The document outlines the European colonial competition in North America, highlighting the differing motives and settlement patterns of the French, Spanish, and English settlers. It describes the French and Indian War as a turning point that led to colonial unity and growing tensions between the colonies and Britain due to taxation and restrictive policies. The culmination of these tensions eventually set the stage for the American Revolution, as colonists sought independence from British rule.

1. The American Revolution
Unit Two

2. French, Spanish and English Settlers
● Each country had different motives and settlement patterns
● French- friendly relations with Indians (comparatively), tried
to convert Natives to Christianity, came in small numbers,
extractive economic activity (fur trade), explored deep into
continent, Catholic, had economic motives
● Spanish- came to conquer (conquistador), looked for and
found precious minerals, tried to convert Indians, blended
their culture with Native culture, explored deep into continent
to look for wealth, Catholic
● English- came in larger groups (especially NE), settled and
“improved” land, more religiously tolerant, wiped out Indian
culture, established their own “footprint”, did not explore
deep into continent, mostly Protestant

3. The Duel for North America
1608-1773

4. European Colonial Claims 1750

5. New France Fans Out
● French try to block British and Spanish expansion
● Detroit (1701), keep out British
● LaSalle claims Mississippi River Valley for France
(Louisiana)
● French fortify posts along river to keep out Spanish,
protect beaver trade
● Establish New Orleans (1718) to keep fur and grain
flowing to mother country, keep MS River from
Spanish

6. Clash of Empires
● Four wars in the 17th and 18th century for economic
control of Americas
● King Williams War 1688-1697, Queen Anne’s
War 1701-1713
● Did not involve large numbers of troops, America not
seen as worthy of commitment from European
powers
● Usually involved French and Indian allies attacking
English colonial settlements
● Deerfield, MA; Schenectady, NY scenes of most
violence

7. Clash of Empires
● Treaty of Utrecht 1713 British defeat French
● England controlled most of Canada except land along St. Lawrence River
● End of war begins period of “salutary neglect”
● War of Jenkins Ear 1739 between British and Spanish, mostly in Caribbean,
some fighting in GA
● King Georges War 1744-1748 Colonists and British capture fort at entrance
to St. Lawrence River
● Peace treaty 1748 gives it back to France, enrages colonists
● As a result of wars British military more involved in colonies

8. French and Indian War
● Ohio River Valley becomes
source of problems between
British, French
● Key to continent for French,
linked colonial holdings
● Region key to economic
security for French
● Land hungry British
colonists attempt to secure
“rights” to region
● French building forts to
secure region

9. French and Indian War
● 1754 Governor of VA sends group of
militia to secure claims, led by George
Washington
● Encounter small group of French
soldiers near Fort Duquesne
(Pittsburgh)
● French initially defeated, return with
reinforcements
● Washington forced to surrender
● 1755 British authorities uproot 4,000
French from Nova Scotia, deportees
end up in LA (Cajuns)
● Beginning of French and Indian War

10. French and Indian War
● War began in America, others began in Europe
● England and Prussia vs. France, Spain, Austria, and
Russia
● Bloodiest battles in Germany
● “America conquered in Germany” British statesman
William Pitt
● French and Indian War beginning of colonial unity
● Before certain colonies had enjoyed advantage of
remoteness, now needed to come together to fight
French

11. Colonial Unity?
● 1754 Colonists meet Albany,
NY
● Plan to keep Indians in check,
achieve colonial unity,
common defense against
French
● 7 of 13 colonies show up
● Ben Franklin “Join or Die”
slogan, presents Albany Plan
for colonial home rule
(rejected by British), colonists
could not agree on details
● First sign of colonial unity

12. French and Indian War
● Indians allied with French, worried about British settlement
● First part of war went badly for British
● Slow moving, heavy artillery
● Poorly supplied, poorly disciplined colonial militia
● Smaller French force defeated them at Ft. Duquesne (Pittsburg)
● Opened up frontier from NC to PA to Indian attack
● Losses began to pile up for British

13. French and Indian War
● 1757- William Pitt becomes leader of London gov’t
● Stopped concentrating on West Indies, focused on
Canada
● Understood colonial concerns
● Offered colonists a compromise:
● colonial loyalty & mil. cooperation-->Br.
would reimburse col. assemblies for
their costs.
● Remove oppressive gov’t. officials
● Result was improved colonial morale by 1758
● 1758 Louisbourg defeated
● 1760 Montreal falls, last French stronghold
● 1763 Treaty of Paris French give up all claims
in NA
● Spain received all land west of MS River and New
Orleans
● British emerged as dominant regional power,
worlds most powerful navy

14. Aftermath of War
Effects of the war on the colonies
Colonists
● came out of war confident, shattered myth of British
invincibility
● Colonists began to feel part of British Empire
● Barriers of disunity began to dissolve between colonies
● Colonists found unity in language, tradition, ideals
● Colonials felt they deserved credit for war effort
British position
● colonists demand rights, without paying dues, war
increased British debt
● British said they did not support cause
● Friction between colonials and British officers
● Smuggling by colonists helped FR and SP

15. Aftermath of War
● With French gone colonists could roam freely across
Appalachian Mts.
● Spanish, Indian threat reduced
● Indians could not play Br and Fr against each other
● 1763 Ottawa chief Pontiac led attacks on settlers
● British retaliated (gave Indians smallpox infected blankets)
● British saw need to stabilize frontier now that it was open
to settlement

16. Aftermath of War
Proclamation of 1763
● Prohibited settlement west
of Appalachian Mts.
● Designed not to oppress
colonists but to solve Indian
problem
● Colonists viewed it as form
of oppression
● Settlers went west anyway in
defiance of royal authority

