Ajeds volume 9 no 1 june 2012

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AFRICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION
AND DEVELOPMENTAL STUDIES
(AJEDS)
(Domiciled in the Faculty of Education University of Port Harcourt)
AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR
MULTI-DISCIPLINARY STUDIES
June, 2012
EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
PROF. B.S. OKEKE
FACULTY OF EDUCATION,
UNIVERSITY OF PORT HARCOURT, NIGERIA

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AFRICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION
AND
DEVELOPMENTAL STUDIES (AJEDS)
VOL. 9, NO.1 June, 2012
ISSN: 07945-760

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AFRICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION AND
DEVELOPMENTAL STUDIES (AJEDS)
EDITORIAL BOARD
• Professor B.S. Okeke - Editor-in-Chief
University of Port Harcourt
• Dr. Nath. M. Abraham - Editor
University of Port Harcourt
• Professor (Mrs.) Maureen N. Koko - Associate Editor
Rivers State University of Science
and Technology, Nkpolu, Port Harcourt
• Professor Musa O. Anavberokhai
Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma - Associate Editor
• Dr. David Aboho
Benue State University, Makurdi - Associate Editor
• Prof. (Mrs.) Grace K. Etuk
University of Uyo - Associate Editor
• Dr. (Mrs.) Jessica Ezekiel-Hart
Rivers State College of Education,
Port Harcourt. - Associate Editor

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CONSULTING EDITORS
Professor S.P.T. Gbamanja - University of Sierra Leone,
Freetown, Sierra Leone.
Professor (Mrs.) C.C. Nwagwu - Institute of Education, University
of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria.
Professor Kayode Ajayi - Olabisi Onabanjo University,
Ago-Iwoye, Ogun State, Nigeria.
Professor. Martin Fabunmi - Department of Educational
Management, Faculty of Education,
University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.
Professor Wey Amaewhule - Rivers State University of Science
And Technology, Nkpolu,
Port Harcourt, Nigeria.
William Mhuri Masocha - Applied Scholastic, Zimbabwe.
Professor Abimbola Olakanmi - University of Ilorin, Ilorin,
Nigeria.
Dr.(Mrs.) Patricia B. - English Section, Department of
Mireku-Gyimah Mining Engineering
University of Mines and
Technology (UMAT), Tarkwa,
Ghana.
Dr. Bernard Moswela - Faculty of Education, University
of Botswana.
African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies . Vol 9., No 1, June, 2012

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EDITORIAL/NOTES FOR CONTRIBUTORS
African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies (AJEDS) is
making steady progress in its avowed responsibility of publishing and
disseminating scholarly research reports. This is Volume 9, Number 1 of
the journal, and it contains 9 articles.
Being a multi-disciplinary outlet, the journal invites scholarly articles on
current issues of educational concern and those from other disciplines.
• The article should not be more than 15 A-4 pages, references and
appendices inclusive.
• Each article must be typed with double line spacing on one side of
paper only, using font 12.
• Article must have an abstract of not more than 200 words.
• Three (3) copies of article should be submitted for peer review with
non-refundable assessment fee as shall be decided by the Board.
• Citations and references must conform to current American
Psychological Association (APA) style.
• Each submission should be accompanied with one (1) self addressed
and stamped large (bag) envelope as well as an official self
addressed/stamped envelope for return of assessed paper(s), and
acceptance letter respectively.
• Cover page of each article should have name(s) of author(s), title of
article, institutional affiliation, e-mail address as well as telephone
numbers of contributors.
All correspondence should be directed to:
Dr. Nath. M. Abraham – Editor
African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies (AJEDS),
Faculty of Education,
University of Port Harcourt,
Port Harcourt, Nigeria

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LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
Nwaigwe,Bright Imo State University, Aba Sandwich Study Centre.
Gbenegbara Amos. Department of Human Kinetics & Health Education,
University of Port Harcourt.
Ifeanyichukwu Elendu Department of Human Kinetics & Health Education,
Akande, Joshua. Department of Continuing Education, Faculty of
Education, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife,
Nigeria.
Simeon, Fayomi Department of Continuing Education, Faculty of
Nigeria.
Babalola, C.A. Department of Continuing Education, Faculty of
Nigeria.
Nzokurum, Joy Department of Educational Management, Faculty of
Education, University of Port Harcourt.
Nwankwo, Beatrice Ngozi Department of Curriculum Studies & Educational
Technology, Faculty of Education, University of Port
Harcourt. Rivers State.
Abdulkareem, A.Y. Department of Educational Management, University of
Illorin. Nigeria.
Ogundele, M.O. National Teachers Institute Federal Polytechnic Offa,
Kwara State, Nigeria.
Etejere, P.A.O Department of Educational Management, University of
Illorin, Nigeria.
African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies . Vol.9., No 1, June, 2012

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Ubong Samuel Department of Human Kinetics & Health Education,
University of Port Harcourt, Rivers.
Josephine Ebere Department of Educational Foundations and
Management, Ignatus Ajuru University of Education,
Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria.
Bright Okanezi Department of Educational Foundations, University of

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Editorial Board iii
Consulting Editors iv
Editorial/Notes for Contributors v
List of Contributors vi
Table of Contents viii
Students’ perception of their teachers and the academic achievement
orientation of secondary school students in Abia State, Nigeria
Nwaigwe,Bright A. Ph.D. 1
Socio-psychological strategies for motivation of athletes for optimal sports
performance
Gbenegbara, Amos D. & Ifeanyichukwu, Elendu C. 8
Community Education and the learning needs of women in rural areas in
Nigeria
Akande, Joshua O.Ph.D., Simeon Fayomi Ph.D. & Babalola C.A. 16
University education and human resources development: Implications for
national development
Nzokurum, Joy Ph.D., Awah, Okorie & Inengim, Sunday 22
Attitude of primary school teachers towards the use of Creative Teaching
Methods (CTM) in the teaching of Social Studies in Port Harcourt City Local
Government Area of Rivers State
Nwankwo, Beatrice Ngozi 29
Teachers’ job satisfaction and quality assurance of private secondary schools
in kwara state.
Abdulkareem, A.Y. Ph.D. , Ogundele, M.O. Ph.D. & Etejere, P.A. Ph.D. 36
Role of physical and health education in the actualization of millennium
development goals in nigeria: challenges and way forward
Ifeanyichukwu C. Elendu Ph.D. & Ubong Samuel 42
Reforms in the universal basic education programme in Nigeria: the challenges ahead
Josephine Ebere & Bright Okanezi 50
African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies . Vol.9, No 1, June, 2012

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The National open University system of Nigeria: Problems & Prospects
Josephine Ebere & Bright Okanezi 60

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STUDENTS’ PERCEPTION OF THEIR TEACHERS AND THE
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT ORIENTATION OF
SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN ABIA STATE,
NIGERIA
NWAIGWE, BRIGHT AZUKA (Ph.D)
IMO STATE UNIVERSITY
ABA SANDWICH STUDY CENTER
Tel: 08034954622 Email: brisons08@yahoo.com
Abstract
This study examines the students’ perception of their teachers and the academic achievement orientation. Data
was collected by the use of “Students Survey Questionnaire (SSQ)”which was administered to 1000 students in
Abia State. The data were analyzed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) which determined the
existence of the influence, while Fisher’s Least Significant Difference (LSD) multiple comparison analysis
determined the direction of the influence. The result revealed that students with high levels of perception of their
teachers gained more in academic achievement orientation than those with moderate and low levels. The study
concludes that students with high level of perception are superior in academic achievement orientation than
those with either low or moderate levels. Therefore, the study recommends among others that teachers should be
proud to exhibit positive perception of their profession since such portrays them as worthy people in the society
to be emulated.
Keywords: Students’ perception; Teachers; Academic achievement orientation; Secondary school students;
Abia State.
Background to the Study
The concept ‘achievement orientation’ is referred to as a learned behaviour pattern of an individual directs
towards success. It also means a desire for success in order to improve oneself and / or to create a healthy life. It
implies that with this learned life tendency, one could be stimulated to meet a standard of excellence and
develop interest to pursue future activities (Duda, 2003; Ames, 1993).
Many secondary school students in Nigeria especially in Abia State have not been able to develop or learn this
proper achievement drive and as such are not adequately equipped to carry out their academic activities with
ease. For example, they lack the determination to accomplish difficult task, organize objects orderly, taking
initiative and doing more than asked and pursuing issues until results are achieved as well as looking for
activities to fix themselves with. This is a very serious matter. Rather than doing what they are expected, they
prefer to feel smart and intelligent in the face of difficult situations. Instead of viewing the situations as
opportunity to improve understanding, they shun and avoid such activities. Furthermore, they have difficult
sticking tasks and often do not finish task if they are eventually exposed to it.
Dweek and Sorich (1999) observed that students with above observed traits believe that activities are tougher
than they really are, a belief and notion that foster anxiety, stress, depression, inferiority complex, helplessness
and a narrow vision of how to solve a problem. Consequently, such mental and psychological thoughts
powerfully influence the level of interest and accomplishment that one ultimately achieved since learning has
been affected. Indeed, such students are not moved to compete for improvement but they are concerned with
gaining greater achievements without studying hard. This attitude explains why some students have been lured
into examination malpractices and other sorts of cheating. Question is why such disparity in achievement
orientation among students of the same age, mental level and family background?
African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies. Vol. 9., No. 1, June, 2012

