ALS Research Papers

ALS Research Papers
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) is a motor neuron disease that has been known to physicians
since the late 1860's. ALS was first discovered in 1869 by French neurologist Jean–Martin Charcot,
but it was not until 1939 when a famous baseball player, Lou Gehrig, brought national and
international attention to the disease. Lou Gerhig, a New York Yankee baseball player, was known
as the Iron Horse for his tremendous achievement of playing 2,130 consecutive games. Gerhig
developed ALS at the age of 35, and passed away in 1941 from the disease. Since it was so difficult
for people to pronounce the proper name, the disease became commonly known as ... Show more
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What is Lou Gehrig disease? (1–2). The diagnosis of ALS can be a difficult one. In the early stages
of the disease, many of the ALS symptoms mimic similar diseases that are considered treatable.
Since there is no one clinical or laboratory test to fully identify ALS, the diagnosis is made primarily
through careful assessment of the patient through their medical history and neurological testing.
ALS patients are sent from a general or family doctor to a neurologist who specializes in the
nervous system for further evaluation. Neurologists will commonly order the following tests to look
for any abnormalities:
Blood and Urine tests – looking for any indicator of Creatinine kinase which the body produces
when muscle breaks down.
An MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) – a scan using radio waves and a powerful magnetic field to
rule out other causes of symptoms like strokes, Parkinson's or any abnormalities in the brain or
spinal cord.
An EMG (electromyography) – this is fine needles are inserted into a patients muscle and the
electrical activity is recorded. This test will help identify the affected muscles from the healthy
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Ryan's Gross Sensorimotor Development
Ryan exhibits primitive postural and movement strategies through the use of the tonic labyrinthine
reflex in both prone and supine position. He also displays an ATNR reflex when he turns his head to
the left; if this persists it can inhibit the development of his hand eye coordination along with grasp
and reaching difficulties. Since Ryan's head control is beginning to be voluntary and muscles
necessary for neck control are being activated. This could be considered late primitive stage moving
into the early transitional stage. The development of Ryan's neck control can help his postural
control. Ryan displays weight bearing through his leg when positioned into the standing position.
This occurs based on his positive standing reflex, not the activation of lower extremity muscles.
Even though Ryan's strategies for purposeful movements are based on reflexes, this will make it
difficult for him to do activities as a typically developing child that does not rely on reflexive
movement.
2. Compare and contrast Ryan's gross sensorimotor development with that of a typical 15–month–
old child. Include the gross sensorimotor development level (in months) that you feel Ryan has
achieved and give a rationale for the level ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Ryan's mother should first roll Ryan onto his side while she is semi–flexing his hip, bringing his arm
forward by having her hands supporting his scapula, and then Ryan can be raised into a sitting
position. Ryan's mother can use her forearms to keep Ryan's legs apart and turned out. This will
allow for Ryan's mother to use her hands to control Ryan's shoulders, bringing the shoulders forward
and in. Ryan's mother can hold him close to her body where Ryan is positioned with his hips and
knees flexed, shoulders are forward and hands are in midline. This will help Ryan's mother maintain
good posture for Ryan and control the extension

3 Reflex Arcs Research Paper
A three–neuron reflex arc consists of a receptor, a sensory (afferent) neuron, and a motor (efferent)
neuron. The reflex arc is designed to help keep the body safe, and is the mechanism that permits
immediate responses to danger related stimuli. A conduction pathway of a reflex arc consists of the
motor neuron innervation of the peripheral nervous system, and at least one association neuron from
the central nervous system. After the conduction pathway, an impulse follows. The reflex arc is
composed of a sensory receptor, sensory nerve, integrating center, motor nerve, and effector organ.
The sensory receptor detects the presence of a stimulus in the skin, muscle, or other organ. The
sensory neuron, which is also the afferent neuron, carries sensory information to the central nervous
system. The integrating center is found only in gray matter of the central nervous system in the brain
or spinal cord. This is where information is processed, and the motor command to stimulate the
effector is initiated. The motor neuron, also called the efferent neuron, carries the motor command to
the effector organ. Finally, the effector organ carries out the response to the stimulus, which may be
to a muscle, gland or adipose tissue. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A simple reflex arc would be you touching a hot pan and automatically pulling your hand away,
whereas a more complex reflex arc would be you stepping on a sharp object, you might pull your
foot away quickly after you step on the object, then you might fall over depending on what you
other leg is doing. Although, the interneuron also would synapse with motor neurons that control the
muscles of your other leg to adjust your position so you do not fall. Then the interneurons synapses
with other neurons will carry information about what just happened to the cerebellum and the
cerebrum so you can become cautious of what happen and take the appropriate action that needs to
be

Destruction Of The Neurons Responsible For Involuntary...
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, also called Lou Gehrig's disease, is a
neurodegenerative motor disease that results in the destruction of the neurons responsible for
involuntary muscle movement (NINDS 2014). Patients are determined to have ALS if they have
both upper motor neuron disease and lower motor neuron disease (Gordon 2011). Many people that
have been diagnosed with ALS are seen in wheelchairs or if the person is in the early onset of ALS,
using other walking devices. This is because in 65% of patients, ALS begins with weakness in the
arms, legs, and body, therefore this results in the loss of capability to walk (Gordon 2011, A.D.A.M.
2012). Most patients live for approximately three to five years after symptom onset and usually die
when the muscles in the chest stop working, which causes their heart and lungs to stop functioning
as well (Gordon PH 2011, A.D.A.M. 2012). This is caused by muscles weakening until atrophy and
fasciculations occur, leading to the brain being unable to control voluntary movement (NINDS).
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis is classified as a motor neuron disease (NINDS).
The nervous system is made up of neurons that take in information through our senses and then
processes it to the rest of the body(IQWig 2012). After this, motor neurons send a signal from the
nerve cell in the brain, to the brain stem, down the spinal cord, and cause a reaction in the muscular
system (NINDS 2014). An example of this would be