17. The Road to Revolution
1763-1775

18. Roots of Revolution
● Victory in Seven Years War costly
● After 1763 British wanted colonists to take on financial
burden
● Crown began to exercise more authority (end of salutary
neglect)
● Change in policy reinforced sense of American identity
● American experience caused colonists to question ways of the
Old World, colonists felt fundamentally different from British
● Americans had grown accustomed to running own affairs,
shock when British try to crack down
● Two ideas emerged in Britain during colonial experience-
republicanism, ideas of Whigs

19. Political Roots of Revolution
Republicanism
▪ Society where citizens
subordinate selfish interests
to common good
▪ Stability of government
depended on authority of
“good” government
▪ Opposed to authoritarian
institutions (monarchy,
aristocracy)
Whig Political Thought
Result of more royal authority
✓ Threat to liberty by monarch
✓ Warned citizens to be on
guard against corruption
✓ People should be
represented by elected
officials, not monarchs

20. Mercantilism and Colonial Grievances
● British authorities embraced policy of mercantilism (countries
wealth measured by gold and silver, needed to export more than
import, colonies needed to supply mother country with raw
materials)
● Colonists felt if handcuffed American trade
● Colonies provided raw materials, acted a market for finished
products
● Enumerated goods, certain products could only be shipped to
England
● To the British the Americans were tenants, not built for economic
self sufficiency or self government

21. Merits and Menace of Mercantilism
Merits of Mercantilism
British tried to regulate colonial trade (Navigation Acts 1660, 1663,
1673, 1696)
● Before 1763 Navigation Laws (with some exceptions) not a
burden, lack of enforcement called “salutary neglect”
● Tobacco planters had a monopoly in Britain
● Americans had some form self-government.
● British mightiest army and navy in the world, colonists didn’t
have to pay for it.
● Repressive laws weren’t enforced much, average American
benefited much more than the average Englishman.
● Mistakes that occurred didn’t occur out of malice, at least until
revolution.
● France and Spain embraced mercantilism, enforced it heavily.

22. Merits and Menace of Mercantilism
Menace of Mercantilism
▪ After enforcement of mercantilist policies “ lit” fuse
of revolution
▪ Stifled economic initiative
▪ Dependent on British agents and creditors
▪ State of perpetual economic adolescence
▪ The South, which produced crops that weren’t grown
in England, was preferred over the North
▪ Colonists felt British were taking advantage of them

23. Colonial Grievances
Currency shortage in colonies
● Regularly bought more than they sold to Britain, trade with West
Indies drained cash
● Colonies needed hard currency
● Parliament prohibited colonies to print money, they did anyway
● Colonists saw interests being sacrificed for British commercial
interests
● British also could nullify any colonial legislation (did not happen
often)
● Principle weighed more heavily than practice

24. The Stamp Tax
● Half of British debt came from Seven Years
War, wanted colonists to pay for own
defense
● Britain began to redefine relationship with
colonies
● 1763- Prime Minister George Greenville
began to enforce Navigation Acts
● 1764- Parliament passed Sugar Act- duty
on imported sugar
● 1765- Quartering Act, required certain
colonies to provide food and lodging troops

25. The Stamp Tax
● 1765 worst of all the Stamp Act
● Mandated the use of stamps, certifying payment of
tax.
● Required on bills of sale for about 50 trade items and
on certain types of commercial and legal documents.
● Both the Stamp Act and the Sugar Act offenders tried
in the admiralty courts, where defenders were
guilty until proven innocent
● Greenville felt taxes were justified, British paid much
heavier tax

26. The Stamp Tax
● Colonists angry at fiscal aggression
● Colonial assemblies refused to provide
supplies for troops
● Felt unfairly taxed for unnecessary
army, lashed out against the stamp tax.
● Americans formed the battle cry, “No taxation
without representation!”
● Angered, to the principle of the matter
● Americans denied the right of Parliament to
tax Americans, since none were in Parliament.
● British idea of “virtual representation,”
every Parliament member represented all
British subjects (so Americans were
represented).
● Americans rejected “virtual representation”,
began to consider political independence

27. Repeal of the Stamp Act
● 1765- Stamp Act Congress drew up statement of
rights and grievances, asked king and Parliament to
repeal tax
● Congress made colonies feel unified against common
cause
● Colonists began to boycott imported British goods,
more effective than congress
● Ordinary people began to participate in colonial
protests, opportunity for women “spinning bees”

28. Repeal of the Stamp Act
● Sons and Daughters of Liberty took the
law into their own hands
● Punished people who purchased British
goods, stormed the houses of important
officials
● Machinery to collect tax broke down, no
officials to collect taxes
● Hit England hard (25% of exports purchased
by colonies)
● Parliament confused, Britons had to pay
much heavier taxes
● 1766, Parliament repealed the Stamp Act,
passed the Declaratory Act, defined British
had unqualified sovereignty over the colonies

29. The Townshend Tea Tax and the Boston Massacre
● Americans in rebellious mood after
victory over Stamp Act
● 1767 Parliament passes the
Townshend Acts
● Taxes on lead, paper, paint, and tea,
later repealed, except tea.
● Revenue to pay salaries of royal
officials in America
● 1767- New York’s legislature suspended
for failure to comply with the
Quartering Act.
● Tea became smuggled, to enforce the
law, Brits had to send troops to America

30. The Townshend Tea Tax and the Boston Massacre
● March 5, 1770, a crowd of about 60
townspeople in Boston were harassing
some ten Redcoats.
○ One fellow got hit in the head, another
got hit by a club.
○ Without orders but heavily provoked,
the troops opened fire, wounding or
killing eleven “innocent” citizens,
including Crispus Attucks, a black
former-slave and the “leader” of the
mob in the Boston Massacre. Attucks
became a symbol of freedom (from
slave, to freeman, to martyr who stood
up to Britain for liberty).
○ Only two Redcoats were prosecuted,
represented by John Adams