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Schultz (1981) revealed that differences in achievement orientation can be detected in children as early as
5years of age and that the differences depended on the attitude of parents toward their children of different birth
positions. For example, parents who set high standard and train their children for responsibility, independence
and initiative, produce children with high achievement orientations. Again, authoritative parents have or
produce children with high achievement orientation unlike their counterparts who are less authoritarian. Moreso,
pleasant, joking and anxiety relieving parents usually have high achievement orientation children unlike their
counterparts who are low in these virtues. Furthermore, people can be taught to aspire and desire high towards
achievement. The teaching begins at home and later extends to school. Perception of parents towards their
children can determine the extent to which children desire to pursue and achieve goals. But if a child perceives
himself as being humiliated, strictly controlled by the parents, he would see himself as being unwanted and such
situation leads to the development of inferiority feelings and helplessness tendency. He may be “amotivated” i.e.
one who lacks impetus to perform. The most disturbing issue in the minds of people is that even when the above
observations have been adequately controlled, majority of our students would still lack proper and positive
academic achievement orientation. However, this observation requires empirical investigation, hence the present
study.
Perception and achievement orientation
The “perception concept” means the unique private views children have of parents, teachers, events or stimuli in
the environment external to them (Isangedighi, 2007). Perception mainly reveals internalized or purposive
interpretation and evaluation of what is. For example, in our homes, schools and other public places, children
can perceive significant people around them differentially. Comb (1974) has observed that the individual
interpretation of people, situation at any moment is a function of the individual’s experience at that point in
time. It means that the individual personal past experiences are
largely utilized in the interpretations of events and understanding of other people. It is the way we perceive
others that determines the role we expect of them and our disposition to relate to them.
Purkey (1970) pointed out that perceptual development is a process of experience, which is remarkably plastic,
changeable and possess infinite capacity for growth and actualization. As a general rule, any behaviour of
significant people be it the parents, friends, teachers, etc which a child has internalized that would cause the
young school child to think ill of himself, to feel inadequate, incapable, unworthy, unwanted, unloved, unable is
crippling to the child’s self and desire repertoire.
Infact, in the school for example, teachers constitute the major group of people with whom a child interacts.
Teachers play a key role in character moulding and socialization of students. He is the agent who impacts
knowledge and modifies unwanted and anti-social behaviours of children. He in most cases makes decisions for
his students and plays crucial roles in their adjustments so as to enhance motivation and productive work.
Therefore, if teacher-students’ relationship and interaction is cordial, then the view the child holds of them and
the school environment in general may be positive.
Asagwara cited in Agbakwuru (2000) observed that teachers who are happy that the academic knowledge and
experience they have acquired is vital to their lives and show such in their relationship with their students
produce students who are highly motivated to achieve the same academic excellence. The reverse becomes the
case with teachers who feel that they have made serious mistake of their lives by accepting teaching as a
profession. The psychological underpin of the observed situation is that students are motivated by what
motivates their teachers. Students always try to copy in and internalize a great deal of their teachers’
orientations, values, aspirations and expectancies. The emotional attachments students developed as a results of
their interactions with their teachers make them want to become like their teachers or otherwise.
Empirical studies have shown relationships between children perception of others, learning environments and
changes in their achievement aspirations and orientations. Coast (1992) conducted a study on secondary school
environments which attempted to compare different types of learning environmental variables–facilities, daily
tasks, teachers competence, teachers–students’ relationship, classroom control and achievement orientation of
Students Perception of Their Teachers & The Academic Achievement Orientation of Secondary School students in Abia State

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students. A stepwise multiple regression analysis was employed to determine inter-correlation of the various
independent variables and the components of achievement orientations – academic, social and religion. Results
showed that students’ perception of their teachers’ competence, teachers – students’ relationship were found to
have related highly with academic and social achievement orientations than the facilities, daily tasks and
classroom control.
In a similar study, Ames (1978) carried out a study on the relationship between athletes’ perception of their
instructors, rating efforts and sports achievement orientation. The findings showed that athletes’ perception of
their instructors related favourably to task sports achievement orientation. However, there was non-significant
relationship between rating efforts and tasks sports orientation.
Keeve (1972) in his own study on the relationship between parenting styles, perceived teachers abilities,
perceived teachers love of their job, disciplinary manners, perceived competence level of teachers and students
desire for success. The students questioned ranged in age 9 – 16 years and were selected from public and private
schools in Deleware urban and suburban regions. Results showed that students perceived teachers’ abilities and
perceived teachers love of their job had high significant relationship with students’ desire for success. To
determine which of the two variables predicts the students’ achievement orientation more, the multiple
regression analysis using enter option was applied. The result showed that student academic achievement
orientation was mostly predicted by the students’ positive perception of their teachers’ love of their job. The
results revealed that students’ performance and grades were also influenced by student perception of teacher
control, parenting style and self-regulations.
Statement of the problem
Producing quality teachers and giving them opportunity to teach in our institutions especially in the primary and
secondary schools is a big asset to the students and the nation in general. It helps in both human and national
development.
Unfortunately, quality teachers otherwise called “born teachers” most time are not easily found in our schools
nowadays. The reason for this is that such people would not tolerate the kind of condition and treatment giving
to teachers. For example, their salaries are not easily paid as and at when due, poor deplorable condition of
schools, lack of moral and material incentives, to mention only but a few. Those who manage to be there and
remain are there because there is no alternative. Whenever they cannot influence or adjust to the situations they
become disillusioned, disappointed and start to dislike the profession.
Infact, students as good observers of events notice negative behaviours of their teachers towards their job. The
agonies of their teachers begin to filter down to the self-structure of the children. In this situation teaching –
learning is adversely affected. Motivation becomes poor and students desire to engage in, pursue success and
excellence vigorously becomes weak (Philips, 1984; Harter, 1981). Based on the above observation, there is
need to conduct this study aimed at determining how students’ perception of their teachers influence their
academic achievement orientation.
Objectives of the Study
The specific objectives of the study were to:
i. Determine the differences in the academic achievement orientation of students with different levels
of perception of their teachers.
ii. Find out the direction of the influence of the perception with regards to the academic achievement
orientation.
Research questions
The following research questions were posed to guide the study:
1. Does students’ perception of their teachers, influence their academic achievement orientation?
2. Is there any direction of influence within the three levels of students’ perception of the teachers?

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Hypotheses
These hypotheses were statistically tested:
1. Students with low, moderate and high levels of perception of their teachers do not differ
significantly with regards to their academic achievement orientation.
2. There is no significant direction in the academic achievement orientation among the three levels of
perception.
Methodology
Ex-post facto research design has been accepted as the best design to evaluate the influence of students’
perception of their teachers on their academic achievement orientation. The design permits the examination of
the pre-existing classification of the levels of students’ perception of their teachers in retrospect for its possible
influence on the academic achievement orientation.
In order to investigate into and determine the degree of influence of students’ perception of the teachers on
academic achievement orientation of students quantitative method was adopted. The sample of the study was
1000 students of secondary schools two (SS2) from 50 secondary schools in Aba Education Zone of Abia State.
The sample was drawn by using stratified sampling technique through which male, female, urban and rural
students were selected. Thus, the schools were further divided into uni-sex and co-educational schools. From
each selected school, 20 students were selected randomly and thus the researcher had (10 males, 10 females) by
50 and the total sample was 1000 students.
The researcher used a self-designed questionnaire named “Students Survey Questionnaire (SSQ)” to collect
data. This questionnaire was a 3-part, 26-item instrument. Part one sought for personal information of students.
Part two was a 4-point Likert scale that assessed information on students’ academic achievement orientation
while part three was a 2-point Semantic Differential Scale that measured students’ perception of their teachers.
A team of experts in the Department of Educational Foundations, Guidance and Counselling, University of
Calabar established content and face validity of the instrument. Reliability of the two parts of the instrument was
determined through test re-test reliability using Pearson Product Moment Correlation that yielded reliability
coefficients of 0.71 and 0.81 for academic achievement orientation and students perception of their teachers
respectively. These high reliability coefficients attested the fact that the instrument was reliable.
After the instrument was found to be valid and reliable, data were collected and analyzed by using One-way
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and Fisher’s Least Significant Difference (LSD) multiple comparison analysis.
Analysis and Findings
Analysis was made using scores from students’ perception of their teachers and academic achievement
orientation instrument. The scores were used to categorize the students into those with low, moderate and high
perception subjects. Those who scored below the average were classified as low perception subjects. Those who
scored about the average were classified as moderate perception subjects, while those who scored above average
were classified as high perception subjects. Then, one-way analysis of variance was used to compare low,
moderate and high perception subjects with regards to their academic achievement orientation. The Fisher’s
(LSD) multiple comparison analysis was conducted in order to determine the direction of the influence among
the various levels of perception. The mean and difference between mean scores were used to answer the
research questions. Tables given below illustrated the data.
Results
Research questions 1: Does students’ perception of their teachers influence their academic achievement
orientation?

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Table 1: Means and standard deviation scores of students of low, moderate and high perception of their teachers
with regards to their academic achievement orientation.
Group N X SD
Low 310 13.79 3.31
Moderate 308 14.31 2.29
High 382 14.53 2.75
Total 1000 14.23 2.96
The data in Table 2 above showed that the scores of the three groups (low, moderate, high) were 13.79, 14.31
and 14.53 respectively. The scores differ significantly. Students of high perception of their teachers scored
highest, followed by those of moderate, followed by those of low.
Research questions 2: Is there any direction of influence within the three levels of students’ perception of their
teachers with regards to their academic achievement orientation.
Table 2: Difference between group means of students of low, moderate and high perception of their teachers
with regards to their academic achievement orientation.
Level of Perception Low (N=310) Moderate (N=308) High (N=382)
Low -0.51
Moderate -0.22
High -0.74
The computation of Table 2 above revealed that differences in the direction of influence among the three levels
of students’ perception of their teachers with regards to their academic achievement orientation existed. The
difference between group means differ significantly, since there is a disparity in the scores
Hypotheses
Hypothesis 1: Students with low, moderate and high level of perception of their teachers do not differ
significantly with regards to their academic achievement orientation
Table 3: Summary of one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the influence of students’ perception of their
teachers on academic achievement orientation.
Group N X SD
Low 310 13.79 3.31
Moderate 308 14.31 2.29
High 382 14.53 2.75
Total 1000 14.23 2.96
Source of Variation SS DF MS F SIG
Between groups 96.374 2 48.187
Within groups 8645.265 996 8.6714 5.557*
Total 8741.639 999
*P<0.05; DF: 2 & 997; Critical Value: 3.00; F-Value: 5.557
In the Table 3, the results of the data analysis showed that students’ level of perception of their teachers
influence their academic achievement orientation since the F-value of 5.557 is greater than the critical value of

