This document discusses the relationship between Greeks and the Neo-Assyrian empire in the 7th-8th centuries BC based on Greek and Assyrian records. It notes that terms like "Syria" and "Assyria" were ill-defined in early Greek writings. While early scholars believed Greeks had little contact with Assyria, later studies found evidence of trade between Greece and Assyrian-controlled territories in the Levant dating back to the Late Bronze Age. Archaeological evidence like Greek pottery in Syria suggests this trade continued in the 1st millennium BC and that some Greeks served as mercenaries in the Neo-Assyrian army in the 7th century. However, the extent

1. Presented to : Sir Abdul Rashid Khan Dasti
Presented by : Malik Muhammad ALI
BSENL-17-25
Topic: “GREEKS” IN THE NEO-ASSYRIAN
LEVANT AND “ASSYRIA” IN EARLY GREEK
WRITERS
BZ University Multan

2.  Mid seventh century B.C
 SYRIA AND ASSYRIA (Parts of Asia Minor and
Mesopotamia)
 Ill defined geographical destinations
 Late fifth century Herodotos.
 Empire that extinct two centuries ago
 Ktesias “Persika” a romantic narrative folktale.
 In later name of Assyria used with Persians,
Jews, Parthians, Phoenicians, Cappadocians,
and Babylonians.

3.  Two questions. When and Where , How Early
Prose Writers.
 Agean relations in Bronze age and in Ist
Millennium BC
 Used these words from Near East.
 Noldekee 1871 Greeks relation with neo
Assyrians empire during seventh and eighth
century(south coast of Exine).
 Hese areas wasn’t under neo assyrinas
empire

4.  Noldeke’s Inadequacy of information.
 Greek and Cuniform record.
 1889 Hugo Winckler (Yamani of Ashdod)
 A. T. E Olmstead also thinks so. (GREEK
SOILDER FROM CYPRUS)
 Freidrick Delitzsch (depredation of Ionian
Empirein the Levant)
 Beloch (Cuniform record) and also Bessoryian
account of battle in CILICIA (Sennacherib)
 L.W.KING (INADEQUACY OF INFORMATION)

5.  Edward Schwatrz (importance of Assyrians
goods).
 Leonard Wolley 1936-37 (AL Mina).
 Greek settlement of Levanite coast.
 Sidney Smith “Greek trade at Al Mina” he
linked north syrians coast to the domination
of urartua of west.
 Al Mina was easily defensible.
 Early Greek Pottery.
 Bing, Greeks and Urartians were allies.(8th
Century)

6.  Fulfillment of need by J.N Colstream and
A.J.Graham
 Re-examination of neo-assyrians record.
(incorrect record of early writers).
 The first work was done by reviewing
different minor poems and little works.
 Hesiod and Hesiodic school. Greek epigraphic
 Connection between “IONIA” and Old
Testamjents of Yawan, Assyrian Yaman and
old Persian Yauna. (historical texts)

7.  Greek pottery is of critical importance
 Assur and Greeks relations
 SIXTH AND FIFTH Century Herodotos Studies
(SYRIA AND ASSYRIA)
 Ronnel 1800. (the geographical system of
Herodotos) AND lead eighth century criticism.
 Breiger and Frommichen(Aaiae Herodoteae
difficiliora geographico more explicanda)
1824 but work was ignored.
 Neubhur and Bobrik.. Decade and a half.
 Wheeler (the georaphy of herodotos) 1854.