31. Committees of Correspondence
● 1770- Townshend Taxes
repealed, except for the tea
tax, kept alive idea of
parliamentary taxation
● 1772- Resistance kept alive
through Committees of
Correspondence, organized
by Samuel Adams
● 1773- Inter-colonial
committees established,
exchanged letters, ideas and
information, kept alive
opposition across all colonies

32. Boston Tea Party
● 1773- British East India Company, overburdened
with unsold tea, was facing bankruptcy.
● The British decided to sell it to the Americans,
● Seen as an attempt to trick the Americans with the
bait of cheaper tea to pay tax.
● December 16, 1773, some whites, led by patriot
Samuel Adams, disguised themselves as Indians,
opened 342 chests and dumped the tea
into the ocean in this “Boston Tea Party.”
○ People in Annapolis did the same and burnt the
ships to water level.
○ Reaction was varied, from approval to outrage to
disapproval.
● British felt they had no alternative
but to whip colonists into shape

33. Intolerable Acts
● 1774- Parliament passed a series of repressive acts to punish the colonies, namely
Massachusetts.
● Called the Intolerable Acts by Americans.
○ The Boston Port Act closed the harbor in Boston.
○ Self-government limited by forbidding town hall meetings without approval.
○ The charter to Massachusetts was revoked
● The Quebec Act
● Intended by British to administer conquered territory
○ Guaranteed Catholicism to the French-Canadians, retain their old customs, extended
the old boundaries of Quebec all the way to the Ohio River (areas off limits by
Proclamation of 1763)
○ Americans saw their territory threatened, aroused anti-Catholics, lack of
representative assemblies or trial by jury seen as a dangerous precedent, land
speculators see huge area taken away

34. Bloodshed
❑ Philadelphia 1774- First Continental Congress
met to discuss problems.
❑ Not wanting independence yet, came up with a list of
grievances, ignored in Parliament.
❑ 12 of 13 colonies met, only Georgia didn’t have a
representative there.
❑ Came up with a Declaration of Rights.
❑ Boycott of British goods
❑ Began to arm colonists
● Split into three groups- moderates (wanted
relationship with GB repaired) radicals
(wanted complete split, minority) and
conservatives (wanted to restore pre-1763
relationship)

35. Bloodshed
● The “Shot Heard ‘Round the World”
○ April 1775, the British commander
in Boston sent troops to nearby
Lexington and Concord, seize
supplies, capture Sam Adams and
John Hancock.
○ Minutemen, after having eight of
their own killed at Lexington,
fought back at Concord, British
retreat to Boston
○ Beginning of American Revolution

36. Imperial Strength and Weakness
Britain had heavy advantage:
● 7.5 million people to America’s 2 million
● superior naval power
● great wealth, could hire mercenaries (German Hessians)
British Weaknesses
● Little popular support in Britain
● Whigs wanted American victory, feared George III arbitrary rule
● Generals poor, soldiers well trained
● Provisions scarce
● Fighting far from home
● American geography, lack of population centers gave Americans time,
British fits

37. American Pluses and Minuses
American Advantages
● Great leaders -George Washington (giant general), and Ben Franklin
(smooth diplomat).
● French aid (indirect and secretly), provided the Americans with guns,
supplies, gunpowder, etc…
○ Marquis de Lafayette a great asset.
● Fighting in a defensive manner, and they were self-sustaining.
● They were better marksmen. A competent American rifleman could hit
a man’s head at 200 yards.
● Americans enjoyed the moral advantage in fighting for a just
cause

38. American Pluses and Minuses
Disadvantages
● Lacking in unity
1. Colonies resented the Continental Congress’ attempt at
exercising power
2. Sectional jealousy over the appointment of military leaders
● Americans had little money. Inflation also hit families of soldiers
hard, and made many people poor.
● Colonial money worthless, inflation of prices for basic goods
● Americans had no navy.
● Many people also sold items to the British, because they paid in
gold.
● Many people just didn’t care about the revolution, raising a large
number of troops was difficult

39. America
Secedes from
the Empire
1775-1783

40. I. Congress Drafts George Washington
● May 1775 all colonies meet 2nd
Continental Congress
● No well defined sentiment for
independence
● Adopted measures to raise money for
army and navy, sent list of grievances
to George III
● Most important action was selecting
George Washington as military
commander (moral force, great
military mind)
● Selection largely political , from VA,
most revolutionaries from New
England area

41. Military Strategies
The Americans
• Attrition [the Brits had a
long supply line].
• Guerilla tactics [fight an
insurgent war → you
don’t have to win a battle,
just wear the British
down]
• Make an alliance with one
of Britain’s enemies.
The British
• Break the colonies in half
by getting between the
No. & the So.
• Blockade the ports to
prevent the flow of goods
and supplies from an ally.
• “Divide and Conquer” →
use the Loyalists.

42. II. Bunker Hill and Hessian Hirelings, Abortive
Conquest of Canada
● Americans fighting war, but did not declare independence for
a 15 month period ( April 1775- July 1776)
● 1775 Americans capture Ft. Ticonderoga, get gunpowder and
cannons
● June 1775 Bunker Hill American hold off British attack until
gunpowder runs out
● August 1775 King George formally proclaims colonies were
in rebellion, begins to hire German (Hessian) troops,
Americans were guilty of treason
● Fall 1775 British capture Falmouth, Maine, Americans plan
attack on Canada, they are not successful

43. III. Thomas Paine Preaches Common Sense
● 1776- Thomas Paine published
the pamphlet Common
Sense, urged colonials to stop
war of inconsistency, stop
pretending loyalty, and just
fight.
● Nowhere in the universe did a
smaller body control a larger
one, it was unnatural for tiny
Britain to control gigantic
America.
● He called King George III “the
Royal Brute of Great Britain.”