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3.00. This means that students with low, moderate and high levels of perception of their teachers differ
significantly with regards to their academic achievement orientation.
Hypotheses 2: There is no significant direction in the academic achievement orientation among the three levels
of perception.
Table 4: Fisher’s (LSD) multiple comparison analysis on the direction of influence of students’ perception of
their teachers on their academic achievement orientation.
Level of Perception Low (N=310) Moderate (N=308) High (N=382)
Low 13.79a
-0.52b
0.74
Moderate -2.19
b
*c
14.31 -0.22
High -3.28*
b
c
-0.97*c
MSW = 8.671
14.53
*P<0.05; DF = 998; Critical t = Value = 1.96
a: group means are placed along the diagonal
b: difference between group means are placed above the diagonal
c: Fisher’s t-value are placed below the diagonal
* Significant at 0.05 level of significance, with critical value 1.96
In table 4, the results showed that the Fisher’s t-value of -3.25 regardless of the negative value was higher than
the critical t-value of 1.96 at 0.05 level of significance with 998 degree of freedom. This indicates that when
the level of students’ perception of their teachers was high (mean 14.53), the students’ academic achievement
orientation was better than when the level was either moderate (mean 14.31) or low (mean 13.79). The
difference between the group means also revealed the same result. This means that students with high levels of
perception of their teachers were better of in their academic achievement orientation than their counterparts with
either moderate or low levels.
Discussion
Results indicated that students’ perception of their teachers influenced their academic achievement orientation in
favour of students with high levels of perception. The finding has matched the results of Coast (1992) when he
observed that students’ perception of their teachers’ competence and teachers-students relationship influenced
their academic achievement orientation and how they discerned their competence and motivation.
Confirming the results of the present study too, (Ames, 1978; Keeve, 1992) reported that athlete perception of
their instructors, perceived instructor’s abilities, perceived instructors love of their job influenced athletes’ task
sports achievement orientation and the manner athletes desire for success. In order to determine the direction of
influence, Keeve reported further that, athletes’ positive and / or high perception of their instructor’s love of
their profession predicted athletes’ sports achievement orientation.
This finding agreed with the present finding that revealed that students with high levels of perception of their
teachers were better of in their academic achievement orientation. Agbakwuru (2000) observed that, teachers
who are happy of their academic knowledge they have acquired, how vital it is to their lives and show such to
their students produce students who are highly motivated to achieve excellence in life. Indeed, students’ positive
perception of their teachers and learning environment arouse their curiosity, motivation and morale to learn
(Philips, 1984; Harter, 1981).
Conclusion
Based on the findings of this study, the conclusion is that students who have developed high level of perception
of their teachers are better of in academic achievement orientation than their counterparts with either moderate
or low levels. Looking at the above findings, it is therefore important to state that teachers can now predict their
students’ academic achievement orientation based on how they are loved by their students and also how they
perceived them.

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Recommendations
From the results of the study, the following recommendations emerged:
i. Teachers should see teaching as a noble profession and try to instill such into the minds of their
students. Such would help students develop positive self-evaluation of themselves and others.
ii. Teacher-students’ interaction should be cordial to achieve effective teaching and learning that will lead
to the achievement of educational objectives.
iii. School environments should be academically achievement practice-oriented as to enable students
exhibit their various talents and initiatives.
iv. Teachers should not condemn their vocation openly before their students. Such condemnation would
make students perceive them as inferior and unworthy people in the society. This will help to enhance
the status of the teachers.
References
Agbakwuru, C. (2000). Teachers personality traits/characteristics and learning effectiveness of pupils. Journal
of Psychological Perspective. 2(2),22-28.
Ames, C. (1978). Children achievement attributions and self-reinforcement: Effects of self-concept and
competitive reward structure. Journal of Educational Psychology. 84(5), 261-271.
Ames, C. (1978). Classrooms goals, structure and students’ motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology.
84(5), 26-271.
Coasts, W. D. (1992). Students’ perception of teachers. A factor analytical study. Journal of Educational
Research. 65(3) , 357-364
Comb, T. (1974). The personal approach to good teaching. Journal of Educational Leadership. 5(4), 26-48
Duda, J. L.(2003). Achievement orientation behaviour in an organizational setting. Journal of Educational and
Social Psychology. 84(4), 290-229
Dweck, C., & Sorich, L.A (1999). Mastery oriented thinking. In C.R Synder (Ed.), Coping the psychology of
what works (pp.232-251). New York: Oxford University.
Harter, S. (1981). A new self-report scale of intrinsic versus extrinsic orientation in the classroom: Motivational
and informational components. Journal of Development Psychology. 17(5) , 300-312
Isangedighi, A. J. (2007). Child Psychology: Development and Education. Calabar: Eti-Nwa Associates
Keeves, J. P. (1972). Educational environment and student achievement. Melbourne: ACER
Philips, D. (1984). The illusion of incompetence among academically competent children. Journal of Child
Development. 55(3), 200-216.
Purkey, W. W. (1970). Self-Concept and school achievement. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey; Prentice Hall.
Shultz, D. (1981). Theories of personality. California: Brooks / Cole

8
SOCIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL STRATEGIES FOR
MOTIVATION OF ATHLETES FOR OPTIMAL SPORTS
PERFORMANCE
GBENEGBARA AMOS DEEMUA. (M.Ed)
DEPARTMENT OF HUMAN KINETICS AND HEALTH EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF PORT HARCOURT
E-mail:gbene45emua@yahoo.com
&
IFEANYICHUKWU CHRISTIAN ELENDU (Ph.D.)
DEPARTMENT OF HUMAN KINETICS AND HEALTH EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF PORT HARCOURT
E-mail:elelifey2k@yahoo.com
Abstract
The need to motivate athletes in the Nigeria sports scene is becoming a common phenomenon. Majority of
Nigerian star athletes are over the years not attaining excellence in sports due to the level of motivation
they received. The dwindling performance of these sports men and women is gradually affecting their
participation and performance in sports in Nigeria. A lot of reasons were attributed for the low level of
performance. Among them are; low monetary reward, poor preparation, spectators’ influence, lack of
adequate insurance policies, poor recognition of athletes and knowing each performer as well. The paper
highlighted some ways of checkmating the ugly incident which has adversely affected the country’s
participation and involvement in both local and international sports competitions. The reasons for athletes’
involvement in sports were also highlighted.
Keywords: Motivation, Athlete, Sports, Socio-Psychological, Strategies.
Introduction
‘Sport’ has become household word by sports enthusiasts. It is preached by sports instructors and
administrators with the philosophy catch them young through sports programmes with properly and
adequately co-ordinated sporting activities. Awosika (2000) submitted that, sports have always been a ready
tool for youths, adults and senior citizens alike towards national goals that include national supremacy and
prestige, patriotism and support for the government. Sports men and women have achieved enviable status
through the attainment of excellence in sports.
Individual’s behaviour and performances in sports have always been associated with the various levels of
motivation or encouragements he has received before, during and after any sporting activity. Ogundele (1999)
posited that “from time immemorial, motivation has played a significant role in the attainment of excellence
in sports to the extent that this particular aspect of sports psychology, has been dorminant in the minds of
coaches, physical educators, sports administrators and sports men and women”. For instance, the low level of
performance by the ‘Super Eagles’ internationally could be attributed to the level of motivation they received.
Although Nigerian track and field athletes over the years have achieved glory at the international levels, after

9
which they were adequately compensated, the rewards and incentives were billed either in appreciation for a
successful outing or anticipation of good performance and to encourage them to do better in the subsequent
competitions.
In order to ensure optimum performance among track and field athletes, coaches need to understand
motivational strategies that can be adopted and how different categories of people are motivated, as well as
their reaction to varying motivational techniques. Participation in sports could be encouraged through the
level of motivation within the environment. The term “motivation” originally was derived from Latin word
“Movere” which means ‘to move’. An analysis of major definitions indicates that motivation is primarily
concerned with what energizes human behaviour, what directs or channels such behaviour, and how this
behaviour is maintained or sustained (Ahiauzu, 1994).
Lawler (2001) referred to motivation as those phenomena which stimulate actions towards particular
objectives where previously there was no movement towards such goals. He also defined motivation as a
process of arousing, maintaining, sustaining interest in doing a particular task. He asserted that an
organization secures the services of its employees by the incentives it offers them. According to him, material
inducement such as salaries, bonuses, fringe benefits, affect human performance in sports.
Motivation implies that there is a concrete objective to be achieved, to which commitment is sought from
willing participants as a matter of deliberate policy, and within the context of a rationally designed
organization. Along with other essential requirements for successful sport participation, athletes are spurred
to excel in sports if the ingredients of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are available. According to Ikulayo
(1990), intrinsic motivation originates from within the individual, due to inner compulsion. The actors take
part for pure enjoyment and satisfaction derived from participation in the activity itself. Biddle and Mutrie
(2001), defined intrinsic motivation as the urge to do something for its own sake even in the absence of
external rewards. This often involves fun, enjoyment and satisfaction, obtained form recreational activities
and hobbies.
Extrinsic motivation on the other hand is said to be primarily determined by external forces, such as adult and
peers approved material rewards, level of competition and emphasis on winning (Clews & Gross, 1995).
According to Ikulayo (1990), when an individual participates in an activity to obtain anything tangible or
intangible for successful execution of skills, motivation is said to be extrinsic. Extrinsic motivation according
to Biddle and Mutrie (2001) refers to motivation controlled by rewards, pressure or other external factors.
This suggests that if these rewards or external pressure were removed, motivation will decline in absence of
any intrinsic interest.
Strategies for Motivation of Athletes for Optimal Performance
The following are strategies for motivating athletes:
Socio-Psychological Strategies for Motivation of Athletes for Optimal Sports Performance

10
Identifying each performer
Before any motivational strategy can be used for optimum participation, the coach should understand how
different categories of athletes are motivated and their possible reaction to the method adopted. The reaction
to the motivational strategies adopted will have influence on their sustained interest on the task at hand and on
their subsequent performance.
It is pertinent for coaches to know their athletes, their personality traits and how they react to coaching
approaches. The coach must be competent and have control of the sporting environment, build trust and
confidence in the athletes and have good working relationship with the athletes. He should be able to identify
them by their first names, socialize effectively with them and show genuine concern for each of them at all
times. Trudel, Dionne and Bernard (1992) are of the view, based on their study, that coaches have strong
influence on their athletes, both negatively and positively.
Monetary Rewards
In Nigeria, the most emphasized motivation strategy is monetary reward. This has dragged most Nigerian
youths into seeking for greener pastures in developed countries like America, England, Italy and Spain to
mention but a few. Monetary reward has been used to motivate athletes and players in Nigeria and as such
should be least emphasized since there are other forms of motivating, sustaining the players on to the game
that can be sought. From findings, financial activities are uppermost in the minds of sports men and women
all over the world. In recent times, the Nigerian National Team (Super Eagles) has held the country to ransom
inquiring for what to be paid before playing. It is obvious that sports men and women in Nigeria are
influenced by the attractiveness of rewards and incentives from the developed countries of the world.
Ikulayo (1990) argued that it has been difficult for sports men and women to sustain and maintain
performance excellence achievement due to the fact that Nigeria has not been able to produce what Ziegter
called ‘Inner Athletes’ who have been groomed to perform their best under stress.
Omolabi (1987) asserts that:
Unlike the athletes of yester years who participated in sports for the
fun of it, majority of the athletes today participate with the hope of
getting some reward after winning. The sports men of yester years
intrinsically motivated to participate in any sport by the desire to
achieve and excel. To such athlete it was not a matter of the kind of
monetary reward that would follow but the satisfaction of being a
champion (P.54).
A majority of psychologists cited by Ubom (2001) postulated that any employment or physical activity done
in Nigeria or elsewhere that does not motivate or create enough incentives for its workers are likely to face
negative attitude that may end up in low performance. He (Ubon, 2001) maintained that the behaviour of
sportsmen, be it positive or negative or indifference, must be viewed as consequences of the motivation of the
individual in question.
As early as 1942, psychologists recognized the value of incentive in re-enforcing behaviour. The larger the
amount of reward the more attractive the re-enforcer will be as an incentive for participation in sports. The