Essay on Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) Case Study
Normal Anatomy and Physiology of Motor Function
The two components of the central nervous system (CNS) are the brain and the spinal cord.
Communication between the brain and the spinal cord happens through motor neurons, which are
nerve cells that enable motor movement. Each motor neuron is made up of a cell body, which holds
all the cell components, dendrites which send information it receives to the cell body, and an axon
which sends nerve impulses to the muscle (Porth & Matfin, 2009). As electrical impulses are sent
through the motor neuron, it stimulates the muscle fibers in the body to move. This is the process in
which motor function happens. Therefore, the basic abilities to breathe, speak, swallow, walk and
button a shirt are ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The manifestations of ALS are caused by the location of motor neuron death. When upper motor
neurons die, the symptoms include problems controlling fine movements, spasms, dysphagia,
dysphonia and dysarthria (Porth & Matfin, 2009). "Manifestations of lower motor neuron
destruction include fasciculations, weakness, muscle atrophy, and hyporeflexia" (Porth & Matfin,
2009, p. 1284). Patients with early signs of ALS usually complain of feeling weak on one side,
which is due to the slowing of electrical impulses to that group of muscles (Ignatavicius &
Workman, 2010). Since the impulses are slowed, they are not receiving adequate electrical
stimulation to move and the person feels weak. As the disease progresses, all the motor neurons die
and are not regenerated so, the patient is left paralyzed, losing the ability to speak, swallow and
breathe (Ignatavicius & Workman, 2010).
A distinctive characteristic of ALS is that although the motor neurons die, the brain, cognitive
functions and sensory neurons stay intact (Porth & Matfin, 2009). This makes the disease especially
devastating because patients become trapped inside their dying body, with a fully alert mind, but are
unable to move. It is not known what causes the exact death of the motor neurons in the body, but
"five percent to 10% of cases are familial; the others are believed to be sporadic" (Porth & Matfin,
2009, p.

Amyotophic Lateral Sclerosis Case Study Essay
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Case Study
On December 1, 2012, a patient by the name of John Dough walks into the medical assistant's
office. The patient is five foot 11 inches tall, currently he is 70 years old and weighs approximately
211 pounds. The patient has no known allergies does not smoke and has a relatively clean health
record. After filling out the patient medical history forms, the patient is seen by the doctor. The
patient explains to the doctor that lately he has had trouble lifting object he would not normally have
trouble with, as well as walking short distances, and being very fatigued. After further examination
the patient explains how he recently found a tick on his back and removed it, but now there is a ...
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A nerve conduction study measures the bodies electrical energy by assessing the nerves ability to
send a signal. And as a final precaution, the physician wants the patient to receive a 'MRI' . A 'MRI'
or magnetic resonance imaging is a non–invasive imaging technique which uses a magnetic field
and radio waves to create an image of the brain and spinal cord.
Once the patient received all of his tests he met with his doctor to discuss the results. On the patients
'EMG', results showed Abnormal, spontaneous activity,as well as fibrillations and fasciculations in
the patient's tongue. An 'EMG' is used to investigate possible motor neurone disease and detect
widespread denervation and fasciculations. Fasciculations are not under voluntary control, so they
can be easily distinguished from voluntary movement. The patient's 'MRI' results showed that the
patients corticospinal tracts were suffering from volume loss,as well as iron deposits in the cortex
which contributes to signal loss and neurodegenerative diseases. However Both of these features are
present in varying degrees in normal patients, so by itself these results wouldn't stand out. But as
results from other tests are put together with these results, a diagnosis can become much easier.
"The diagnosis of ALS is based primarily on clinical presentation, with supportive data from
electrodiagnostic, imaging, and laboratory studies." Based off of clinical presentation, ALS can be

The Use Of Spinal Cord Neurons From Transgenic Sod1 Mice
Taking a closer look at the cerebrum, allows us to have a better understanding of the dying–forward
cascade and its important role in initiating disease onset (Thomsen, et al., 2014). The outer layer of
this complex organ composed of gray matter is the cerebral cortex, region where the corticospinal
neurons related to ALS are located. These upper motor neurons responsible for collecting,
integrating, translating, and transferring information to the spinal cord reside in layer 5 of the motor
cortex (Thomsen, et al., 2014), and are the most vulnerable to be injured by excitotoxicity initiating
an anterograde degeneration. In general, ALS research has devoted less attention to the UMN
pathology primarily focusing on the LMN connectivity with the neuromuscular junction (NMJ)
(Thomsen, et al., 2014). In spite of this remark, recent studies continue to use spinal cord neurons
from transgenic SOD1 mice but their priority has switched to the UMN behavior. On a study using
mutant SOD1G39A rats, (Thomsen, et al., 2014) wanted to establish whether the upper motor
neuron might still play a critical role in disease progression by knocking down mutant
SOD1expression in only the motor cortex. As a consequence of this assay, it was shown for the first
time that suppression at the top of the motor neuron pathway results in significant delay in ALS
disease onset. Thus, further highlighting the importance of the upper motor neurons in ALS
(Thomsen, et al., 2014).
This thorough understanding

Investigating The Relationship Between Motor Neurons And...
The purpose of this lab is to evaluate the relationship between motor neurons and their associated
muscle's electrical activity via neuromuscular junctions through: determining the correlation
between EMG (electromyogram) activity and muscle force, observing muscle fatigue, as well as
calculating the conduction velocity associated with the Achilles tendon reflex arc. An additional
purpose of this lab is to demonstrate the effects of arm circumference and relative dominance on
muscle fatigue.
Hypothesis In the first experiment, as muscle force increases as induced by the subject, it is
expected that the EMG activity will elevate likewise due to the directly proportional relationship
between contraction strength and the muscle's amount of electrical impulses. Additionally, it is
expected that resistance to fatigue will increase with greater forearm circumference due to the
greater amount of fatigue–resistant slow oxidative fibers. In the third section of this lab, it is
anticipated that as path length of a particular reflex arc (in this case, the Achilles tendon reflex)
increases, the overall conduction velocity will decrease due to the increased reflex time necessary
for the impulse to be conducted up and down longer neurons.
Background For all aspects of this lab to be properly understood, the following principles and
associated information of the following must be known: the relationship between nerves and their
associated muscle(s), how electrical activity is