44. V. Paine and the Idea of Republicanism
● Idea that there should be a “republic” where representative
senators, governors, and judges should have their power
from the consent of the people (POWER FLOWS FROM
PEOPLE TO THE GOV’T)
● Ideas with Biblical imagery, familiar to common folk.
● Rejecting monarchy and empire and embrace an
independent republic fell on receptive ears in America,
ideas already existed.
○ The New Englanders already practiced this type of
government in their town meetings.
● Some patriots, favored a republic ruled by a “natural
aristocracy” (John Adams), thought too much liberty would
destroy social order (runaway republicanism)

45. VI. Jefferson’s “Explanation” of Independence
● 2nd Continental Congress gradually moved toward a clean break with Britain.
● June 7, 1776, Richard Henry Lee urged for complete independence, adopted on July 2,
1776.
● Congress appointed Thomas Jefferson to write Declaration of Independence.
○ Contained a list of grievances against King George III explaining why the colonies had
the right to revolt.
○ His “explanation” of independence also upheld the “natural rights” of humankind (life,
liberty, and the pursuit of happiness).
● Congress approved it on July 2nd, but because of editing and final approval, it was not
completely approved until July 4th, 1776.

46. VII. Patriots and Loyalists
● War within a war, not all colonials were united.
● Patriots, who supported rebellion and were called “Whigs.”
● Loyalists, who supported the king and who often went to
battle against fellow Americans, also called “Tories.”
● Moderates in the middle and those who didn’t care either
way. These people were constantly being asked to join one side
or another.
● British proved that they could only control Tory areas, because
when Redcoats packed up and left other areas, the rebels
would regain control
● Patriots good at political reeducation, agents of revolutionary
ideas

47. VII. Patriots and Loyalists
● Typical Loyalist (Tory)
● Generally conservatives, educated,
older, war divided families
● Loyalists were most numerous
where the Anglican Church was
strongest (the South).
● Loyalists were less numerous in
New England, where
Presbyterianism and
Congregationalism flourished.
● Loyalists were more numerous in
the aristocratic areas such as
Charleston, SC
● From places where business
and commercial ties were
strong with England

48. VII. Patriots and Loyalists
● Typical Patriot
● The Patriots were generally the younger
generation (Samuel Adams and Patrick
Henry)
● From places where self-government
was strong and mercantilism weak or
contested
● The Patriot militias constantly harassed
small British detachments.
● Patriots typically didn’t belong to the
Anglican Church (Church of England) but
were Congregational, Presbyterian, Baptist,
or Methodist.
● There were also “profiteers” who sold to
the highest bidder, selling to the British
and ignoring starving, freezing soldiers (i.e.
George Washington at Valley Forge).

49. VIII. The Loyalist Exodus
● After the Declaration of
Independence, Loyalists and
Patriots sharply divided
● Patriots often confiscated
Loyalist property to resell it (an
easy way to raise money)
● Loyalists attacked and
harassed, no reign of terror like
France or Russia
● 50,000 Loyalists served the
British in one way or another
(fighting, spying, etc…), British
did not make enough use of
them

50. Phase I: The Northern Campaign [1775-1776]

51. Bunker Hill (June, 1775)
The British suffered over 40% casualties.

52. Phase II:
NY & PA
[1777-1778]

53. Washington Crossing the Delaware

54. Saratoga:
“Turning Point”
of the War?

55. Britain’s Southern Strategy
● Britain thought that there were more Loyalists
in the South.
● Southerners not as vocal in support of
Revolution, thought it might inspire slave
revolt
● Southern resources more valuable/worth
preserving.
● British win small victories, but cannot pacify
the countryside [similar to U. S. failures in
Vietnam!]
● Georgia 1778-1779, Charleston, SC 1780
● Carolinas, Patriots bitterly fought their Loyalist
neighbors.
● 1781, rebel victories King’s Mountain,
Cowpens in NC
● Quaker- reared Gen. Nathanael Greene
strategy of delay.
○ Retreating and losing battles but winning
campaigns, clear the British out of most of
Georgia and South Carolina.

56. XII. The Land and Sea Frontier
● 1777 -the “bloody year” on the frontier
● Most Indians supported Britain, believed they would stop
American expansion into the West
● Mohawk chief Joseph Brant, recently converted to
Anglicanism, and his men attacked the backcountry of
Pennsylvania & New York defeated 1779.
● 1784, pro-British Iroquois signed the Treaty of Fort
Stanwix, the first treaty between the U.S. and an Indian
nation.
● Indians ceded most of their land.
● Pioneers continued to move west
● 1778-1779 George Rogers Clark, captured British forts
● American navy never really hurt the British warships, but
it did destroy British merchant shipping, carried the war
into the waters around the British Isles.
● Privateers captured ships forced them to sail in convoys.

57. IX. REVOLUTION IN DIPLOMACY?
● France wanted revenge on Britain, secretly
supplied the Americans throughout much
of the war.
● Continental Congress sent delegates to
France; delegates were guided by a “Model
Treaty” sought no political/military
connections, only commercial ones.
● Ben Franklin, American diplomat to
France, exemplified a raw new America
● After Saratoga (1777), the British offered
the Americans a measure that gave them
home rule—everything they wanted
except independence.

58. IX. REVOLUTION IN DIPLOMACY?
● After Saratoga, France enters war against Britain.
● If Britain regained control, might then try to capture the
French West Indies for compensation
● Did not want to risk a stronger Britain with its reunited
colonies.
● France, 1778, offered a treaty of alliance, offering America
everything that Britain had offered, plus recognition of
independence.
● The Americans accepted agreement with caution, France was
pro-Catholic, but since the Americans needed help, they’d take
it.
● Official recognition of American independence by European
power
● 1779 Other European powers (Armed Neutrality) join war
against Britain, can’t handle them all

59. XI. Blow and Counterblow
● Britain, decided to evacuate
Philadelphia, concentrate forces in New
York, Washington bottled up British in
NY
● 1780 –French reinforcements arrive in
Rhode Island.
● Feeling unappreciated and lured by British
gold, Gen. Benedict Arnold turned traitor
by plotting with the British to sell out West
Point.
● When the plot was discovered, he fled with
the British.