11
rewards and incentive theory is of the view that what ever they do, they will tend to repeat the action with
more enthusiasm. The incentive theory puts it that with adequate motivation action is more likely to be
repeated.
Consequent upon the above, Ajayi and Okopi (1999) stated that players’ value pattern should be determined
before incentives are given out. This will help to identify the appropriateness of the incentives. They de-
emphasize monetary reward, while encouraging post performance employment opportunities, shares in firms
and industries as well as scholarship awards that have futuristic effects as better motivational strategies for
optimum performance.
Early Preparation of Athletes
In Nigeria, many club sides adopted different pre-tournament preparation factors considered as having a crop
of highly skilled players, a good coach, having good remunerations and other welfare packages, good
facilities and equipment, good camping and training programmes. According to Boye, Money and Eboh
(2006), coaches are at the centre of sports in building talents in athletes. It is obvious from the above assertion
that qualified and certificated coaches play vital roles in modeling and improving sports talents. Track and
field athletes are expected to be in camp for a couple of months so that they can blend together.
Cox (1995) stated that teachers and coaches of sports teams and groups should utilize motivational techniques
calculated to enhance self-talk and instructional drilling to get the best out of athletes. Good camping and
training programmes with already stimulating facilities enable coaches to use their wealth of experience to
improve on already existing talents and encourage the athletes to build self confidence while in training.
Peretomode (2002) asserted that motivation and satisfaction, work hand in hand in any performance-related
task. Athletes who are intrinsically and extrinsically motivated standout to put in their best than those who are
poorly motivated. Clews and Gross (1995), outlined among others, aspects of social infrastructure as a
counter balance to personal sources of motivation. Fadoju (2000) stressed this point in a study on
‘motivational strategies used in sports for University of Ibadan athletes’ and concluded that provision of
training materials, good and adequate facilities, provision of qualified coaches and helping athletes to set high
but attainable goals are motivational strategies for optimum performance.
It is a truth universally acknowledged that the level of preparedness of an individual towards a task does
determine, to a great extent, the level of confidence one will exhibit in performing a task. Similarly, sports
competitions generally elicit a significant degree of anxiety in the players when the preparation and
motivation are not enough. Through interactions with coaches and athletes of Rivers State contingent for the
National Sports festivals held in Kaduna 2009, they complained that they were not early to camp for them to
train well for the competition.
Delta State adopting different pre-tournament preparations for the 16th
edition of the National Sports Festival
in Kaduna was a step in the right direction. Delta state contingents were scattered abroad early enough to be

12
trained in both track and field events. And the resultant effect was that the state came out first on the medals
table with 103 Gold, 68 Silver and 68 bronze.
Therefore, it is the opinion of the researchers that if Rivers State had prepared their athletes early enough they
would not have fallen to 9th
position on the medals table, with 16 Gold, 31 Silver, and 41 bronze.
Rivers State pre-tournament preparation during the 17th
National sports festival took a different dimension.
Having learned from the past mistakes, the Rivers State government adopted a measure to camp their athletes
for a couple of months with good training programmes, coaches having good remunerations, good facilities
of equipment and other welfare packages for the athletes. The resultant effect was that Rivers State came out
1st
position on the medals table with 135 gold, 29 silver and 85 bronze.
Spectators’/Supporters’ Influence on Athletes Performance
Influence of the spectators can serve as a motivational strategy for optimum performance since an
enthusiastic audience, giving spontaneous applause after every successful execution of brilliant skill can give
rise to an excited feeling in the athlete. The researchers interviewed some of the Rivers state contingents to
the 16th
edition of the National sports festival held in Kaduna 2009, on what effect, if any, spectators had on
their performance. The answers were almost as many and varied as the number of respondents. Some were of
the view that a large crowd increased their anxiety to the point where they performed well. Others said that
the crowd had no influence whatsoever on them, that it is necessary for them to concentrate completely on the
game or contest and shut out the stimuli from the crowd or individual spectators. The more intricate the game,
the more it is necessary to do this.
It seems reasonable to suppose, and this corroborated with the opinions of experienced coaches that athletes
of the anxious type can be easily over-stimulated by spectators and their enthusiasm, particularly if there are
close friends, sweethearts, parents and classmates in the stands. It is also true that athletes who tend to be
phlegmatic and have a high anxiety threshold will visually perform better when the noise and enthusiasm of
the crowd is above normal, and when individuals are present who the performer hopes to impress.
Provision of adequate Insurance Policies
The provision of adequate insurance policies is one serious problem confronting Nigerian athletes, hence,
athletes are likely to have negative attitude that may mar their performance. Eboh (1994) stated that
deprivation induces an internal aversive state which is called drive, and that such drive increases vigor of all
behaviours. Based on this assertion, it is observed that individuals will be more purposeful and aggressive
with better welfare scheme.
The government, clubs owners, sports administrators and athlete trainers should ensure that each athlete is
covered by adequate insurance policy. The insurance policy undertaken protects the athletes against risk that
may occur during participation in sporting events. It is conceptualized that with good insurance policy, the
problem of low performance will be checkmated, considering the effect of motivation on sports participation.

13
Proper Recognition for Outstanding Athletes
Government and sports managers should set standards of performance with coaches and other technical crew.
This target or objectives can include winning a medal, gaining a personal best score or developing a skill. A
set standard of performance provides focus, motivation, direction and better result. When athletes achieve or
meet up with set standards, they should be acknowledged and recognized. According to Fuoss and
Troppmann (1981), the need for prestige, status, dominance, attention, importance, appreciation and
recognition are firmly based on human nature and they underlie human motivation.
The guidelines for implementation of the sports development policy for Nigeria, on incentives and awards
scheme (Section 3 of chapter 6) listed incentives and awards that would be given to deserving athletes and
coaches. It states among others that; those who win world and/ or Olympic titles in any sports discipline
qualify for:
a) Recognition by the Head of State of the Federal Republic of Nigeria.
b) Placement of winner’s Busts, coated with GOLD, SILVER or BRONZE, depending on medals won,
with appropriate citations, in the NATIONAL HALL OF FAME, be they alive or dead;
c) Award of NATIONAL HONOUR, with appropriate citations;
d) Lavish publicity in National press;
e) Heroes welcome.
It is the view of the authors that these incentives and rewards scheme are innovative and important as a source
of motivation at amateur sport levels, but little is done to educate and inform athletes on the existence of these
awards and incentives by government and its agencies. If there has been award ceremonies, the approach
adopted has been piece-meal, and may not have included the above categories. On the above premise, the
incentives and awards scheme may be reviewed to actually introduce material incentives as part of honouring
our heroes, although this has been done under the military without documentation- i.e issuing of houses, cars,
scholarship and so on.
Conclusion
Some socio-psychological factors or strategies have been identified to play significant roles in the attainment
of excellence in sports. Sports psychologists, coaches, government, non-governmental organizations,
companies, philanthropists, etc need to understand these strategies that can be adopted to motivate different
categories of athletes for optimal performance. The effectiveness of each strategy depends on how they are
employed. Low monetary reward, poor preparation of athletes before the competition, spectators/supporters
influence, lack of adequate insurance policies, athletes not given proper recognition and inability to know
each athlete well were identified as some socio-psychological factors leading to sports talent drain in Nigeria.

14
Recommendations
Based on the conclusions, the following recommendations were made:
1. Adoption and administration of adequate reward and recognition for good and excellent
performance.
2. Adequate insurance policies should be made available for track and field athletes.
3. Coaches and athletes should be given enough time to prepare, bearing in mind the complexity of the
task and the challenges ahead.
4. Coaches, sport personnel and those involved in sports settings should vary motivational techniques
for track and field athletes.
5. Provision and maintenance of existing facilities and equipment.
Enthusiastic audience should not only give spontaneous applause after every successful execution
of brilliant skills, but even when the athletes perform below expectation.
REFERENCES
Awosika, B. Y. (2000). Predictors of Students’ participation in recreational activities of two Nigeria
Universities. Journal of Nigeria Academy of Sports Administration. 1 (1&2), pp17-19
Adams, J. (2009). Complete sports. Thursday, February 26, 2 (85).
Biddle, S. J. H. & Nutrie, N. (2001). Psychology of physical activity: Determinants, Wellbeing and Interventions.
New York: Routedge.
Clew, G. S. & Gross, J. P. (1995). Individual and social motivation in Australian sport, in Morris & J. Summer
(ed.) Sport Psychology: Theory, Applications and issues. Milton, John Willey and sons.
Cox, R. H. (1995). Sport psychology: concept and applications. Debaque: Brown and bencher publishers.
Eboh, L. O. (1994). Situational motivational factors associated with athletes decision in University sport.
Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Ibadan.
Fadoju, A. O., & Falola, K. O. (2004). Motivational techniques for ensuring optimum performance of university
track and field athletes. NUGA FORUM, pp.25-30.
Ikhioya, O. S. A. (2001). Functional Strategies for effective sports management practices. Lagos Sport and
Leisure consults publishers.
Ikulayo, P. B. (1990). Understanding Sports psychology. Lagos: En/TINPress.
Ikulayo, P. B. (2003). The mind in the body; sports psychology as the corner- stone to sports achievement and
greatness. Lagos: University of Lagos press.
Lawler, E. E. (2001). Motivation in work organization: California: Brooks/Code.
Money, F. O., Boye, E. T. & Eboh, L. O. (2007). Improving sports participation to reduce sports talent drain in
Nigeria. Journal of Kinetics and Health Education Perspective, 1 (2), 1 -12.
Ogundele, B. O. (1999). Motivation: An important psychological construct for achieving success in youth sports.
Nigerian Journal of Emotional Psychology and Sport Ethics, 2, (1), 47-99.

15
Omolabi, O. (1987). The Influence of motivation and self-concept on high level performance of Nigerian elite
athletes. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Human Kinetics and Heath Education, University of Ibadan,
Ibadan
Peretomode, V. F. (2002). Educational Administration – applied concept and theoretical perspective for students
and practitioners. Lagos: Jaja educational research and publishers.
Trudel, P. Dionne, J. P., & Bernard, D. (1996). Systematic observation of youth ice hockey coaches during
games. Journal of Sports behaviour, 19, 50-66.

