), which could link to the lack
of ability to detect danger. Being an evolutionary survival method for avoiding danger,
having a lack of fear could be life-threatening (Feinstein et al., 2011). The defence
mechanism of fear is lost because the individual lacks the ability to link previous danger to
fear; they have no emotional arousal of memory.
Researchers must address the problems with terminology in this field of neuroscience to
better comprehend the disorders that may arise from amygdalar abnormalities.
Conclusion
Despite the fact that several research studies have been undertaken to investigate the different
aspects of the amygdala and brain-imaging techniques have well advanced, there is still a lot

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of uncertainty in this area of study. This is due to the lack of clarity into definitions of the
different neural groups and the exact boundaries of this structure. It is generally accepted that
the amygdala plays an important role in the control of emotions- especially fear- and the
recognition of facial expressions, helping to avoid dangerous situations. Over- activation of
the amygdala can cause the development of anxiety disorders, whereas damage to the
amygdala can result in the absence of a fear response. For future research, it is suggested that
names of the different nuclear groups are consistently used in papers and further investigation
should be done into finalising the exact boundaries of the amygdala, which may prove
difficult.

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