60. XIII. Yorktown and the Final Curtain
● 1780-1781 inflation continued to
soar, government was virtually
bankrupt, could not repay debts
● In the Chesapeake Cornwallis was
blundering into a trap
○ Retreating to Chesapeake Bay
Cornwallis instead was trapped by
Washington’s army, Rochambeau’s
French army, and the French navy
● King George wanted to continue
the war, fighting continued for
about a year after Yorktown
mostly in the south
● Patriot/ Loyalist fighting
● Washington had to keep army
happy, unified for next year after
war

61. XIV. Peace at Paris
● Brits were weary of the war, suffered heavily
● Ben Franklin, John Adams, and John Jay met in Paris for a peace deal.
● Jay suspected France would try to keep the U.S. cooped up east of the Alleghenies and
keep America weak.
● Jay, thinking that France would betray American ambition to Spain, secretly made
separate overtures to London (against instructions from Congress)
● Came to terms quickly with the British, who were eager to entice one of their enemies
from the alliance.
● The Treaty of Paris of 1783
○ Britain formally recognized U.S. granted generous boundaries, Mississippi River to the
west, Great Lakes on the north, Spanish Florida on the South.
○ Yankees retained a share in fisheries off Newfoundland.
○ Americans couldn’t persecute Loyalists, though, and Congress could only recommend
legislature that would return or pay for confiscated Loyalist land.
○ Did not keep obligation to Loyalists

62. XV. A New Nation Legitimized
● Britain ceded so much land
because it was trying to
entice America from its
French alliance.
● American-friendly Whigs
were in control of the
Parliament
● France approved the treaty,
though with cautious eyes.
● America came out the big
winner

63. Building the New Nation

64. The Confederation and the
Constitution
1776-1790
Chapter 9

65. Quick Write Questions
● Analyze the role and influence of each of the following in the
debate about ratification: Anti-federalists and the Federalist
Papers
● Compare and contrast the views of Jefferson and Hamilton while
they were members of Washington’s cabinet, discuss at least
two specific differences
● Discuss American’s foreign policy, formulated by Washington
and Adams, which had as its goal the avoidance of war. Include
in your answer the Jay Treaty, Washington’s Proclamation of
Neutrality and the XYZ Affair.

66. I. The Pursuit of Equality
● More evolution than revolution
● Most not disturbed by fighting
● Changes in social customs, political institutions,
ideas about society, government and gender
● Loyalist exodus removed conservative upper class,
allowed for more egalitarian ideas
● New patriot elite emerges

67. The
“Virtuous
Republic”
1. Govt. gets its authority from the
citizens.
2. A selfless, educated citizenry.
3. Elections should be frequent.
4. Govt. should guarantee individual
rights & freedoms.
5. Govt.’s power should be limited
[checks & balances].
6. The need for a written
Constitution.
7. “E Pluribus Unum.” [“Out of
many, one”]
8. An important role for women →
raise good, virtuous citizens.
[“Republican Womanhood”].

68. I. Pursuit of Equality
● After Revolution, most states reduced property qualifications for voting
● By 1800 indentured servitude unknown
● Growth of trade organizations, removal of inheritance laws
(primogeniture)
● The fight for separation of church and state resulted in notable gains.
● Congregational church continued to be legally established (tax
supported) by some New England states
● Anglican Church, reformed as the Protestant Episcopal Church
● Fight for separation fierce in VA, Virginia Statute of Religious Freedom
(1786)

69. I. Pursuit of Equality
● Challenges to institution of
slavery
● 1775 Quakers est. first antislavery
society
● 1774 Continental Congress called for
abolition of slave trade
● Many northern states called for
abolition or gradual emancipation
● No state south of Penn. abolished
slavery
● Laws discriminated against free blacks
and slaves (jobs, education, marriage)
● Idealism of freedom sacrificed for
political expediency, fight would
fracture national unity

70. I. Pursuit of Equality
● Women still were unequal to men,
even though some had served
(disguised as men) in the
Revolutionary War.
● Achievements for women such as New
Jersey’s 1776 constitution which
allowed women to vote (for a time).
● Mothers devoted to their families
developed idea of “republican
motherhood” , elevated women to
higher status, keepers of the nation’s
conscience
● Women raised the children, held the
future of the republic in their hands

71. II. Constitution Making in the States
● 1776- Continental Congress called upon states to draft constitutions,
form governments
○ Sovereignty would come from people, contracts defined powers of government
○ States had written documents that represented a fundamental law.
○ Many had a bill of rights, required annual election of legislators.
○ All of them deliberately created weak executive and judicial branches, distrust of central power
○ In most states, the legislative branch given sweeping powers
● Massachusetts- special convention to draft its constitution, could only
be changed through another constitutional convention.
● Thomas Jefferson, warned “173 despots [in legislature] would surely be
as oppressive as one.”
● Many state capitals followed the migration of the people and moved
westward ( New Hampshire, New York, Virginia, the Carolinas, and
Georgia)
● Movement reflected recently enfranchised poorer districts away from
seaports

72. III. Economic Crosscurrents
● After war states seized Loyalist, crown
lands
● Easily available land spread economic
democracy, this preceded political
democracy
● Inflation was a problem
● Many worse off financially
● War caused dislike of taxes and law
● War caused American manufacturers to
make their own goods (British trade cut
off)
● America remained agriculturalist by a
large degree.
● Prior to war, Americans had great trade
with Britain, and now they didn’t, could
now trade with foreign countries, a
privilege they didn’t have before.
● Yankee shippers ventured into far off
places (East Asian markets)