16
COMMUNITY EDUCATION AND THE LEARNING NEEDS OF
WOMEN IN RURAL AREAS IN NIGERIA
AKANDE, Joshua Olusola, Ph.D; B.C. Simeon –Fayomi, Ph.D & Mrs. C.A. Babalola
Department of Continuing Education Faculty of Education
Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria
jsoakande@yahoo.co.uk
Abstract
The problem of rural development in Nigeria is a multifaceted one. Problems in development can be traced the
situation of rural women. In order to aid them, their learning needs have been viewed as enormous. This paper
argues that if the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are to be actualized, the learning needs of women in the
rural areas are to be x-rayed and met. This paper therefore discusses the relevance of community education with its
built-in problem –solving potential and propensity to engender self-reliance as a tool to effect positive changes in
the lives of women in the rural areas in Nigeria. The paper emphasizes that the promotion of community education
especially in relation to women should be taken into consideration while planning rural development programmes in
Nigeria. It equally suggests the need to utilize community resources for the implementation of community
education programmes in favor of rural women.
Keywords: Community education; Learning needs; Women; Rural areas; Nigeria.
Introduction
According to the Beijing Conference women make up about 50 percent of the world population and constitute two-
thirds of the world workforce (Beijing 1995). Despite this, women only earn one-tenth of the world’s income. This
is so because, for ages, there seems to have been a deliberate attempt to keep women down so that men can have an
edge (Adediran, 2007). For instance, more girls than boys dropout of school for various reasons, thereby making it
nearly impossible for them to earn good income because of their low level of education. Elaborating on illiteracy as
one of the depleting factors to women socio-economic and cultural development, Olateju (2002) highlights that in
the third world including Nigeria, illiteracy rates among women are higher than those of their male counterparts
(National Population Census, 2006).
Apart from the scourge of illiteracy, the Nigerian women spend extremely long periods under the physical and
nutritional stress associated with their total child bearing –mothering role. For example, in a study carried out by
Oladipo and Tseayo (1992), about 60 percent of a sample of urban Yoruba women in the 25-35 age bracket, had
spent more than half of their lives either pregnant or lactating. Based on the above, the overall feature of Nigerian
women’s status is essentially that of marginalization, and rural women have been the worst hit victims of the
menace. Ekong (2003) argues that it may not be an exaggeration to state that the Nigerian rural economy as well as
its urban food security are largely sustained by rural women who are engaged in the areas of land preparation for
farming, planting of crops and vegetables for household consumption, weeding, harvesting, processing of harvested
crops and contribution of cash and labour to community development projects. This corroborates the opinion of
Adeyokun (1981) that over 70 percent of the population is engaged in agricultural production. Similarly, Odejide
(1998) maintained that rural women provide an estimated 60-80 percent of agricultural labour force.
However, a cursory picture of rural women farmers in Nigeria portrays them as peasant, indigent and contemptible
in the society. The reasons for these are not far-fetched. The plights of the Nigerian rural women could be related to
a number of factors. For example, rural women’s limited access to credit facilities, hamper their mass agricultural
production. Rural banks that can help boost women agricultural production are few and widely dispersed. The
financial strength of such banks themselves being weak could not give much loan to the rural women and to
aggravate the matter, the conditions for granting the meager loan are severe. In the submission of the National
Commission for Women (1992), it was stated that, rural women are not considered for loans unless their husbands
guarantee them. Rural women thus have been victims of oppression, discrimination, alienation, humiliation,

17
marginalization and exploitation. It is therefore necessary for womenfolk to be liberated from these banes
considering the unique roles they play in enhancing agricultural productions in rural communities of Nigeria.
Therefore, their learning needs are to be identified in an attempt to harness community resources to meet those
needs.
However, formal education alone may not be adequate to meet the learning needs of the rural women in Nigeria.
The fact remains that rural women’s accessibility to formal education has for a long time been a figment of
imagination. This can be attributed to a number of factors. For instance, formal education is not adequately funded
in Nigeria (Hassan, 2005).
In addition, teachers’ incessant absenteeism in rural schools due to lack of social amenities such as portable water,
good rural roads, electricity, health facilities and communication hamper the effectiveness of formal education in
rural communities. Beyond this, the problem of rural development in Nigeria is enigmatic and multi-faceted which
requires participatory, democratic, awareness–raising initiatives that encourage self-help and facilitate a mixture of
formal, informal and non-formal education.
The objective of this study is to x-ray the learning needs of the rural women in Nigeria. This is with a view to
examining the relevance of community education as a tool with its in-built problem-solving potential and propensity
to meet those learning needs. Also, the paper discusses the need to give community education a prominent
consideration in the planning of rural development programmes in Nigeria. The paper therefore identifies some
community resources that can be utilized to foster community education programmes to effectively satisfy the rural
women leaning needs for the overall socio-economic, cultural and political development of rural communities in
Nigeria.
The Concept of Rural Socio-Economic Development
Rural development essentially means economic and social development in rural areas (Ekong, 2003; Ezimah, 2004).
According to Kumar (1979), the commonwealth secretariat defines rural development as:
The objectives of rural development inferred from the above include:
(a) Improved income distribution
(b) Full and productive employment
(c) Increased Productivity
(d) Improved food self-sufficiency
(e) The provision of basic needs and amenities –food, housing, health as well as the accompanying
infrastructure (physical, institutional, community services).
It is only when these objectives as achieved, that the level and standard of living of the rural population
can be improved. To this end, the relevance and importance of community education is brought to the fore.
The Learning Needs of Rural Women in Nigeria
Needs have been described as demands which demand satisfaction (Denga, 1988). Human needs according to
Maslow (1970) are represented in form of hierarchy. In this wise, the lower order needs must be satisfied first
before the higher order needs. However, no need is so insignificant to be done without. Ezimah (2004) maintains
a comprehensive mode of social transformation which
recognizes that national development must involve all
elements of the population. It is a socio-economics process
which seeks to bring about a more equitable distribution of
resources and incomes within a society. It involves the
integration of the rural poor, the vast majority of the
population of all developing countries, into the national
economy.
Community Education & the Learning Needs of Women in Rural Arears in Nigeria

18
that the drive to satisfy any need of the adults via adult education may be motivated by economic, social or cultural
reasons. It is for this reason that there is need to set up a conducive learning climate that will motivate the adults to
learn as a logical step to satisfy their needs.
The impoverished and contemptible living condition of rural women in Nigeria obviously depicts their learning
needs. According to Ezimah (2004), the learning needs are closely tied in the first instance to the basic survival
needs of the rural dwellers. The learning needs for rural women are multifarious. These include such things as
nutrition, household improvements, literacy and employment. Obviously, governmental and non-governmental
organizations through various programmes such as Better Life for Rural Women Programme, Family Support
Programmes, Agricultural Development Programme (ADP), Directorate of Foods, Roads and Rural Infrastructure
(DFRRI) and National Directorate of Employment (NDE) endeavour to satisfy these needs. Yet without the rural
women own extensive participation and efforts, outside help may prove sterile. This implies that their learning
needs are to be identified and met to improve their living conditions.
The learning needs of rural women which are often determined by their occupations fall into three categories. These
according to Ezimah (2204) include:
1. Farm related activities;
2. Non-farm related activities; and
3. Rural administration.
Category 1: Farm Related Activities
For rural women involved in farm related activities, their learning needs include:
a. Farm planning and management, rational decision making, record keeping, cost computation etc.
b. Skill in farm maintenance and improvement
c. Applications of new inputs, varieties and improved farm practices.
d. Storage, food processing and preservation
e. Knowledge of government services, policies, family improvement in health nutrition, child care, family
planning, home economics.
f. Civic skills and knowledge of local, state and national issues and functions in agriculture.
Category II: Non-farm Related Activities
a. New improved technical skills applicable to particular goods and services quality control.
b. Management skills (business planning, record-keeping, cost accounting, procurement and inventory
control, market analysis and sales methods).
c. Knowledge of government services, regulations, tax guidelines and credit facilities.
Category III: Rural Administration
a. General skills for administration, planning, implementation, information flows, promotional activities.
b. Leadership skills for generating community enthusiasm and collective action.
These learning needs if met and fostered will go a long way in improving the living standard of rural
women in Nigeria.
Potentialities of Community Education in Meeting the Learning Needs of Rural Women
Community education is defined by the Canadian Association for Community Education (1987) as
a process whereby learning is used for individual,
community and global betterment. It is characterized by the
integrated involvement of people of all ages…and the
recognition that people can learn through, with and from
each other to create a better world.

19
Basically, society has continued to change very rapidly. New interests and challenges are being posed. To meet
those demands and needs remains the main focus of community education. Hence, its relevancy to meet the learning
needs of rural women cannot be over emphasized. The underlying objective of community education is to bring
education and community into a close and more equal relationship. Education through community education is
made to belong to the whole community including rural women.
In line with the fundamental objective stated above, community education has the potentialities of doing the
following:-
- educating and motivating the rural women for self-help projects;
- developing responsible leadership among the rural women;
- inculcating into the rural women a sense of citizenship and a spirit of civic consciousness;
- initiating a self-generative, self-sustaining and enduring process of growth among the rural women;
- enabling rural women to establish and maintain cooperative and harmonious relationships in their
communities;
- bring about gradual and self-chosen changes in the life of community particularly the rural women,
with a minimum of stress and disruption.
In view of the above, community education has a local relevance. It is a type of education that has stress on the
knowledge and attitudinal change rather than on mere acquisition of knowledge. Based on these assumptions Agi
(2006, pp. 174-183) and Findsen (2006, pp. 208-226) contend that community education is such an education that
gets the community members ready for the effective development and improvement of the community. Thus,
community education is education for better living. It is dynamic, continuous, functional, democratic, holistic and
efficient. Specifically, it is educational strategy for women development.
Impact Assessment of forms of Community Education on Rural Women in Nigeria
Nigeria as a developing nation has earmarked certain community education programmes. These include literacy
education, basic literacy, functional literacy, remedial education, vocational training for women, civic and political
education and women education.
Egunyomi (1999) highlights other avenues through which community education are fostered wrong the rural
women. These include, the activities of the Better Life for Rural Women, campaigns, seminars, workshops,
conferences, women education centers; road show clinics, co-operative education, religious activities and income
generating activities for women.
From the foregoing, it is worthwhile to assume that rural women in Nigeria have been motivated to participate in
community self-help development projects as a result of community education to which they have been exposed.
These include public campaigns, cooperative education, seminars, workshops, conferences, radio, T.V., jingles,
adverts, and mobile van. They are motivated to participate in road grading, health and sanitation programmes,
cooperative farming, building and development of markets. Thus, the possibility of actualizing MDGs in Nigeria by
the year 2015 is unquestionable if rural women through community education are braced as agents of development.
Utilizing community Resources for the Implementation of Community Education Programmes for Rural
Women
Community resources for educating learners refer to the things found within the community outside the school
(Ezimah, 2004). These resources may be of four different though related types. They may be natural, human,
material or institutional. Natural community resources refer to those things that are not man-made and they vary
from place to place. These include vegetation, highlands, rivers, trees and animals. Human resources, that is, fellow
members of the community with wealth of experience and knowledge in their fields of endeavour become useful in
community education. Material resources describe those things that are man-made such as machines, motion
vehicles, electrical and electronic gadgets and houses built in communities.
Institutional resources including religious, economic, political, social and health institutions. These institutions can
be found useful in promoting community education. These resources if well utilized can facilitate rural women
learning.