Motor Neuron Disease Research Paper
Clinical Feature Motor neuron disease (MND) is a serious and incorrigible form of progressive
neurodegeneration – over time the nerves in the spine and brain gradually lose function. In the case
of motor neuron disease, motor neurons – varieties of nerve cells – are affected. They are a group of
progressive neurological disorders that terminate cells that control essential muscle activity such as
speaking, walking, breathing and swallowing. MNDs transpire more commonly in males than in
females, and symptoms might appear after age 40. Types of MNDs ALS (amyotrophic lateral
sclerosis) is the most common form and accounts for roughly 60% to 70% of all cases. PBP
(progressive bulbar palsy) represents about 20% of all cases. PMA (progressive ... Show more
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In most nations, when a patient is diagnosed they will be familiarized with a team of health–care
specialists who will be keenly involved in their care. There is no treatment or standard cure for
MNDs. Symptomatic and supportive treatment can help patients be more comfy while maintaining
their quality of life. The drug riluzole (Rilutek®), which as of this date is the solitary drug approved
by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration to treat ALS, extends life by 2–3 months but does not
relieve symptoms. Other medications that might help lessen symptoms include muscle relaxants
such as baclofen, tizanidine and the benzodiazepines for spasticity; glycopyrrolate and atropine to
treat unwarranted saliva and anticonvulsants and nonsteroidal anti–inflammatory medications to
relieve pain. Panic attacks can be treated with benzodiazepines. Long–term Outcomes Outcomes
differ contingent on the kind of MND and the age of onset. Some MNDs, such as primary lateral
sclerosis and Kennedy disease, are not deadly and progress gradually. Patients with spinal muscular
atrophy might appear to be stable for lengthy periods, but improvement should not be

Model Neurons
Have you ever wondered why we're able to flex our muscles? Or maybe, how to we have the ability
to memorize information? These questions can be answered simply, neurons. Neurons are special
cells that transmit information to other nerve cells, muscles or gland cells. Neurons take up, process,
and transmit information through electrical and chemical signals. The basic neuron is made up of
three parts, the cell body, axons, and dendrites. The cell body contains the nucleus in which all
genetic material and organelles (golgi body, mitochondria, etc.) is carried. Dendrites are short
branched extensions that come out from the cell body. Theses branches bring in electrical signals
into the body. Axons are long and thread like, they take info away ... Show more content on
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A group of neurological disorders that destroy motor neurons are called Motor Neuron Diseases
(MND). One MND you might recognize is Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (also known as ALS or
Lou Gehrig's disease). ALS is caused by the death of neurons; the nerve cells break down which
reduces the ability to function. Because the motor neuron has died, the brain cannot initiate and
control the muscles. With voluntary muscle action progressively affected, people may lose the
ability to speak, eat, move and breathe. There are many more MNDs like primary lateral sclerosis,
progressive muscular atrophy, progressive bulbar palsy, and pseudobulbar

Taking a Look at Spinal Shock
The term spinal shock was first defined by Whytt in 1750 as a 'loss of sensation accompanied by
motor paralysis with the initial loss but gradual recovery of reflexes following a spinal cord injury'.
Spinal shock occurs due to there being a sudden loss of conductivity of electrical signals in the
spinal cord, since the potassium ions move from the intracellular space to the extracellular space.
When this occurs the body cannot effectively send nerve signal impulses to control automatic
reflexes below the site of the spinal cord injury. The symptoms of spinal shock patients are that there
are complications such as hypotension because the sympathetic nervous system is unable to regulate
vascular tone (contraction of the blood vessels). This is usually the case when the injury is in the
cervical spinal cord. Other symptoms include: flexor spasms, tetraplegia, and paraplegia, atonic
paralysis and many other symptoms such as a pounding headache and excessive sweating (Patient
Education Institute). There are four main phases of spinal shock. They are Hyporeflexia that is due
to loss of descending facilitation which is the first phase that last for approximately a day. The
second phase initial reflex returns and denervation super sensitivity which occurs within 1–3 days of
the spinal shock (Silver, 1970). The third phase takes up to four weeks it's the initial Hyperreflexia
with axon–supported synapse growth. The last phase is the Hyperreflexia and spasticity through

Mirror Neurons and Motor Memory Formation Essay
WHAT ARE MIRROR NEURONS?
Mirror neurons have been hailed by scientists as the most significant finding in neurology in the past
decade, the key to understanding the secrets of human interaction and learning, and as significant to
psychology as DNA is to biology. Mirror neurons are a newly–discovered structure of the brain
responsible for the firing of neurons during both physical movement and the observation of physical
movement. It is these firings during observation of movements that has scientists excited about their
relation to learning and interaction. While mirror neurons have been found in both primates and
humans, their role in terms of learning and perfecting motor skills is still unclear.
The discovery of mirror neurons: ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In a research project monitoring the brain waves of a child observing a task and completing a task, it
was found that the two sets of brain waves were almost identical. However, when testing an autistic
child, it was found that two different sets of brain waves were created. This research suggests that
autistic children have a lower number of mirror neurons, which would help explain their deficiency
in social interaction, imitation, and empathy.
While it is believed that mirror neurons are imperative for monkeys to understand what other
monkeys are doing, the believed function of mirror neurons in human brains is much more
extensive.
Function in terms of empathy:
It has been observed that mirror neurons are active when a person feels an emotion or witnesses
another person expressing emotion, which could explain the feeling of empathy.
Function in terms of language:
Mirror neurons can be found near the language area of our brains, and could prove to be a valuable
component of language learning. This discovery also supports the notion that language evolved from
gesture understanding. Mirror neurons easily have the potential to aid in language acquisition, based
on their ability to help in imitation and learning through observation.
Function in terms of planning:
Neurons' firing while observing an action can be helpful in planning one's actions, as the
consequences of those actions can also be observed.

How Does Voltage Gated Sodium Ions Move Into Sodium Channels
The way a signal starts in the motor neuron is by way of a stimulus activating sensory neurons. This
signal travels by way of the axon that contains schwann cells. The signal continues to move into the
CNS, which causes signal to be sent to interneurons. The interneurons can send the signal through
the peripheral system or to the brain via the spinal cord.
When a skeletal muscle fires it is caused by a signal in a motor neuron. Voltage gated sodium
channels open up after a threshold stimulus of –55mV is reached. Next, Sodium ions move into the
cell membrane, thus depolarizing the cell at +30mV, which is its action potential. Sodium channels
close and Potassium channels open. Potassium moves out, which repolarizes the cell.
Hyperpolarization

Amyotrophic Parallel Sclerosis: Lou Gehrig's Disease
Overview
Amyotrophic parallel sclerosis (ALS) is dangerous issue. It influences the piece of the sensory
system that controls voluntary movements. ALS is some of the time called Lou Gehrig's sickness,
after the well known baseball player who died because of the disease.In this disease the muscles
gradually become weaker that leads to paralysis and even sometimes death. ALS can also be known
as motor neuron disease. In motor neuron disease people eventually loses control on muscles and
become paralyzed. The effects of motor neuron disease cannot be reversed and cured. Most of the
people die within 5 years of appearance of symptoms.
Causes
We don't recognize what causes frontal projection dementia in individuals with ALS. A couple
individuals ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The careful way of this change fluctuates from individual to individual.
The accompanying indications are basic:
1. Unresponsiveness (absence of interest, withdrawal)
2. Absence of feeling
3. Diminished suddenness
4. Loss of hindrance
5. Anxiety or over activity
6. Social impropriety
7. Mood swings
Treatment
In later stage when ALS progresses it becomes difficult to digest food and breathe. Riluzole is
considered first approved drug by Food and Drug Administration(FDA) to cure ALS. Riluzole
decreases the release of glutamate and thus reduces the damage to motor neurons.
When clinical trials of riluzole were done on ALS patients, they showed that their survival rate gets
extended by several months, mainly in those with difficulty swallowing. The patient taking riluzole
must be monitored for possible side eefects like liver damage.Although the drug cannot reverse the
destruction done to motor neurons but can extend the time before a patient needs ventilation