73. IV. Shaky Start Toward Union
● Revolution caused responsibility of creating and operating new central
government
● America more a name than nation
● New patriot elite open to ideas of experimentation and innovation in
government
● Revolution provided opportunity for Washington, Madison, Jefferson,
Hamilton, and John Adams, became great political leaders
● 1784-1786- low point for new republic
● British flood Americas with cheap goods, American industry suffered
● However, the states all did share similar constitutions, had a rich
political inheritance from Britain

74. V. Creating a Confederation
● 13 sovereign states coined money, raised armies,
erected tariff barriers
● 1777-Articles of Confederation adopted
● 1781- ratified by all states
● Main problem- what to do with western lands?
● Some states had holdings west of Allegheny Mts.,
some did not
● Land rich could sell off land to pay debts, others had
to tax heavily to raise revenue

75. V. Creating a Confederation
● States eventually
surrendered land to central
government
● Used to make future states
● Result was that it bonded
union to central authority
● Pioneers bought land from
federal government, benefit
to nation
● Weakened state powers

76. VI. Articles of Confederation: America’s First Constitution
● Loose confederation, acted together to deal with
common problems (foreign defense)
A. No executive, judiciary left up to states
B. Each state one vote
C. Hard to amend
D. No power to regulate commerce, states had different
trade laws
E. No power to tax, states paid what they wanted
● National government could not control states
● Positives of Confederation- Outlined general
powers of government, provided idea of union

77. VII. Landmarks in Land Law
● Congress of Confederation
passed farsighted legislation,
dealt with public domain of
Old Northwest
Land Ordinance of 1785
1. land sold to settlers to pay
public debt
2. land surveyed before sale and
settlement, led to orderly
settlement
3. sixteenth section set aside to
benefit education

78. VII. Landmarks in Land Laws
Northwest Ordinance 1787
● Dealt with how to govern new territory
A.Congress appointed 3 judges & a governor to govern the
territory.
B.When population reached 5,000 adult male landowners
elect territorial legislature.
C.When population reached 60,000 elect delegates to a
state constitutional convention, with all privileges of
other states
D.Forbid slavery in Old Northwest
E.Ideas carried to other frontier areas

79. VIII. World’s Ugly Duckling
● British- refused to repeal navigation laws, closed
trade to US in the West Indies
● Along northern frontier held trading posts on US soil,
agitated Indians that kept US from effectively settling
territory
● British justified action because Americans failed to
keep promises about debts and Loyalists
● Some wanted to impose restrictions on British imports
but Congress could not control imports

80. VIII. World’s Ugly Duckling
● Spain- openly unfriendly to
US
● 1784- Closed MS River,
people in KY, TN and Old
Northwest could not ship
goods
● Claimed large area of territory
granted to US by British
● Schemed with and agitated
Indians to be hostile with US
settlers

81. VIII. World’s Ugly Duckling
● France demanded payment of debts,
restricted trade with West Indies
● Pirates of North African States
(Barbary States) took American ships,
enslaved Yankee sailors
● America too poor to bribe officials to get
release of sailors
● Too weak to stop them

82. VIII. The Horrid Specter of Anarchy
● 1780’s ability of national government to collect
money was limited
● Interest on debt piling up, nation’s credit
evaporating abroad
● States had trade disagreements, levying duties on
goods from neighbors, states issued depreciated
paper currency
● Problems came to a head in Shay’s Rebellion in
1786

83. VIII. The Horrid Specter of Anarchy
● 1786- Farmers in western
Mass. losing farms to taxes
and foreclosure
● Daniel Shay’s led group of
agitators to enforce demands
● Mass. authorities raise army
and put down rebellion
● After rebellion legislature
passes debt relief laws

84. VIII. The Horrid Specter of Anarchy
● Rebellion terrified propertied classes
● Revolution created monster of “mobocracy”
● Stronger central government needed
● Conservatives wanted to protect position, property
● Debtors, poorer people wanted feared powerful central
government (would have to pay debts)
● All groups agree need to change, question was how?
● How would nationalists and states rightists be
reconciled?

85. IX. A Convention of Demigods
● 1786- Convention called in Ananapolis, MD to
figure out what to do about interstate commerce
● 5 of 13 states show up, could not do anything to
solve problem
● Alexander Hamilton asked Congress to call a
convention to rework the Articles
● Congress reluctant, states elect delegates anyway

86. IX. A Convention of Demigods
● Only Rhode Island did not send
delegates
● May 1787- 55 delegates meet in
Philadelphia
● George Washington leader, Ben
Franklin elder statesman
● Washington legitimized
convention
● Sessions held in secret
● James Madison, age 36, known as
father of Constitution, profound
student of government
● Alexander Hamilton, 32, advocate
of super powerful central
government

87. X. Patriots in Philadelphia
● 55 delegates
● Conservative, wealthy (lawyers, merchants, land
speculators)
● Young- avg. age 42
● 19 owned slaves
● Nationalists, wanted stable political structure
● Central authority needed genuine power
● Wanted to preserve union, protect property from
“mobocracy”, curb unrestrained democracy
● Wanted central government to control nation,
international commerce

88. XI. Hammering Out a Bundle of Compromises
● Began to completely scrap Articles
● Overthrow existing government by peaceful means
● Large state plan vs. small state plan over representation in
legislative branch
● Deadlock broken by Great Compromise ( 2 house legislature
on represented by population, one all representation equal)
● Executive branch created, but power check by legislative
branch
● Indirect method of electing president (prevented
unrestrained democracy)

89. XI. Hammering Out a Bundle of Compromises
Sectional Problems
How to count slaves?
● 3/5 Compromise- gave southern states more power (counted slaves
as 3/5 of citizen)
How to control trade?
● North – Congress should be able to regulate foreign and interstate
trade
● South – Thought Congress would tax exports (goods sold to other
countries)
● South sold agricultural products to other countries, would cost them
$$$
● South worried Congress would stop slaves from coming to US
● In a compromise, the southern states agreed that Congress could
regulate trade as long as they would not tax exports, interfere with the
slave trade before 1807