20
Policy implications:-
The present study established that if the learning needs of rural women would be met to enable them contribute
substantially to the actualization of the MDGs by the year 2015, there is need for government to reaffirm its
commitment to promote community education especially among the rural women. Thus, enhancing popular
participation in development programmes at the grassroots level. Government in this regard should adequately fund
community education, promote it and motivate the rural women to participate measuring fully in it.
Conclusion:
The present study established that rural women play vital roles in the socio-economic and cultural development of a
nation in general and the rural communities in particular. The study stressed that to further enhance the
contributions of rural women to the national development, there is need to meet their learning needs, through
community education. This implies that if the MDGs would be achieved in Nigeria by the year 2015, the learning
needs of rural women are to be met using the tool of community education. Community resources can therefore be
committed to enhance the effect of community education among the rural women in Nigeria.
References
Adediran, V.O. (2007). The impact of community education programmes on rural
women participation in self-help development projects in Osun State, Nigeria. An unpublished thesis,
Obafemi Awolowo University Ile-Ife.
Adeyokun, T.O (1981). Agricultural and small farmers in Nigeria in S.O. Olayide,
et al, Nigerian small farmers: problems and prospects, London: Caxton Press, pp. 142-190.
Agi, U.K. (2006). Community development and education in realization of
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Anyanwu, C.N. (2002). Community education: The African dimension, Ibadan:
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Ibadan, p. 4.
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Educational Publishers Ltd.
Egunyomi, D.A. (2001). Women education and development, in J.T. Okedara,
C.N. Anyanwu and M.A.L. Omole (Eds), Rethinking adults and non-formal education, Lagos: Sterling-
Horden Publishers (Nig.) Ltd. pp. 85-94.
Ekong, E.E. (2003). An introduction to rural sociology, Uyo: Dove Educational
Publishers (Nig.) pp. 372-385.
Ezimah. M.O.A (2004); Knowing adult education, Owerri: Spring Field Publishers
Ltd. pp. 291-299.
Findsen, B. (2006). Access and participation issues in New Zealand Adult,
Community and Tertiary Education. In Oduaran, A. and Bhola, H.S. (Eds) Widening access to education
as social justice, Dordrecht: The UNESCO Institute for Education and Springer, pp. 208-226.
Hassan, M.A. (2005). Financing adult and non-formal education in Nigeria. In

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Adult and non -formal education in Nigeria: Emerging issues Ibadan: NNCAE, pp. 94-105.
Kumar, A. (1979). Education for rural development, in L. Bown and S.H.O.
Tomori (Eds), A handbook of adult education for West Africa London: Hutchinson & Co. Publishers Ltd.
Maslow, A.H. (1970). Motivation and personality. New York: Harper and Row.
National Commission for Women (1992). What roles from the National
Commission for Women, Paper delivered at National conference for the implantation of the Geneva
Declaration for the advance of women in Nigeria, p. 4.
Odejide, A.S. (1998). Women in trade and industry, in A. Sesay and A. Odebiyi,
(Eds). Nigerian women in society and development, Ibadan: Dokun Publishing House, pp. 122-134.
Oladipupo, E.O. and L. Tseayo (1992). Environment and gender issues, in T.A.
Aina and A.T. Salawu (Eds), Nigerian environmental study, action team, Ibadan: NEST pp. 173-204.
Olateju, E.O. (2002). Non-formal education an overview; In I.U. Nwangugo, B.
Anyikwa and E.O. Olateju (Eds). Education of special target groups, Lagos: Lai-Farayola, pp. 23-34.

22
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION AND HUMAN RESOURCES
DEVELOEPMENT: IMPLICATIONS FOR NATIONAL
DEVELEOPMENT
DR. (MRS.) NZOKURUM, JOY C.
+234 8036730641
AWAH, OKORIE AWAH
+234 8037808987 awahokorie@yahoo.com
&
INENGIM, SUNDAY E.
+234 8035429597
DEPARTMEMNT OF EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT,
FACULTY OF EDUCATION,
UNIVERSITY OF PORT HARCOURT.
Abstract
This paper examined university education and human resources development: university roles and implications for
development. It looked at the concept of human capital theory, human resources and human resource development.
This paper further highlighted the roles of the university in human resources development. Some of the roles as
identified in the study are: a major source in the provision of human capital through quality training and helping in
increasing the productive capacity of an employee. This paper also made some recommendations based on the
reviewed literature, the state of the art and implications of the study. Some of the recommendations were that there
should be an increased budgetary allocation to universities and more emphasis should be placed on practical in the
universities.
Keywords: University Education; Human Resources Development; National Development; Nigeria.
Introduction
The essence of every nation’s education plan is to make her education system more relevant. One of these areas of
relevance it aims at achieving is the generation of manpower needed to drive the nation’s economy. Education to the
economist is both a consumer and capital good because it offers utility to a consumer and also serves as an input into
the production of other goods and services. As a capital good, education can be used to develop the human resources
necessary for economic and social transformation. The focus on education as a capital good relates to the concept of
human capital (resources) which emphasizes that the development of skills is an important factor in production
activities (Olaniyan & Okemakinde, 2008). In this regard, the level of a nation’s human resources is a function of
their education system. Given the academic ladder of Nigeria education system, university education is the highest
rung upon which this is achieved in totality. No wonder the Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004:34) in defining
tertiary education stated that one of the goals of tertiary (university) education is “to contribute to national
development through high level manpower training”.
Sriyan (1997) is of the view that education and training are the primary systems by which the human capital of a
nation is preserved and increased. From an economic-stand point, higher standards in the schools are the equivalent
of competitiveness. The basis of the above assertion is hinged on the Human Capital thesis. This thesis is premised
on the notion that formal education has a positive relationship with the productive capacity of an individual and a
nation; and the more educated an individual or a nation is, the more productive he/she is. Little wonder in the
approaches to educational planning, the Manpower Approach assumes that:
1. various types of skills are required for productivity
2. it is true that it is education (university/tertiary) education that produces the required skills, etc.

23
The pace at which university education and training system transmits knowledge and skills of the requisite quality
directly affects the pace of development. Countries that do not plan now to address not only the current human
resources problems but also those of infrastructure conducive for to future knowledge work and workers through
university education, will find out that the development gap between them and those that do will continue to widen
as is the case in the present Nigeria. Bringing Nigeria to the fore on the issue of university education and human
resources development, Harry (2010:2) asserts that:
Nigeria state has not demonstrated serious commitment to
human capital development since independence in 1960. Indeed,
the state has consistently under-funded education, research and
health care. Globally, Nigeria is ranked 158 out of 182 countries
assessed by the United Nations Development (UNDO) in 2007
in the area of human development index.
Drawing a relationship between higher (university) education and development, the International Institute for
Educational Planning IIEP (2007) argues that universities play a crucial role in generating new ideas, and in
accumulating and transmitting knowledge needed for national and human resources development. Writing on the
benefits of university education, it opined that the individual benefits include better employment, higher salaries and
great ability to consume and save. Abdulkareem (2009) argues that universities all over the world are accepted as
citadel of knowledge and human development. The belief in the efficacy of university education as a panacea to
human resources development, and invariably national development has led to various governments (regional /state
and federal) to engage in the establishment of universities (conventional, agricultural and technological) which have
now been proliferated in Nigeria.
Harry (2010), Sriyan (1997), Olaniyan and Okemakinde (2008) in their independent studies assert that the level of
economic and all around growth and development enjoyed by the “Asian Tigers”-the present East Asia of today is as
a result of the strong commitment to higher education and capital development. Given the centrality of university
education in a human and nation’s human resources development, this provides the justification for a continued
investment on higher/university education. It is in the light of the above that this paper seeks to examine Nigeria
universities and human resources development with a view to proffering lasting solutions.
Human capital theory
Human capital theory provides a justification for a large public expenditure on education in developing and
developed nations. This theory suggests that education or training raises the productivity of workers by imparting
useful knowledge and skills, hence raising workers’ future income by increasing their life time earnings.
The concept of human capital theory was first used by the classicalist economists like Alfred Marshal and Adam
Smith (although developed by G.S Berker, 1991) which stresses the significance of education and training as the key
to participation in the new global economic order. Ramchandra (2009) writes that this theory roots from the branch
of Economics, which is Labour Economics. Labour Economics study is on workforce in quantitative terms, thus has
the most accurate predictability than other social sciences. This theory posits that human capital is similar to
“physical means of production”, e.g factories, and machines. In this case, a higher level in the provisions of these
physical means of production would as well result to an increased productivity because one’s output depends partly
on the rate of return on the human capital one owns. Thus, human capital is a means of production into which
additional investment yields additional outputs.
In a nutshell, this theory is of the view that the most valuable of all capital is that invested in human being. Human
capital of an organization or country is strictly tied to the education in that country. It therefore advocates for a
continuous increase in the amount of investment in human capital through education. The investment in human
capital creates in the labour force the skill-base indispensable for economic growth. Throw (1975) writes that
education is used as a market signal to indicate the potential productivity of workers. It maintains that productivity is
largely a characteristic of jobs rather than of workers; employers use education credentials to select workers because
better educated workers can be trained for specific jobs more quickly and at a lower cost than their less educated
persons. He therefore suggests that education enhances an individual’s ability to successfully deal with disequilibria
University Education & Human Resources Development: Implications For National Development