Types And Subconscious Response By Effector
1. Reflexes are automatic and subconscious response to a stimulus. A reflex arc, the neural pathway
that a nerve impulse follows, orchestrates the operation of reflexes. The following are parts of the
reflex arc:
a) The arrival of stimulus and activation of receptor: The receptors located in a sensory neuron
detect a stimulus and generate a graded potential. If the strength of a stimulus is above the threshold,
then an action potential is generated.
b) Activation of a sensory neuron: The generated action potential is then carried to the spinal cord by
the sensory neuron.
c) Processing of information in the central nervous system (Interneuron or relay neuron): The
sensory neuron synapse with the interneuron in the spinal cord. In the central nervous system, the
responses are again graded at the synaptic junction. Now the interneuron conducts nerve impulses
from the sensory neuron to a motor neuron.
d) Activation of a motor neuron: The motor neuron now transmits nerve impulse to an effector.
e) Response by effector: Effector is usually a muscle or gland. If the effector is smooth muscle,
responses summate to produce action potentials in the smooth muscle, however, if the effector is
skeletal muscle, the graded response is enough to produce an action potential. Depending on the
situation, the effector generates an appropriate response.
2. Starling forces govern the exchange of fluids between capillaries and the interstitial space. The
following are four forces in action

Motor Unit Of A Single Motor Neuron
Motor unit consists of a single motor neuron together with skeletal muscle fibres that are innervated
by the motor neuron. Alpha motor neurons are the lower motor neurons of the brainstem and spinal
cord that predominate within motor pools and innervate muscle fibres that cause muscle contraction.
A single alpha motor neuron can innervate a large number of skeletal muscle fibres since motor
neuron (approximately 420,000) are outnumbered by muscle fibres (approximately 200 million).
This is achieved by the branching of a single motor axon in the muscle to synapse on numerous
distinct fibres that are well spread over a large area within the muscle so the contractile force would
scatter uniformly.
Motor units are sorted according to speed of contractions, amount of tension generated and fatigue
resistance. In human, there is one slow–twitch fibre and two types of fast–twitch fibres. Therefore,
the three principal types of motor units are slow (S, type–I) motor units, fast fatigable (FF, type–IIB)
motor units and fast fatigue–resistant (FR, type–IIA) motor units.
'Red' muscles are innervated by small motor neuron of the S type and the muscles slowly contract
producing fairly minute force compared to the fast–twitch fibres because S has small and few
contractile filaments. S motor unit has large amount of mitochondria and sufficient blood supply to
maintain aerobic metabolism because of extensive network of capillaries. Moreover, they are rich of
myoglobin that stores oxygen

Skeletal Muscle Contractions
The nervous system of the human body is an organized network of nerve cells and fibers that
receive, transport, and respond to stimuli. Skeletal muscle movement involves components of the
nervous system. The nervous system is an organized network of nerve cells and fibers that is
subdivided into the central and the peripheral nervous systems. The central nervous system (CNS)
consist of the brain and the spinal cord. This system is considered to be the information processing
center of the body. On the other hand the peripheral system (PNS) is made up of the nerves and
ganglia. The peripheral system is considered to be the communicator between the central nervous
system and body parts. This system is then further subdivided into somatic and autonomic
components. The somatic component is associated with skeletal ... Show more content on
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Neurons are responsible for receiving, interpreting, and responding to stimuli. Neurons are classified
into three groups: sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons. Sensory neurons are
responsible for detecting stimuli from the body's internal and external environment.Think of sensory
neurons as the input. Interneurons also called association neurons and are responsible for the
distribution of sensory input and the coordination of motor output (Bartholomew and Martini 2007).
Motor neurons carry the information received from the central nervous system and carry the
information to organs. These organs that receive the information are also classified as effectors
which are the bodily responses to a stimulant (BBC 2014). Examples of effectors include muscles,
glands, and even adipose tissue (Bartholomew and Martini 2007). The target effector in this case
study would be skeletal muscle. The interneurons and the motor neurons are the only two neurons
involved in the transfer of impulses from the central nervous system to the peripheral nervous

How Different Gender Will Affect The Reaction Rate Of 13
YR 12
INVESTIGATION: REACTION TIMES.
BY CAITLIN DAWSON
TITLE: How different gender will affect the reaction rate of 13 to 17 years olds.
ABSTRACT: This investigation entailed the study of wether gender will affect the reaction times
when tested. The average visual reaction time for a human is 0.25 seconds (250 milliseconds) and
the average touch reception is 0.15 seconds (150 milliseconds), adding both these figures gives and
estimated group time of 0.40 seconds (400 milliseconds). The average reaction speed for the boys
was 342 and the average reaction speed for the girls was 392, in relation to average reaction speed
these results are quite accurate as the age bracket was younger and smaller than the expected
averages for humans.This investigation is well related to society as the measurement of visual
reaction time has been used to evaluate the processing speed of Central Nervous System and the co–
ordination between the sensory and motor systems, when shown a visual stimulus.
Stimulus > Sensory Neuron > Spinal Cord/Brain > Motor Neuron = Response.
INTRODUCTION: Reaction time plays a very important role in our lives as it determines our every
day life, factors that can affect the average human reaction time including age, gender, exercise/
health, distractions, height etc. Reaction time is a measure of how quick organisms can respond to
types of stimulus, e.g visual or auditory. A reflex is a rapid, automatic response to a change in the
external or