90. XII. Safeguards for Conservatism
● All at convention agreed, needed stronger central government,
sound monetary policy, protection of private property,
manhood suffrage
● Put up safeguards to excesses of mob
● Federal judges selected for life, indirect election of president,
senate
● Only House of Representatives elected by people
● Power based on consent of people, government limited by
written constitution
● People guarantee liberty, not the government

91. XIII. Clash of Federalists and Antifederalists
● Framers knew it would be hard to
ratify Constitution
● Plan was once 9 states ratify it
became law of the land
● Many surprised at new constitution,
saw power of states swallowed up
● Antifederalists- against stronger
federal government, distrust form
colonial experience
● Wanted states rights, typically
backcountry people, poorer classes,
saw Constitution as plan to steal
their power
● Insisted on Bill of Rights to protect
individual freedoms
● Federalists- from settled areas,
wealthier, better educated,
controlled established press

92. XIV. The Great Debate in the States
● Special Elections held in states
● Small states quickly ratify constitution
● Mass. First real challenge, many suspicious of
government power, worried about absence of Bill of
Rights
● Federalists said this would be taken care of and it
passed

93. XV. The Four Laggard States
● VA fierce opposition, but realized it could not continue as an
independent state
● NY Series of articles published, The Federalist Papers, seen as
propaganda, became the best commentary ever written on Constitution
● They presented reasons why each provision of the Constitution was
necessary, written by Madison, Hamilton and Jay
● James Madison, Federalist No. 10, refuted conventional wisdom that
republican government was not possible in large territory
● NY shortly afterward ratified
● NC, RI always centers of individualism ratified in the end
● All four states realized they could not make it on their own

94. XVI. A Conservative Triumph
● Minority won twice-
1. Revolution to get rid of British
2. Peaceful revolution to overthrow government (under
Articles)
● Only ¼ of adult males had property to vote
● Conservatism had erected safeguards against mob
rule, republican gains of revolution conserved,
federalists restored economic and political stability
● Every branch of government represented by the people
(though indirectly in some cases), self limiting system
of checks and balances
● Reconciled conflicting principles of liberty and order
● Elevated ideals of Revolution and set boundaries on
them

95. Launching the New Ship of State
1789-1800
Chapter 10

96. I. Growing Pains
● Over a twelve year period Americans got rid of British
rule and established a central ruling authority they
viewed as a necessary evil
● New government had enormous debt, worthless paper
money and unlimited potential
● 1789- population doubling every 25 years, coastal cities
growing (Philadelphia, NY, Boston, Charleston)
● 90% rural, 5% lived west of Appalachian Mts. Most in
KY,TN, OH
● Foreign visitors looked down on Americans
● Western US territory- Spanish controlled mouth of MS
River, British agents moved about the Old Northwest
stirring up trouble

97. II. Washington for President
● George Washington unanimously drafted
as president by Electoral College
● Commanded by strength of character,
not as a politician
● Established cabinet (not specifically
mentioned in Constitution)
● Three departments (War- Henry Knox,
Treasury- Alexander Hamilton, Sec. of
State- Thomas Jefferson)

98. III. The Bill of Rights
● Antifederalists were promised Bill of Rights during ratification
● James Madison drafted them and pushed them through Congress
● 1791- ratified, safeguarded basic American principles (freedom of
religion, speech, assembly, petition, right to trial by jury,
protection from cruel and unusual punishment and arbitrary
seizure of private property by the government)
● Ninth Amendment protected states rights, Tenth Amendment
gave all rights not specified to the states
● First Congress established federal courts, office of Attorney
general and Supreme Court (John Jay first chief justice)

99. IV. Hamilton Revives the Corpse of Public Credit
● Key figure in Washington’s government – Alexander Hamilton
● Loyalty questioned to America (America was his adopted country)
● Main rival Thomas Jefferson
● Hamilton a financial wizard, shaped fiscal policies to favor wealthier
groups
● First objective- restore national credit
● Wanted government to pay off debts at face value plus interest
● Raised revenue by selling bonds, raising excise taxes and tariffs
● Wanted Congress to assume debts of states, would chain states to
federal government
● States with heaviest debt were happy
● VA not happy with plan, made deal that if federal government assumed
debts they would get federal district for future nations capital

100. V. Hamilton Battles Jefferson for a Bank
● Hamilton proposed Bank of the United States
● Private institution, major stockholder US
government
● Treasury would deposit surplus monies in bank
● Federal funds would stimulate business, print
money for sound, stable national currency
● Was it constitutional?

102. V. Hamilton Battles Jefferson for a Bank
● Jefferson against it, no specific authorization in Constitution, saw
those powers reserved for the states (strict construction)
● Hamilton believed what Constitution did not forbid it permitted,
invoked necessary and proper clause (loose construction)
● Hamilton prevailed, most support for the bank in northern
commercial and financial centers, agricultural south opposed bank
● 1791- Bank chartered for 20 years, stock was put on sale and it sold
out in less than 2 hours

103. VI. Mutinous Moonshiners in Pennsylvania
● 1794- Whiskey Rebellion flares in Penn. Over excise tax
on whiskey
● Whiskey was not a luxury but a medium of exchange,
easier to transport as liquid than raw corn
● Distillers defied taxes and tax collectors, brought
collection to a halt
● Washington called out militia of several states and put
down rebellion
● Showed the force of the federal government in stop
insurrection, if citizens wanted change they needed to do
it peacefully, constitutionally

104. VII. The Emergence of Political Parties
● Hamilton’s fiscal feats put the US on sound financial
ground
● We could borrow funds from European countries on
good terms
● Financial schemes seen as an infringement on states
rights by some
● Opposition began to build, rivalry between Hamilton
and Jefferson became a political rivalry
● Founders did not predict political parties, thought it
would disrupt national unity
● Formal parties a few years off in 1790’s
● Jefferson and Madison opposed programs of
Hamilton, newspapers spread their political
message and political parties began to emerge
● Competition for power good for democracy, creates
balance, no group gets too much power