8.  Kiepret’s essay 1857 ( description of royal road)
 George Rawlinson(history of herodotos) 1861
 Noldeke works.Journey from Assyria to Syria.
 Eduard Schwartz 1931-32
 Matzat research paper.
 A. H. Sayce ( notes and apprndencies( about
(Royal Road and Assyria)
 E. H. Bunbury ( History of Ancient Geography)
 Macan’s and Stein’s.
 Macan’s (the royal road from susa to sardis)

9.  Felix Jacoby (Realencyclopadie) in 1913
 Leukosyria and Assyria relation in Greek
history. “Lukki”
 Mayer’s “Halys Assyria”
 Eduard Schwartz’s study “Achaemenid”
(Inadequacy of information and unanswerable
questions)
 Oscar Leuze work in 1935 (Akkadiyan texts
and different available material)
 Ernest Hetrzfeld’s( proved royal road with
little justification)

10.  Von Fritz’s work. (two dimensions map
making but problems remained same)
 He asserts about incompetency of
information, by the herodotos predecessors.
 Ill defined geographical terms.
 Herodotos information from Persian sources.
 The literary terms can be defined more
proper way but they couldn’t .
 Logographer's literary terms remained more
useful. But these things need more
explanation.

11.  Assur  UR Assur>>god and Kur Assur KI
>>Assuraju. City(one hundred kilometer
south of mosul)
 2350-2200 b.c Akkadiyan distinguish A-Sir
or A-Sur from Gasur
 Babylonian and nineveh “Ninos”
 Two points.
 Fist samsi-Adad (1813-1781)
 2nd Nineveh had no political and agricultural
association with Assur

12.  Larsen Statement (not distiction between god
and land)
 Eratoothenes Statement.
 Schwartz Statement(Greek Assryian,
Hebrew, and Phoneician)  Asur rather than
athur (Old PERSAIN OR Aramic)
 Athur late Sixth century bur in fifth century it
change s becoming a th and swr becoming
twr
 Lillian Jeffery( introduction of Sh sign)
become Akshur or Achshur

13.  Herodotos (white syrians)
 Assyria and Assyrians refers to syrians and
Syria with the passage of time
 1861 Rawlinson  discovered Assyria. (
Syria from Sur).
 Hezerfield question
 Sur (a coastal trading city) Assur (an Island
Military Power).
 Aeschylus (military was hired and persian
military heirs were involved in this
recruitment)

14.  Anachrostinistic confusion between Syria and
Assyria.

15.  Noldeke and Schwartz view / work is of great
importance.
 Asi-wi-ja , Sur-ri-jo , A-sa-ro.
 In bronze age Greeks were familiar with near
east counterparts and have great rlation with
Mesopotamian empire.
 End of Ur III empire in III millennium BC.
Commercial contacts between Crete, Cyprus,
and Levant continues until 1900.
 Greek pottery Crete Syria.
 2nd Millennium BC (Early Greek Merchants 
Anatolian Empire).

16.  Assyrian network  (Karm Zalpa  in
northern part somewhere in Euphrates  in
Anatolia in west as Tuz Galo  and in north
as wabartum near Halys River).
 A way near Meditterian sea coast.
 No evidence of trade between Meditterian and
Assur.
 No greek familiarity with southern coast of
Black Sea.
 Mid 19th and late 18th major expansion of
trade.

17.  Old Babylonian cylinder seals ( Copper and tin
was imported)
 A Mari letter ( king of Hazor to Crete).
 Assur first powerful tertiary  the Reign of
Samsi-Adad I when Assyria and Anatolia
trade system revival).
 Yasmah-Addu king ( Euphrates route to west
to Mari and control Meditterian Coast).
 Mari imports were Cyprus COPPER, TEXTILES,
AND POTTERY, OLIVE OIL from Afghanistan to
Crete by Lapis Lazuli route.

18.  Yamhad, Allepo, Ugarit, Qatna, but familiar
with the name Assur.
 Agean and north east evidence available.
 Pottery were trade between 1380-
1200.(Mycenaean pottery at sixty sites).
 Ras Shamra Port.
 Syria and Mesopotamia (wine and grains)
 Late bronze age Greeks intercourse with near
east.
 Assyria and Greek encounters.

19.  Mycenaean goods near Damascus.
 By routes not direct route trade.
 Also military influence disturbed the trade
route.