24
in a changing conditions. Such ability includes that of perceiving a given disequilibrium, analyzing information,
reallocating resources to act.
Human resources and human resources development
Human resources are considered by many to be the most important asset of an organisation. Human resources of an
organisation consist of the human beings who work in an organization. The earlier statement is true because it is the
human beings working in organization that co-ordinate and manage the physical materials / resources used to work
in an organization.
Lado and Wilson (1994) defined human resources development as a set of distinct but interrelated activities,
functions and processes that are directed at attracting, developing and maintaining a firm’s human resources. Neo,
Hollenbeck, Gerhart and Wright (as cited in Maduagwu and Nwogu 2006) defined human resources as the
organisation’s employees which are described with reference to their training, experience, judgement, relationship
and insight.
Writing on the importance of human resources, Olaniyan and Okemakinde (2008) argue that most economists agree
that it is the human resources of a nation, not its capital, not its material resources , that ultimately determines the
character and pace of its economic and social development. Psacharopoulos and Woodhall (1997:5) assert that:
Human resources constitute the ultimate basis of
wealth of nations. Capital and natural resources are
passive factors of production, human beings are the
active agencies who accumulate capital, exploit
natural resources, build social, economic and political
organisations, carry informed national development.
It is therefore that manpower which can be defined as the bulk of labour available for any particular kind of work.
Given the other two factors of production- land and capital in their right quality and quantity, production still cannot
be possible on its own. There is the need therefore for a human-face of those productive factors, hence the need for
human resources. As it has been established above, production can only be possible when there is a combination of
land, capital with labour (Entrepreneur). No wonder Gbosi (2003) said it is the bulk of human beings with the
relevant skills, energies, talents, knowledge and attitudes that can be committed towards the production of goods and
resources.
Human resources development on the other hand could be conceptualized as a process of developing and/or
unleashing human expertise through organisation development and personnel training and development for the
purpose and individual/group levels (Swanson,1999). He further highlighted the process of human resources
development is made up of five core phases including: analyze, propose, create, implement and assess. To Sriyan de
Silva (1997:2):
Human resources development is the process of increasing the knowledge, the
skills and the capacities of all the people in a society. In economic terms, it
could be described as the accumulation of human capital and its effective
investment in the development of an economy. In political terms, human
resources development prepares people for adult participation in a political
process, particularly as citizens in a democracy. From the social and cultural
points of view, the development of human resources helps people to live fuller
and richer lives, less bound by tradition. In short, the process of human
resources development unlocks the door of modernization
In order to achieve human resources development, education is at the centre. Babalola (2003) argues that the
rationale behind investment in human capital is for its development for better productivity and it is based on the
following facts:
i. that the new generation must be given the appropriate parts of knowledge which have already been
accumulated by previous generations;

25
ii. that new generations should be taught how existing knowledge should be used to develop new products, to
introduce new process to production method and social services; and
iii. that people must be encouraged to develop entirely new ideas, products, processes and method through
creative approaches.
Based on the knowledge of human resources and its importance in that it is the major resource by which the
organization combine other resources for the achievement of organizational goals, there is need for its development
for a continuous and better productivity. It therefore calls for the integrated use of training and development; career
development and organization development to improve individual and organizational effectiveness. Given
globalization, accompanied by an increased world knowledge-base, increasing societal and ICT complexities; and
most importantly, the dynamic nature of the world as the hallmark for production is geared towards quality; there is
therefore the urgent need to train and re-train the workers working in an organization in order to meet up with the
challenges identified above. One cannot help but wonder the fate of a worker whose knowledge is not updated on
the current demands of his job/career, then goes out to meet these challenges
University education roles in human resources development in Nigeria
The above reviewed literature has drawn our attention to why investment in education should be taken seriously by
nations, Nigeria in particular. It has been established that the more educated one gets, the more his productivity and
wages. Since this is so, our universities and institutions of higher learning have a huge role to play to actualize this.
At present, there are 108 universities in Nigeria, (34 federal, 34 state, 40 privately owned) as reported by JAMB
(2012). All these universities are geared towards achieving the broad goals of tertiary education as stated by the
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004:36). Amongst the seven broad goals, two of them border specifically on human
resources development (goals a & d). They stated thus:
a. contribute to national development through high level relevant manpower training;
d. acquire both physical and intellectual skills which will enable individuals to be self-reliant and useful members
of the society.
Writing on the roles of the university towards national and human resources development, IIEP (2002) opined that
higher education (university education) is the major source for providing the human capital. Babalola (2007) on the
above writes that it is the statutory duty of university education to groom the required human capital, relevant
manpower training, abilities, attitudes, skills and knowledge. Looking at the categories of labour- skilled, semi-
skilled and unskilled labour, a greater chunk of the skilled labour in Nigeria is produced by universities looking at
their number compared to the number of other higher institutions in Nigeria.
Another vital role the university plays towards human resources development is the improvement in individual
earnings. IIEP (2007) writes that the individual benefits of higher (university) education are well known. It ensures a
better employment, higher salaries and a greater ability to consume and save. Based on this, the university emerges
as an important variable contributing significantly towards improving individual earnings. It is obvious that in
Nigeria, so far as one is underemployed, the higher schooled he gets, the higher his pay in his place of work and a
greater possibility for right employment or career placement. This informs the reason for the large number of aged
men and women in schools, especially those enrolled in the part-time education programmes of universities. The
reason for this is not far-fetched, just based on the axiom of the human capital thesis and that ordinarily, individual
desire for a higher pay in the job he/she is doing.
It is obvious today that the society is undergoing a constant change, necessitated by globalization, ICT revolution;
which has as well resulted in the increasing complexities experienced in our daily jobs. Taking the Nigeria banking
sector as a case in point, looking at what it was like two decades ago and what it is now shows a lot of changes.
Today we talk of electronic banking, sms banking, ATM banking, and so on. In order to cope up with the demands
of our jobs, our universities have always brought the required novelty which they impart as well in order to make the
graduates more equipped in meeting up with the demands of their present jobs. No wonder Wellerstein as cited in
Okeke (2006:272) rightly argued as regards the functions of the university thus:
The primary functions of a university are neither professional
training, general education nor intellectual research. These are
all tasks assigned to the institution. It’s primary function is

26
perpetually to question the truths of the time- whether they are
truths of the universe or of the social consensus.
Given the assertion above, it therefore behoves of the university to pursue truths which are ‘relevant’ to meeting up
with the day’s challenge.
The university also plays a huge role towards human resources development by the designing of curricular necessary
for the training of the required skills, national development, development of textbooks for up-dating knowledge,
training of teachers who impart these skills and as well certify individuals who had undergone various trainings in
the universities. With the above, universities in Africa would be able to produce the skilled human resources
necessary to manage newly independent countries as proposed by Saint (1992) in Okeke (2006).
It is true as established above that the required manpower needed by a nation; as a concomitant of the above, the
university helps to increase the productive capacity of an individual and nation. This is actually the main tenets of
human capital theorists like Berker (1964) and Schultz (1961). They are of the view that education increases the
productive capacity of workers and the nation at large. What follows is that higher education (university education)
equals higher productivity of an individual and the GDP of a nation. Usoro (2010) writes that after graduating from
the university, these graduates are now more productive than they were before their schooling.
The hallmark for benching production today is quality. This call for quality can only be achieved through the
organization and development of human resources in various universities; and in order to continuously meet up with
quality, there is need for a continuous development of the human aspect of the organization resources. The quality of
people appropriate to the particular level and complexities of the activities determines how well or poorly these tasks
are accomplished.
Implications of human capital thesis on university education in Nigeria
The human capital thesis posits the centrality for increased investment on education as a key to producing the
required human capital resources necessary to fast track national development and productivity. This assumption has
a huge implication for high spending on university education in order to realize the necessary human resources. The
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004:61) had long recognized this fact when it stated that education is an expensive
social service. Since thus is true, it follows that if the government of Nigeria does increase its budgetary allocation
for universities and other tertiary institutions of learning, the aim of generating the needed manpower necessary to
drive forward economic development and required output/productivity would be a shattered dream.
Conclusion
Empirical evidence on the impact of increased expenditure on education abounds showing the increase in the
availability of human resources and the tripled pace of development. A perfect example today is the case of East
Asia popularly known as the ‘Asian Tigers’. Looking at this, the writers conclude that continuous investment on
education (university education in particular) in Nigeria is one which the Nigeria government must pursue
vigorously in order to generate the needed manpower necessary to drive the long expected development forward
and the actualization of vision 2020. Therefore, continuous investment in university education is sine qua non to
development.
Recommendations
In order for the Nigeria economy to derive the benefits as postulated by the human capital theorists, the writers
recommend that:
1. There MUST be an increased budgetary allocation to the education sector (the university education in
particular) because the more schooled we are, the more productive we become.
2. Universities should offer courses which are of great relevance to the development of Nigeria economy. The
mismatch between the needs of the labour market and the taught courses in the universities should be a
thing of the past.
3. More emphasis should be given on practicals especially for those who are science inclined in the university
education.

27
4. There should be a steady review of curricula to meet up with what is obtainable in the developed world
such that our output/human resources can comfortably match or compete with them.
5. Teachers/lecturers should be reading and researching steadily in order to update their knowledge so that the
required skills for developing human capital would be taught. The idea of using one lesson note prepared
over a decade to teach/lecture students should be done away with.
6. Funding of universities should not be the sole responsibility of the state and federal governments, all hands
must be on deck, a call for private and NGO participations.
7. universities are not the only one to shoulder the responsibility of human resources development; public and
private organizations should sponsor their employees to go for training, attend workshops, symposia,
seminars and conferences.
References
Abdukareem, A. Y. & Mope, I, R. (2009). Higher education and information and communication technology in
Nigeria: a case study of University of Ilorin and Adoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso.
Benin Journal of Erittmotioral Studies, 19(2), 215-225.
Agabi, C.O. & Ogah, J.E. (2010). Education and human resources planning in Nigeria: The Case of National
Manpower Board (NMB). International Journal of Scientific Research in Education, 3(3), 152-165.
Babalola, J.B. (2003). Budget preparation and expenditure control in education.In J.B. Babalola (ed). Basic facts in
educational planning. Ibadan :Ibadan. Newmark industrial printers.
Becker, G.S. (1994). Human capital: A theoretical and Empirical Analysis with special reference to Education.
Chicago: The university of Chicago press.
Gbosi, A.N. (2003). Economics of human resources development. Choba: Nigeria. Emhai printing and publishing
company.
IIEP (2007). Higher education and development. Retrieved February 13, from http//:www.iiep.unesco.org.
JAMB (2012). Unified tertiary matriculation examination brochure 2012/2013 academic session. Abuja:Nigeria
Lado, A. & Wilson, M. (1994). Human resources systems and sustained competitive advantages: A Competency-
base perspective. Academy of Management Journal, 19(4), 699-727.
Maduagwu, S.N. & Nwogu, U .J.(2006). Resource allocation and management in education. Rivers: Chadik printing
press.
Okeke, B.S.( 2007). Politics of education. Awka: Nigeria. Doone printing and publishing.
Olaniyan, D A & Okamakinde (2008). Human capital theory: Implications for Educational Development. European
Journal of Scientific Research , 24(2) 157-162.
Psacharopoulos, G. & Woodhall, M. (1997). Education for development: An Analysis of Investment Choice. New
York: Oxford press.
Ramchandra, A. (2010). Theory and philosophy of human capital theory. Malaysia: University teknologi.
Schultz (1960). Investment in human capital. New York: The free press.
Swanson, R.A (1999). Human resources development theory, real or imagined. Human Resources International
Journal, 2(1), 2-5

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Sriyan de Silva (1997). Human resources development for competitiveness. A paper presented at the ILO workshop
on Employers’ Organization in pacific Asia in the Twenty-First Century. Turin, Italy, 5-13 May, 1997.
Retrieved February 13, 2012 from http//:www.ilo.org/public/English/dialogue /actemp/
downloads.
Usoro, E.B. (2010). Developing human resources in tertiary business education for youth empowerment and
national development in Nigeria. Higher Education in Africa Journal, 2(1).Retrieved February 13, 2012
from http//:w:ww.criticalimprov.com
Van-Den-Berg (2001). Leading issues in economic development. London: Addison-Wesley publishing company.
Xiao, J. (2001). Determinants of salary growth in Shenzen, China: An analysis of formal education on the job
training , and adult education with three level income model. Retrieved February 13, 2012 from
http//:www.columbia.edu
/center/coli/pdffiles.