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is a generic, lethal...
Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is a generic, lethal condition characterized by an inability to will
voluntary muscles as desired. The motor neurons responsible for exciting muscular contractions are
deficient and loss of usage in voluntary muscles results in their atrophy. Characterized early in life,
children with SMA exhibit difficulty in early voluntary muscular activities such as crawling,
sucking, imitation of facial expressions, and breathing. Three stage of SMA exist: SMA I for
children younger than six months, SMA II for children between 6–18 months of age, and SMA III
for all remaining children. For many affected individuals, life expectancy depends upon the time in
which symptoms began. The longer it takes for SMA ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Genetics of Spinal Muscular Atrophy
In 1995 a French group of researchers discovered that SMA is autosomal recessive disorder due to
loss of the survival motor neuron protein gene (SMN) (Lefebvre et al., 1995). Through
experimentation the researchers discovered two copies of the SMN gene in chromosome five [chr
5q13.2]: telomeric and centromeric SMN copies. Experimentation proved that loss of the telomeric
SMN (today known as SMN1) and not loss of its centromeric counterpart, SMN2, resulted in SMA.
It took an additional six years for researchers to glimpse at the functions provided by SMN1.
Meister et al. categorized the SMN1 protein an essential to promote correct assembly of U12 small
ribonucleoproteins (snRNPs). In genetics, snRNPs are nucleic proteins responsible for the splicing
of premature ribonucleic acid chains (pre–mRNA) derived from genes. Without correct splicing,
mature ribonucleic acid chains (mRNAs) produce dysfunctional proteins when translated. In this
case, splicing functionality of U12 – intron containing transcripts is lost, and because the transcript
is wrongly coded, its translation will produce a functionless protein. Hence, loss of SMN1 results in
an inability form U12 snRNPs splicing complexes, and reduced splicing functionality results in loss
of U12 – intron splicing functionality (Patel and Steitz, 2003). Only recently (2012) did researchers

Different Types Of Nerve Cells
Nerve Cells
Nerve cells are crucial to all living organisms because they serve as a messenger in the different
parts of the body. There are three different types of nerve cells (neurons) sensory neurons, motor
neurons, and association neurons. All three of these types come together in order to allow the body
to function properly. Without neurons the body wouldn't have the ability to know when there is
illumination or warmth in or outside the body, know how to perform functions in the other parts of
the body (such as muscles),or have these two things work together to know what the other is doing.
Sensory neurons have importance because they allow your body to have the five physical senses,
(smell,touch,taste,sight,and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
One important sensory neuron that everyone is very familiar with is tastebuds. Tastebuds are
extremely sensitive neurons that have a built in pH detector. That is why the more acidic something
is the more sour it taste and when sodium ions increase this is what makes food have a salty taste.
Sensory neurons are crucial to the body for maintaining homeostasis by providing organisms with
skills that we need.
The second kind of neuron that is also very important to organisms is motor neurons. Motor neurons
are responsible for the movement of organisms. If our body didn't form motor neurons we wouldn't
have the ability to talk, eat, life, drink,walk, and any other kind of simple movements. According to
Daniel Liden, a freelance journalist, motor neurons "directly or indirectly controls the contraction or
relaxation of muscles" (Liden, para 1.) Motor neurons are also sometimes referred to as efferent
neurons. Motor neurons bring information made by the central nervous system to the different
muscles in the body.There are three different kinds of motor neurons. The three different kinds are
somatic, specific visceral, and general visceral. Somatic motor neurons are used for forming skeletal
muscles and movement in the body. Specific visceral motor neurons are important in vertebrates for
the movement of neck muscles and facial muscles. Specific visceral neurons are important to sea
animals for the movement of gills. The last kind of motor neurons, general visceral, are

Speech Amyotrophic Lateral Disease : Is A Chronic And...
This research paper is being written to address Amyotrophic lateral disease (ALS), which is a
chronic and terminal disease that affects the lower and upper motor neurons (Srivastava, 2014). ALS
is usually fatal within a few years of inception and affects 2–5 per 100,000 people annually
worldwide (Donnelly, Grima, & Sattler, 2014). This disease usually affects the patient physically
and emotionally and as well as their support system. As of this year, no cure has been developed for
this disease. The only drug that has been approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) thus
far, is a drug that goes by the name Riluzole (Srivastava, 2014). Although Riluzoles is not a cure, it
has been effective of lengthening the patients' life without successful improving the quality of their
lives (Srivastava, 2014). While the cause of this disease is unknown, several researchers and clinical
drug trails has been conducted, and researchers has determined that this disease is a candidate for
stem cells therapy (Srivastava, 2014). This research paper goes in great detail in explaining the
pathophysiology, assessments findings (both objectives and subjective), and the type of treatments
that is being used to slow down this disease.
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis In The United States In this decade, there have been several fatal
diseases that have affected many Americans in the United States. Some of these diseases are easily
curable, and others are terminal with no current

Lou Gehrig's Disease Research Paper
Lou Gehrig's Disease or Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) is a collection of rare neurological
diseases that affect the motor neurons that control the voluntary muscle movements. ALS is a
progressive neurodegenerative illness that affects the nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord. ALS is
a disease that belongs to a wider group of disorders that are known as motor neuron diseases. This is
caused by gradual deterioration and the death of motor neurons. 'Amyotrophic' comes from the
Greek roots that mean 'without nourishment to muscles'. 'Lateral' means 'to the side' and refers to the
position of the destruction in the spinal cord. 'Sclerosis' means the hardening of the spinal cord.
ALS was founded in 1869 by Jean–Martin Charcot and ALS is ... Show more content on
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ALS can also cause slurred and nasal speech and difficulty swallowing or chewing. ALS may appear
in the arm or the hand as they might have trouble performing simple tasks such as buttoning a shirt,
writing or turning a key in a lock. Sometimes, the symptoms may affect a leg and people may suffer
awkwardness in walking and running or find that they are stumbling more often. The symptoms of
ALS may affect facial muscles, swallowing and speech. ALS is not usually considered painful. If
motor neurons in the lower spinal cord are involved, movement in the torso, neck and limbs may
become affected or lost. ALS is a disease that eventually taking away the ability to walk, dress,
write, speak, swallow and breathe. The life expectancy for a person with ALS is about two to five
years, however some people can live for five or more years as ALS is a variable disease. Supportive
care and advanced technology in nutrition and breathing can prolong life. Patients with ALS can
experience muscle weakening and can sometimes have trouble with breathing. Treatment like non–
invasive ventilation can