105. VIII. Washington's Proclamation of Neutrality
● French Revolution scared many Americans
● By mid-1790’s France entered war with British
● French wanted US to help defend West Indies
● D-R’S favored alliance
● Washington wanted to avoid war, US too weak,
politically not united
● 1793- Neutrality Proclamation- first formal
declaration of aloofness from European conflicts,
US policy until 20th century

106. VIII. Washington's Proclamation of
Neutrality
● Citizen Genet- French diplomat,
tried to raise armies to invade
Spanish FL and LA, also BR Canada
● Did not think neutrality reflected
true wishes of Americans
● Genet removed from US
● Neutral stance aided FR, they
needed our foodstuffs in West
Indies, if we declared war on British
they would blockade American coast
and cut off all shipping

107. IX. Embroilments with Britain
● Policy of neutrality tried by British
● Kept forts on US soil, agitated Indians along frontier
● 1790-1791- Miami Confederacy attacks US soldiers
● 1794- Gen. “Mad Anthony” Wayne defeated Indians in the Battle of Fallen
Timbers (OH), forced them to sign Treaty of Greenville
● Confederacy gave up huge amounts of land in return for payment and certain
rights
● Royal navy seized American ships and sailors, angered Americans
● Federalists resisted efforts to punish British, would hurt American economy

108. X. Jay’s Treaty and Washington’s Farewell
● 1794- Chief Justice John Jay sent to
London
● Jeffersonians unhappy with decision
● Treaty favorable to British, BR
consented to abandon forts, pay for
seizures of ships (did not promise to
stop doing it)
● Bound US to pay pre- Revolutionary
debts, BR most favored status
● Crystallized support for Jeffersonians
● Southerners would have to pay most
debt, northern shippers would collect
money for damages
● Pinckney’s Treaty 1795- Spain
gave US access to Mississippi,
disputed territory north of FL

109. X. Jay’s Treaty and Washington’s Farewell
● After second term Washington
decided to retire
● Began two term tradition of presidents
● 1796- Farewell Address published in
newspapers across countries
● Advised against “permanent
alliances”, favored temporary alliances
● Basic message was unity at home,
independence abroad
● Washington’s contributions
enormous- legitimized central
government, kept nation out of war
● US economy expanding and
population was moving westward

110. XI. John Adams Becomes President
● Federalists turn to John Adams
(Hamilton not popular)
● D-R’s turn to Jefferson
● Political passion high, election based on
personality
● Adams squeezed through electoral college
● Adams “prickly” intellectual, little appeal
to masses, hard to follow Washington
● Hamilton headed High Federalist party,
conspired against Adams

111. XII. Unofficial Fighting With France
● Inherited problems with France
● Upset about Jay’s Treaty
● French seize American merchant ships
● Adams sends envoy’s to France to reach
agreement
● XYZ Affair (1797)
● Envoys approached by French agents
(X,Y,Z) demand bribe to meet with
French prime minister
● Way business done in Europe,
negotiations broke down
● US beginnings war preparations
● Navy Dept. created
● Marines reestablished, army authorized
● 1798-1800- most battles at sea
● French ships captured, American
merchant ships destroyed
●

113. XIII. Adams Put Patriotism Above Party
● France did not need another enemy
● British supplied Americans war
supplies
● Adams realized weak America needed
to avoid war
● 1799- sends envoys to France, again
● Napoleon now ruled France, wanted
to get rid of American problem
● Convention of 1800- ends alliance,
pay damage claims to American
shippers
● Adams kept America out of war,
paved path to future acquisition of
Louisiana

114. XIV. Federalist Witch Hunt
● 1798- Congress passes laws to
keep opposition quiet, Alien
and Sedition Laws
● Alien Laws- raises residence
requirement of citizens
● Violated traditional American
open door policy and speedy
assimilation
● President could deport,
imprison dangerous foreigners
● Viewed as an arbitrary grant of
power, laws never really
enforced

115. XIV. Federalist Witch Hunt
● Sedition Laws- aimed at newspapers and critics of
Federalist government
● Anyone who impeded policies of government liable
to fine, imprisonment
● Seen a violation of freedom of speech, press
● Many editors and others indicted under act
(“Spitting Lion”)
● Direct conflict with Constitution, Federalist court
did not want to hear case
● Acts did have popular support, Congressional
elections in1798-1799 Federalist gained many seats
● Laws expired 1801

116. XV. The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions
● Jefferson worried that Federalists would wipe out Constitutional
guarantees,
● Fearing prosecution he secretly wrote the Kentucky
Resolution (1798,1799 approved by KY legislature)
● Madison drafted less extreme statement, adopted by VA
legislature, Virginia Resolution (1798)
● Adopted the compact theory- 13 sovereign states created
government, national gov’t a creation of states
● Had exceeded powers with Alien and Sedition Acts
● Rightful action was “nullification”
● If state disagreed with federal laws, they could be voided
● Federalist argument- people created government, only
Supreme Court could nullify
● VA, KY Resolutions extreme states’ rights views, crystallize
opposition to Federalists

117. XVI. Federalists vs. Democrat- Republicans
Federalists
● Believe in strong central gov’t
● Rule by best people
● Distrusted full blown
democracy
● Promote foreign trade
● Little gov’t. Interference in
business
● Supported by wealthy
● Supporters along Atlantic
seaboard
● Promote American interests
overseas
● Pro- British
Democrat- Reps.
(Jeffersonians)
● Weak central gov’t.
● Power held by states
● Appeal to middle class,
farmers, laborers
● National debt needed to be
paid off
● No special privileges for any
class
● Pro- French
● Protect democracy at home
● Supported by southerners,
westerners