20.  Men of Lud. (refers to he African people).
 Last quarter of SEVENTH Century (ASSYRIA
expulsion from west)
 Greek vessels, cooking vessels, utensils were
the proof of Greek settlement in Levant.
 Odysseus reference confirmed the early Greek
mercenaries in the Delta.
 Ashurnasirpal II (884-859) admitted foreign
army solders.
 Andrae’s identification.

21.  Eighth and seventh century metal work which
depict Greek and Oriental warriors together in
scenes of combat.
 Army standing position.
 Phoenician and Cypriot artists did not share
such attitude toward figural art.
 Juxtaposition of figures in scenes is
unrelated.
 The solders description (their style and way
of dressing and the parts of their dress)

22.  This was not confirm that metal were traded
but arms and armor were traded in between
600 B.C and it was also the part of the trade.
 Conical helmet.
 3rd millennium B.C used by Assyrian Solders
in the reign of Tukulti-Nninurta II (890-884).
 GREEK helmets have ear-flaps  Urartu 
Urartian figures portrayed on the Balwat
gates.
 Neck guard in 1st millennium B.C
 3 TYPES OF HELMETS is under consideration.

23.  High forward curving crest in late Geometric
vases after 700 B.C (LEATHER CAP OR METAL
CHELMET).
 Snodgrass assumption. (Tiglath-pileser III)
 HORSEHAIR AND LEATHER CRESTS ARE
Assyrian invention.
 Anatolia  Greece  Assyria.
 Fore-aft stilled crests is the proof of greek
trade or familiarity with near east.
 Greek shields are not so clear,

24.  Single grip shield.
 Several types of bronze faced single grip
round s
 shield to Greece in eighth century.
 9th century Balwat gates , records its use by
Urartian Soldiers.
 Minor influence from the orient.
 Snodgrass study is of great importance.
 Greek solders appears in 7th century because
of trade between Greek and Syria-Palestine.

25.  Greek mercenaries in the Levant is puzzling.
 Mid 7th century explained by Austin as a
response of over population due to
colonization movement.
 Why do Greeks mercenaries appear in Syria
and Palestine so late, and in so few
numbers..??
 Assyria control entire east Mediterranean
coast-line from Cilicia to Gaza.
 Increasing numbers of non-assyrian solders
into military.

26.  Breaking of Assyrian hold on the west, when
Egypt and Babylon began to wrangled over
Assyria’s state , and tiny principalities such as
Judah connived at survival.
 It is evidence that Greek mercenaries prompts a
few final observations on the origins of Greek
mercenary service in the Archiac age.
 Three preconditions of Greek mercenary are (1st
there had been an adequate pool of avaiable
men, 2nd someone had to pioneer the idea of
offering military service in this period, 3rd there
had to be fairly regular employment
opportunities).

27.  The answer of first reason is the social,
economical and political adventures of the state
 The answer of 2nd is there is the idea that the
boundaries of the state should be covered.
 The answer of 3rd is that we surely look to king
Mermnad of Lydia who, from the accession of
Gyges until the death of Croesus, combined
mintable mineral wealth, territorial ambitions in
western Anatolia, and an inclination towards
foreign involvement , with a taste of “dollar
diplomacy”

28.  This work is based on 4 things (map of the
world, the satrapy list, the exact description
of the royal road, the roster of “Xerxes” forces
at Doriskos)
 However this is not confirmed about work of
Herodotus' either he collect information from
the record or list available in the past5 or
they are of independent origin.
 In Satrapy list 67 ethnic names and two from
roster but none were mentioned before in the
passage.

29.  Many names were present in the satrapy list
which shows that Herodotus doesn’t collect
information from independent source but the
description of royal road somewhere from Tigris
later passages show that there are located in
Anatolia between Halys river and Euxine.
 This problem is considered a great problem but
later its solution was got.
 He observed that Darius has 20 provinces. And
each has its own away of government bur Persia
was exempted from the satrapy list from those
provinces whose were tax payers.