Spinal Muscular Atrophy : An Incurable Autosomal Recessive...
Spinal Muscular Atrophy, also referred to as SMA, is an incurable autosomal recessive disease
caused by the mutation or deletion of the survival motor neuron 1(SMN1) gene located on
chromosome five. This illness is the number one cause of infant death from a genetic disease. The
disease is researched and studied heavily in the hopes to find an approved treatment and cure for the
disease. With that being said, any discoveries on the disease are very important. In ones research of
SMA, key features of the disease must be discussed in great detail. The cause of SMA, the
symptoms, the diagnosis, the progression of the disease, impacts of being the victim of SMA , any
possible treatments (if there are any), and the support that is provided for families of the patient (if
support is provided or not) are all important aspects of the research. Prior research on the topic must
also be considered when discussing the disease in order to understand SMA.
Moving into the explanation of the cause of SMA, it is important to understand the gene that has
been deleted (95%–98% of cases) or mutated (2%–5% of cases) and what all it affects. As
mentioned in the first paragraph, SMA is a mutation of the SMN1 gene that is responsible for
producing SMN (spinal motor neuron) proteins for healthy individuals. However, in those affected
by SMA, the SMN proteins aren't produced which disables the proper functioning of the nerves that
control muscles (motor neurons). This inability to properly

What Is Neuromuscular Junction?
A neuromuscular junction is a chemical conjunction formed during the contact between motor
neuron and a muscle fiber. Each branch of a motoneuron forms a single junction with a muscle fiber
(University of Minnesota, 2011). At the neuromuscular junction, the motor neuron is able to send a
signal to the muscle fiber which ultimately allows for muscle contraction. The operation, when the
neurotransmitter, are released by a neuron begins when the action potential reaches the presynaptic
terminal of the neuron, which then activates calcium channels allowing calcium ions to enter the
neurons. The calcium ions that entered the neuron then bind to a sensory protein like synaptotagmin,
releasing vesicle fusion across the cell membrane. Vesicles are ... Show more content on
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As Lyn D. Weiss et al. (2016) states in Easy EMG: A Guide to Performing Nerve Conduction
Studies and Electromyography, the neuromuscular junction is the relay between the nerve terminal
and the skeletal muscle fiber. The neuromuscular junction as a whole is the site where the neurons
activate the muscle to actually contract. The steps of the neuromuscular junction are supposed to
happen quickly and accurately while ensuring voluntary movement of the muscles. The reliability of
transmission is aided by specialized architecture (multiple active zones, junctional folds), which has
been all studied more closely throughout the last century (Hong and Etherington, 2011). According
to "Annual Review of Neuroscience," the NMJ forms in a series of steps that involve the exchange
of signals amid its three important cellular components–nerve terminal, muscle fiber, and Schwann
cell (Cowan, 1999). All three cells of the neuromuscular junction travel long distances to meet at the
synapse(Cowan,

Mitochondria Case Study
In relation to mitochondria, abnormality in appearance occurred during normal muscle weakness,
and no mitochondria fragments left in a neuron occurred a few weeks before paralysis (Kong and
Xu 1998). Abnormalities in mitochondria were prominent in motor neurons before muscle weakness
began, and the link between mitochondria degeneration and motor neuron death is the mutant SOD1
gene. These results showed that mitochondria deterioration is associated with the beginning of the
disease, and SOD1 toxicity is the feature that damages the mitochondria; this is also related to motor
neuron death in the fact that this triggers the deterioration of motor neuron cells (Kong and Xu
1998). In other words, damage to mitochondria is the center of motor neuron degeneration. This
study explained the physiological steps to muscle weakness in patients with ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
2005). This is significant because the location of the gene could have different effects on the
mitochondria and the neuron itself. The experiment used Western blotting as the main method of
completing the study, and used mice as subjects (in vitro and in vivo experiments). The findings
were that SOD1 localizes more in the brain mitochondria than in the liver, and the SOD1 are inside
and on the surface of the mitochondria in the spinal cord (Vijayvergiya et al. 2005). The results
suggest that damage to mitochondria may trigger the start of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and this
study could provide an insight to the specificity of neuron degeneration. With the fact that SOD1
was more in the brain and spinal cord than anywhere else, the central nervous system is affected and
the activities of the body are at risk. This analysis intended to discover where mutant SOD1
combines in the mitochondria of the brain and spinal cord, and how this might contribute to
selective neuron death (Vijayvergiya et al.

Essay about What Is Flaccid Dysarthria?
Flaccid dysarthria results from damage to the lower motor neurons (LMN) or the peripheral nervous
system (Hageman, 1997). The characteristics of flaccid dysarthria generally reflect damage to
cranial nerves with motor speech functions (e.g., cranial nerves IX, X, XI and XII) (Seikel, King &
Drumright, 2010). Lower motor neurons connect the central nervous system to the muscle fibers;
from the brainstem to the cranial nerves with motor function, or from the anterior horns of grey
matter to the spinal nerves (Murdoch, 1998). If there are lesions to spinal nerves and the cranial
nerves with motor speech functions, it is indicative of a lower motor neuron lesion and flaccid
dysarthria. Damage to lower motor neurons that supply the speech ... Show more content on
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Lower motor neuron damage can result in respiratory weakness, inability to coordinate respiration
for speech, and insufficient ventilation (Hageman, 1997). Poor breath support is a characteristic of
flaccid dysarthria that negatively impacts intelligibility. According to Brown et. al. (as cited in
Johansson, Nygren–Bonnier & Schalling, 2011), targeting respiratory support can improve
characteristics of flaccid dysarthria such as short phrases, loudness, phonatory disturbances,
impaired prosody and imprecise comments. Thus, respiratory treatment for flaccid dysarthria can be
implemented using glossopharyngeal breathing. Originally, glossopharyngeal breathing was
designed for post–polio patients to increase alveolar ventilation (Dail, 1951). Similar to post–polio
patients, glossopharyngeal breathing can be used to optimize the speech and voice of a person with
characteristics of flaccid dysarthria (Johansson, Nygren–Bonnier & Schalling, 2012).
Glossopharyngeal breathing can be used as an alternative method of respiration in which air is
insuffilated into the lungs (Johansson et. al., 2011). The maneuver is utilized as a strengthening
exercise to increase vital capacity (McKeever & Miller, 2002). Vital capacity is the amount of air
that can be exhaled following maximum inhalation. If vital capacity is increased, then expiration is
more relaxed, which allows for sufficient breath support for speech (2011). Individuals with
respiratory weakness have

An Integration Center Of The Reflex Arc
An integration center in the reflex arc is a neuropathway that creates a reflex action to activating
neurons to skip the spinal cord and protect your brain. The nerve cells can be categorized by their
connections, structure, and neurotransmitters. The structural classification is depending on shape
and size of the cell body, its dendritic tree, axon length, and the nature of the connections it makes.
The neurons with one, two, or more than two neurites, are unipolar, bipolar, and multipolar
respectively. Most of neurons in vertebrate nervous systems are multipolar, but there are significant
exceptions. For illustration, bipolar neurons in the retina synapse with sensory neurons, and
photoreceptors in the dorsal root ganglion are explained as pseudo–unipolar as they begin life as
bipolar cells but their two neurites fuse. The unipolar neurons dominate in invertebrates. Collaterals
a small side branch, as of a blood vessel or nerve. A neuronal pool is a group of interconnected
neurons with specific functions. A pool may be diffuse, involving neurons in several regions of the
brain, or localized, with neurons restricted to one specific location in the brain or spinal cord.
However, the proper function of the circuit of the stretch reflex also relies on convergence and
divergence. A single sensory has multiple branches that diverge and make synaptic connections with
many individual motor neurons. Therefore, when the muscle contracts as a result of the neurologist's
tapper, it

The Effect Of Riluzole On Treating Motor Neuron Disease...
6.10 Discussion
Neuroprotective activity of riluzole is already reported in the literature. At present, it is the only
available successful drug for treating motor neuron disease like ALS. But its poor aqueous
solubility, short half life with some side effects at higher concentration (as it is recommended twice
or thrice a day for long time) restricted its use as a neuroprotective agent (Borderias–Clau, 2006;
Cheah, 2010). In the present study, we have evaluated the neuroprotective activity of nanoriluzole
(NR) for treating one of the most severe brain diseases at a quite low dose using nanocarrier. MCAO
is one the best model for ischemic stroke as it mimic most of the feature of natural brain stroke
(Longa, 1989; Heurteaux, 2006; Vaibhav, 2013). Ischemia was induced in rats through MCAO
model for 1 hr followed by a reperfusion period of 24 hrs and NR was given intraperitonally after 1
hr of ischemia induction. Animals were evaluated for their behavior study and sacrificed to remove
the brain for analysing various related parameters like infarct, biochemical, histopathology and
immunohistochemical study.
It is very well demonstrated that MCAO results in the injury to striatum, cortex and hippocampus
region depending upon the time of occlusion of MCA and reperfusion period (Longa, 1989;
Nagasawa, 1989; Heurteaux, 2006). This can be clearly visualized using TTC staining. TTC which
is usually white in color is reduced by dehydogenases (especially succinate dehydrogenase) into

Motor Neuron Disease
Motor neuron disease This week I chose an article about motor neuron disease because this disease
is not a common disease. However, it can severely affect the well–being of our bodies. A motor
neuron disease is the deterioration of motor neurons. This disease can be occasional or hereditary; it
can affect two types of motors, the Upper motor neurons the Lower motor neurons located in our
brain. Moreover, the signs and the symptoms of a motor neuron disease depend on the kind of motor
neuron disease a person has. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis is one of the most contracted types of
neurons disease. Furthermore, there are three types of Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis including
Sporadic, Familial, and Western Pacific. Among these three types

Broca's Hemorrhage Analysis
The haemorrhage occurred in the frontal lobe of the brain; the area closest to and impacted by the
haemorrhage is the Broca's area. The Broca's area is considered the motor speech area, which
enables the body to coordinate muscles involved in speech production (Marieb, 2013). Damage to
the Broca's area may result in symptoms that impact the ability to communicate; damage to the area
doesn't affect the ability to decipher language, but presents difficulty for communicating, as it
impacts the ability to speak, type and use sign language (Marieb, 2013). The symptoms experienced
by damaging the Broca's area reflect the symptoms experienced by John; Judy described John as
having trouble communicating and forming fluent sentences after the fall. ... Show more content on
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The peripheral motor division and the central nervous system are involved in voluntary movement.
The motor division of the peripheral nervous system that allows us to move our body, the somatic
nervous system is the division of the motor division that enables voluntary movement. The somatic
nervous system conducts voluntary movements by distributing impulses to skeletal muscle from the
central nervous system, allowing the conscious control of skeletal muscle through somatic motor
pathways. The information required to control skeletal muscle is generated in the brain by the
primary motor cortex, but the specific origin is dependent on the location of the skeletal muscle, the
pathway used is efferent and involves two motor neurons; the upper motor neuron exits the brain
and is projected down the spinal cord in the descending white matter tract, then the cell body of the
lower motor neuron and the axon synapse. The lower motor neuron transmits the information to the
skeletal muscle from the spinal cord; the axon exits the ventral root and terminates at the effector.
The primary motor cortex contains the cell bodies of the upper motor neuron, while the motor nuclei
of the ventral grey horn contains the cell bodies of the lower motor neuron. Motor neuron disease is
a neuron degenerative

Central Nervous System Research Paper
The central nervous system (CNS) controls the majority of function in the body and mind. It built up
in two parts: the brain and the spinal cord. The brain is the centre of our thoughts, control our
external environment, and the basis of control over body movement. Its takes information from our
eyes by looking , ears by sound, nose by smell , tongue by tasting, and skin by touch the object also
its looks after our internal organs such as the stomach. A reflex is the simplest, and easy way for
activity in the nervous system. It is an automatic, involuntary, unthinking response to a stimulus.
The reflex arc are the neurons that form the path of the impulses of a reflex. Examples of reflex
actions are breathing, eye blinking also moving away ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
flame on that diagram. When we move our finger away from a flame we are taking out the reflex.
These are the steps of this reflex are below:
1. The finger is the receptor by touching out the flame. It contains sensory neurons.
2. Sensory neurons carry response quickly to the sensory nerves in the dorsal root.
3. An interneuron carries the impulse through the spinal cord to the motor neurons in the ventral
root. However, on the same time, another neuron takes the impulse to the brain to solve the problem.
4. The motor neurons take the impulse to the effector which is muscle and then the finger got
response to take the hand away from the flame. On the same time, the impulse reaches the brain and
we are alert of the pain.
The nervous system allows the animal to quickly detect, communicate information about its external
and internal environment. There are two major parts of our nervous system are the central nervous
system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).
The CNS is made of the brain and spinal cord.
The cranial nerves, spinal nerves and ganglia make up the PNS. The cranial nerves connect to the
brain. The cranial and spinal nerves contain the axons (fibres) of sensory and motor nerve