30.  Armayor chief objections were (many of
Herodotus same provinces were subjected as
separate provinces on monuments, he doesn’t
catalogue such nations registered on
monuments, the orientation of satrapy list start
from Ionia and greater Ionia named as Lydia
which is used to recite the nations of Meditterian
and black sea is Greek not Persia).
 first 2 objections are arose from
misunderstandings between Alchaemid
inscription.

31.  W ere that the case one might expect an
uninterrupted west -to - east sequence . Instead
, the satrapy list enumerates the provinces of
Anatolia, Cilicia , the levant and Egypt(
satrapies1-6) then shifts to the far east(
satrapy7 ) , back to the central axis of the empire
( Kissia, Mesopotamia , and Media , asatrapies 8
- 10 ) , to Centra l Asia (satrapies11-17) ,then
west wards again to the peoples between Media
and the south eastern shore of the Euxine (
satrapies 18-19) , and finally back to India
(satrapy20) . This is not a " Greek " order , but a
lack of order, which is why the11 various
attempts to make sense of it have failed .

32. Mythographic tags, ethnographic
annotations, migration tales, and
genealogical etiologies which embluish the
thoughts of can sarcasely has come from
official persian list.
The detailed description shows hat it is not
the supposed work , it is eyewitnessed work.
But some objections were on this work (no of
troops and no proper information)

33.  C orps1-5 come from Iran and Mesopotamia ;
corps 6-16 include units drawn from the Far
East up to an including India . Corps 17-18
include those peoples from Western Asia and
Africa who did not contribute to the fleet.
Corps 19-28 come from Anatolia and the
lands between the Caspian , the Euxine , and
the Caucasus . The twenty - ninth corps was
comprised of political dissidents exiled to the
islands in the Persian Gulf .

34.  In map of Asia he also admit that he
corrected the mistakes of early writers and
the relation between Europe and Asia. But it is
also full of criticism.
 The description of royal road was full of
absurdities some scholars suggested that
that it is Herodotus' own thoughts /
Aristagorous thoughts, but by his work he
suggested that the royal road is situated
along Tigris between Arminia and Kissia.

35.  Distinguish SYRIA from Assyria ( Syrian the
inhabitants of the coastal areas Capadocain
Syrians).
 Herodotus work was basically full of paper
knowledge. He basically described Assyria
alongside canal irrigated land because of
shortage of rain fall but it is only true for
southern Mesopotamia not for whole region.
 Who were the 3 ethnea of the levant of
western Asia?

36.  Leuze assumption (east of Euphrates 
Assyria and part of Mesopotamia  Syria).
 3 questions are of great importance.( what
were the Syrian by Greeks?, who were
Assyrians according to Barbarians? and how
Herodotus adopt this term as himself?.
 Inhabitants of Mesopotamia and Babylonia
whom he says Barbarians as Assyrians.
 No use of Assur by neo-Babylonian in
Assyrian empire.

37.  Athura  territory east of Euphrates refers to
Arrian description of battle in which people
from Syria and many other from many Syrians
territory were brigaded between the valley
which is situated between the rivers.
 Assyrians letters to Torah in the time of Ezra.
 The script was basically Aramic but it was
used by the Assyrian empire later.
 And this way was also adopted by Greeks
writers in 5th century.

38.  But the Herodotus use of name Assyria is still
un explained.
 Many researches are made but it is still fully
unexplained.
 Herodotus defined the west of Mesopotamia
as Syria not as Assyria.
 Herodotus these terminologies are assumed
to be the most idiosyncratic one.

39.  Noldeke suggested that after the end of
Nineveh the Greeks use the short form Syria
instead of full name3 and it is usually being
used for the parts of Asia and full name
Assyria is used for Assyrian people.
 And the Greek writers considered Babylon
part of Assyria because of neo-babylonian
Empire.
 Sayce is of the view that herodotus was
himself under confusion about hias work.