The Lateral Sclerosis ( Als ) Is A Neurodegenerative...
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a neurodegenerative disease that causes loss of motor
neurons and progressive weakness including loss of speech(Wijesekera & Leigh, 2009). Its onset
typically occurs in the sixth decade of life but rare instances can happen earlier. It can begin as
bulbar onset which affects the voice, breathing and speech patterns or limb onset which can begin in
the arms or legs (Wijesekera & Leigh, 2009). Roughly 90% of cases of ALS are sporadic and not
linked to familial history of the disease(Wijesekera & Leigh, 2009). Once ALS starts it almost
always progresses, eventually taking away the ability to walk, dress, write, speak, swallow, and
breathe and shortening the life span. There is no treatment or cure for ALS, however there are a few
drugs which have been able to slow the progression of the disease in some patients. As a result
affected individuals become "locked in" and unable to communicate. These patients can benefit
greatly from the use of a brain computer interface (BCI)(Birbaumer, 2006; Coyle, Ward, Markham,
& McDarby, 2004).
BCI can help individuals communicate without relying on muscular control, which is critical for
clinical populations of neuromuscular disease patients, such ALS (Wolpaw, 2002). The use of BCI
can enable communication and increase quality of life but to date the effects of mental fatigue have
been ignored. However, the current state of BCI technology and overall usability is not advanced
enough to replace more

Sensory Division Research Paper
Sensory Input, Integration, and Motor Output Sensory receptors detect when a hot spoon touches
your skin which is caused by the sensory input. Once the receptors feel the input the nervous system
decides what to do about it; this is integration. Motor output is what is done about the input, whether
you scream or jerk away from the hot spoon. So the response that you get from the integration is the
motor output when is acts upon the body.
Central Nervous System
The central nervous system is made of the brain and spinal cord, where the brain is the control
center for integration and motor output.
Peripheral Nervous System
The PNS is all the nerves that come off of the brain and spine, acting as the communicator for the
rest of the body. The PNS can work in both directions.
Sensory Division
The afferent division, picks up sensory stimuli; telling the brain that something is happening to your
body. When the hot spoon touches your arm, the sensory division sends a message through the PNS
to the brain saying that's what's happening.
Motor Division
Also known as the efferent division, sends directions from your brain to the muscles and glands. So
when the hot spoon touches you and your sensory division sends the message of what's happening,
the brain will send back a signal making you move your arm away or scream.
Somatic Nervous System ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Autonomic Nervous System
This is the involuntary nervous system, which keeps your heart beating and lungs breathing.
Sympathetic Division
The sympathetic division mobilizes the body into action, so when the your brain sends the signal for
you to move your arm away from the hot spoon it makes in move by the sympathetic division.
Parasympathetic Division
This division calms the body down when you have something happen to it, as you scream and move
your arm away after the hot spoon has touched you, you think at least my arm isn't on fire.
The Nervous

Effects Of Motor Neuron Disease
Motor Neuron Disease MND is a disease that has no medical cure yet but there are medications that
you can take to try and help the symptoms. Motor Neuron Disease doesn't damage the senses of
eyesight, hearing, taste and smell. When diagnosed with MND you only have around 1 to 5 years to
live. One of the side effects of MND is the movement of your limbs, which will be restricted and
eventually will cease, along with you and your voice. Then you will be confined to a motorised
wheelchair. MND will also affect the repertory system making you increasingly disabled and also
making you unable to walk, run, jog and drive. MND will also affect your emotions and actions
rapidly Motor Neuron Disease has affected many people from Neale Daniher, whose

Multiple Sclerosis Case Study
Pathophysiology
Multiple sclerosis is a disease where your immune system attacks the protective barrier around your
nerves, called myelin sheaths (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2014). Your immune system falsely recognizes
these sheaths as being intruders in the body causing it to attack them leading to nerve damage (this
is called an autoimmune disease). With this nerve damage, there is disruption of the signals being
sent from your brain and travelling to the rest of the body impairing movements, causing pain or
numbness and a variety of other symptoms. Over time, the actual nerves begin to lose function and
disintegrate (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2014).
Two other characteristics are involved in the disease process: inflammation and the formation of
lesions or plaques in the central nervous system – or CNS (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2014). Lesions are
formed when oligodendrocytes – myelin–building cells – are lost causing the myelin sheath to thin
or even completely breakdown leaving the nerve axon exposed and unable to send effective signals
to your muscles (Huether and McCance, 2008). The oligodendrocytes attempt to remyelinate the
axons but with multiple attacks, the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
What most clinicians say regarding "attacks" is that a patient may have them months or even years
apart (Medscape, 2014). A patient may complain of leg pain and several months later have visual
disturbances (Medscape, 2014). The most common symptoms seen in MS patients are as follows:
sensory loss, muscle cramping and spasms, bladder/bowel/sexual dysfunction, optic neuritis (loss of
vision, muscle movements impaired), tremor, trigeminal neuralgia (facial weakness, typically
bilateral), facial myokymia (twitching of facial muscles), eye symptoms, heat intolerance, fatigue,
dizziness, sleep disturbance, pain, cognitive impairments (concentration, memory, attention span
and judgment), depression, and seizures (Medscape,

Somatic Motor Neurons
The human body can relate to many items that are used everybody by many. One of those items can
be a vending machine. Yes, it is indeed true that a vending machine can in fact be related to the
human body, especially motor neurons. When one wants to buy a snack, and have the convenience
of a vending machine it acts in the way just as a motor neuron. A motor neuron is a type of neuron
that transfers impulses from the central nervous system (CNS) to either a muscle or gland. There are
three types of motor neurons, one of them being somatic motor neurons, special visceral motor
neurons, and general visceral motor neurons. In our case, we are dealing with somatic motor
neurons because the neuron not only begins from the central nervous system, ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
Billy loves skittles and has his mind set on them, the second he sees them. As soon as Billy finds out
which number is for skittles he presses the button, and before you know it, he is devouring them.
Motor neurons play into this very well. When little Billy presses the button to select the skittles he is
sending an impulse throughout the machine that not only the item being selected is skittles, but the
impulse goes all the way to the skittles section specifically. That impulse is sent all the way to the
prong or "muscle" that then pushes the candy all the way out so it falls down to the bottom of the
machine. The message the motor neuron is carrying is to get a pack of skittles to fall to the bottom
of the vending machine. This whole process starts with the dollar that soon sets the rest of the
process off.
In the end, many everyday objects can be used to describe somatic motor neurons, some may say a
kid picking up a baseball and throwing it, but none of them will get the overall concept like a
vending machine. A vending machine will clearly display not only how the motor neuron sends an
impulse, but also when the impulse's reaction reaches the muscle, or prong. As well as being a great
example, you can get even better

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