40.  Toynbee concluded that Herodotos called
Achaemenid Babylon " Assyria " for some private
reason of his own ." This reason , Toynbee
believed, was essentiallyan ethnographic one.
 In the fore going analysis of two observations
have been drawn :first ,Herodotos ' " Assyrian "
contingent consisted of troops from northern
Mesopotamia , Babylonia ,and (presumably)
Babylon and second, this use of the name "
Assyria " corresponds most closely to the "
Barbarian " usage attested in the Old Testament
sources, a usage which he must have
encountered during his travels in Syria-Palestine.

41.  People know Egypt through Thebes an only
and they were familiar with its name only and
unfamiliar with the name of Nile.
 They were familiar with thje name of Phonecia
and Sodania.
 Arimoi assumption have traditionally and
geographically some reservations because he
attached them with of Syria and Palestine.
 Basically this assumptions came to know in
12th Century.

42.  Homer familiarity with the name came in later
period.
 Due political and social activities by the name
of Areameans or “Aram” the Aramean
language and script came into being through
this period.
 Homer’s references to Arameans accounts
nothing more than the Greeks familiarity with
the people of Syria-Palestine in the era of
epic composition.

43.  But due to lack of evidences Homer’s
information seems to have neither necessary
nor appropriate.
 Tadmor has inferred the name ‘Arab’
Contingents near the sea coast and they have
both social, economical, and political alliance
in the period with Shalmanener’s reign.
 The association of Embroi withy Arabs is
accepted by mostly scholars. ( Ar-Ba-Ya)
which later changed into (Arbya, Aribi and
Arabu and the Arab)

44. The first being wether or not Phonecians
constituteed an anachorism in Homer’s Lte
Bronze Age. The conclusion that Homer’s
refrence to Phonecians reflects Iron Age and noe
its accepted by many scholarsand that emerged
the second problem-the date of Phonecians
Expansion in Homer’s work is possibally the
passage of alludes to Phonecians. These question
is of our chief concerns a) determining the place
of phonecai and phonecains in the history o9f
Homer’s in the near east. B) considering the likely
time parameters of Homer’s refrences
c)Expalining Hommer’s SAYRIA WITH SUCH A
BLUR AND DISTRACTED PICTURE.

45.  Phonecia and Sodania are not the same things
or not synonyms of each other.
 It is the only state name by which he was well
known of and he described his namwe in his
work and this name derived from the word
(Sdn) which have several political , social
background .
 But later , the scholars also doubted that
stance.
 And Phonecia is a pure Greek word whose
people are inhabitants of the Levant coast.

46.  The story of the origin of the name is obscure
but one thing we can say that these names
were use from the late Bronze age.
 The industry of Tyre and Dye is established in
this era in the Levant of Meditterian coast.
 The industry of Gold , silver and purple color
dye is established in Arab and the way from
coast of Elishah (Cyprus).
 Evidence of some kinds of taxes are also
came in view in west by Assyrian king.

47.  The word Syria and Assyria are the same
toponyms of a word Assur which is use by
Akadian people.
 The word Assyria came first from the the
lyric poetry of Kallinos in late fifth century.
And then it began to be used as a letter in
Aramaic script but these two term Syria and
Assyria was at first distinguish by Herodotus.
 People used this word in 7th and 8th century
during Bronze age contacts.

48.  9th century the publication the greks were
suggested at AL Mina.
 In neo-assyrian period the period of Homer’s
and Hesiod does not faith in long distance
route trade.
 The iron age evidence of Greek architectural
burials in the Levant means in late 9th century
Greeks began to trade and travel through the
Levant coast

49.  A new force of army was made to defend the
coast of Assyria
 This could be the strategy of Assyria when
western part got separated from them.
 Syria and Palestine came from Assyrian
Collapse.
 Alchemic empire was established and but
Hekadious doesn’t provide complete
evidences that their Greek knowledge about
the Levant was accurate and precise.

50.  A misconception about Assyria and bablons
was occurred.
 There was complete description of Royal road
where the trades happens.
 The royal road from Susa to Sardis.
 Rawlinson observed that it is only a book
knowledge not a practical knowledge.
 Maletine was basically Northern Anatolia
which he fixed in Armenia and Kissisa as
Media.