29
ATTITUDE OF PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS TOWARDS
THE USE OF CREATIVE TEACHING METHODS (CTM) IN
THE TEACHING OF SOCIAL STUDIES IN PORT HARCOURT
LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF RIVERS STATE
Beatrice Ngozi Nwankwo
Department of Curriculum Studies and Educational Technology
Faculty of Education
University of Port Harcourt Rivers State
Abstract
This descriptive study was designed to investigate the attitude of primary school teachers towards the use of creative
teaching methods (CTM) in the teaching of Social Studies in Port Harcourt Local Government Area of Rivers State.
A population of 1534 primary school teachers from which a sample of 120 teachers constituted through stratified
random sampling technique was used in this study. The instrument for the study was the Attitude of Teachers
Towards the Use of Creative Teaching Methods Questionnaire (ATUCTMQ). It was a 12-item questionnaire
validated by three experts in the Department of Curriculum Studies and Educational Technology. The instrument
has a reliability coefficient of 0.76 determined using test-retest method. In this study, two research questions were
answered using the mean, and two hypotheses tested using t-test statistic. It was found that; male and female
primary school teachers in Port Harcourt Local Government Area had a negative attitude towards the use of creative
teaching methods in the teaching of Social Studies; Teachers with low and high levels of educational qualification
respectively had a negative attitude towards the use of creative teaching methods in the teaching of Social Studies;
Both gender differences and levels of education of the teachers did not significantly influence their attitude towards
the use of creative teaching methods in the teaching of Social Studies. Based on the findings, it was recommended
that in-service training should be provided to the teachers in order to educate them on the importance and
effectiveness of the creative teaching methods in the teaching of Social Studies.
Key words: Creative Teaching Methods (CTM), Social Studies, Port Harcourt.

30
30
Introduction
Education was defined by Nwangwu in Nwanna-Nzewunwa (2001) as the process by which every society attempts
to preserve and upgrade the accumulated knowledge, skills and attitudes in its cultural setting and heritage in order
to foster continuously the well-being of mankind and guarantee his survival against the unpredictable, at times,
hostile an d destructive elements and forces of man and nature. Achuonye and Ajoku (2003) see education as the
leading out of the in-born powers and potentialities of the individuals in the society and the acquisition of skills,
aptitudes and competences necessary for self-realization and coping with life’s problems. Therefore, education
serves as a very good instrument for the realization of the national objectives. Put differently, the realization of
national objectives depends largely on the accomplishment of the classroom instructional objectives. To this end, the
teachers are indispensable in realization of the instructional objectives and by extension, national objectives. To
achieve the objectives of classroom instruction, teachers adopt different teaching methods. Some of these methods
include inquiry, simulation, lecture, questioning, discussion, demonstration, excursion or field trip, etc.
However, not all these methods enhance creativity in the classroom. To be creative is to be able to discover a new
and better way of doing things or to use one’s imagination to produce new ideas or things (Longman Dictionary of
Contemporary English 2003, p. 236). Creative teaching methods are instructional practices that adopt novel and
better ideas for enhanced transmission of knowledge from the teachers to the students (Uche, 1992). Nenty (1998)
also defined creative teaching methods as different and unique ways teachers assist students outside the use of the
conventional methods to recall information, process information and to present and evaluate knowledge/skills and
attitude. There are some methods of instruction that are more amenable to creativity than others depending on how
the teachers handle them. These are drama, simulation, excursion, use of resource persons, use of advance
organizers, mnemonics, songs, rhymes, acronyms, etc (Nenty, 1998).
Creativity in the classroom is very important as a creative teacher inspires students to attain a greater academic
excellence. He links theory with practice. According to Awotua-Efebo (2002), a creative teacher is that who can
provide to the students situations that encourage experimentation and manipulation of subjects and symbols. A
creative teacher uses what is available in students’ localities in terms of cultural practices and instructional materials
to achieve his lesson objectives. He makes teaching more activity-oriented and gets learners more involved in the
teaching and learning transactions (Uche, 1992; Nenty, 1998; Shaibu, 1998).
There is a controversy of which variables could affect the creativity of a teacher in the classroom. Variables such as
educational qualifications, gender and years of teaching experience of the teachers which impact on teachers’
effectiveness can also affect teachers’ creativity in the classroom (Ude, 2008). Male teachers by nature are more
adventurous and can acquaint themselves with the cultures of the communities in which they find themselves faster
than their female counterparts. Longevity of teaching experience is also an important factor that can affect creativity
of a teacher (Unachukwu, 2001). Teachers with long years of teaching experience may have acquired deep
knowledge or enough exposure to be more creative in the classroom than teachers with short years of teaching
experience (Unachukwu, 2001). Levels of educational qualification of the teachers may also affect their creative
abilities. Teachers with low level of educational qualifications such as the holders of National Certificate of
Education (NCE) or GCE/WAEC or their equivalents may not have been exposed to high level of educational
information and research findings compared to teachers with high level of educational qualifications (Ude, 2008). In
this study, teachers with bachelor’s or higher degrees are regarded as teachers with high level of educational
qualifications.
Social Studies as introduced in Nigerian educational curriculum is multidisciplinary in nature (FRN, 1977). Its
multidisciplinary nature provides an opportunity for teachers who have the expertise to exhibit creativity in the
classroom. Social Studies as a subject was introduced in 1977, but its official implementation commenced in 1982
(FRN, 1977). The objectives of Social Studies include; to develop the desire and willingness to participate in civic
and social activities; to promote active citizenship education; to raise citizens who can understand the social and
economic problems of the country; to raise detribalized citizens who have interest in cooperation and tolerance; to
develop knowledge and appreciation of civic duties, rights and responsibilities; to create awareness and
understanding of the evolving social and physical environment as whole, its natural, man-made, cultural and
spiritual resources; to raise citizens who are law-abiding and who will shun the problems of bribery, corruption,
religious intolerance and political favouritism, etc (FRN, 1977).
Attitude of Primary School Teachers Towards the Use of Creative Teaching Methods (CTM) in the Teaching of Social Studies in Port
Harcourt Local Government Area of Rivers Stae

31
31
Thirty years after the introduction of Social Studies into our educational system, the crime, corruption and other
vices inherent in the nation are on the increase. Tribalism, nepotism, parochialism, political intolerance, religious
bigotry/fanaticism are still the order of the day. These vices are still noticeable not only in larger society but also in
Nigerian secondary and primary schools. Besides, the performance of the primary school children in Social Studies
leaves much to be desired. Accusing fingers for poor performance in Social Studies have been pointed at the
conventional or traditional methods employed by those entrusted with the teaching of the subject in our schools
(Unachukwu, 2001).
Statement of the Problem
Performance of students in Social Studies over the years has been poor (Unachukwu, 2001). It is likely that the
methods employed by teachers in the teaching of the subject could be partly responsible for pupils’ poor
achievement in the subject. Researchers have shown that creative teaching methods are hardly used to teach Social
Studies in the primary schools (Unachukwu, 2001 & Nwokolo, 2011). The inability of the teachers to use creative
teaching methods to teach the subject is a cause for concern and thus should be investigated. Hence, this present
study is geared towards investigating the attitude of primary school teachers towards the use of creative teaching
methods in the teaching of the Social Studies in Port Harcourt Local Government Area.
Purpose of the Study
This study was designed to investigate the attitude of primary school teachers towards the use of creative teaching
methods in the teaching of Social Studies in Port Harcourt Local Government Area. The following research
questions were answered in this study:
Research Question 1:
What is the attitude of male and female primary school teachers towards the use of creative teaching methods to
teach Social Studies in Port Harcourt Local Government Area?
What is the attitude of primary school teachers with low and high levels of educational qualification towards the use
of creative teaching methods in the teaching of Social Studies in Port Harcourt Local Government Area?
In this study, the following null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance:
Ho1: There is no significant difference between male and female primary school teachers with regard to their
attitude towards the use of creative teaching methods in the teaching of Social Studies in Port Harcourt
Local Government Area.
Ho2: There is no significant difference between the teachers with low and high levels of educational qualification
with regard to their attitude towards the use of creative teaching methods in the teaching of Social Studies
in Port Harcourt Local Government Area.
Instrumentation
The population of the study consisted of all the primary school teachers in Port Harcourt Local Government Area of
Rivers State which as at the time of study was 1534. This figure was made up of 184 male and 1350 female teachers
(Rivers State Ministry of Education Census Analysis, 2010). A sample of 120 teachers drawn from the population
through stratified random sampling was used in this study. The instrument for data collection was the Attitude of
Teachers towards the Use of Creative Teaching Methods Questionnaire (ATUCTMQ). It was a 12-item
questionnaire designed to measure the attitude of primary school teachers towards the use of creative teaching
methods in the teaching of Social Studies in Port Harcourt Local Government Area. It was a 4-point modified Likert
scale responded on strongly agree, agree, disagree and strongly disagree. It was vetted by three experts from the
Department of Curriculum Studies and Educational Technology for validity. Its reliability coefficient, determined
using Pearson Product Moment Correlation technique, was 0.76. For a 4-point questionnaire with 12 items, the
minimum score for a respondent was 12 and maximum score for a respondent was 48. Thus the mean cut-off value
was 30. Therefore a respondent who scored below 30 in the Attitude of Teachers towards the Use of Creative
Teaching Methods Questionnaire (ATUCTMQ) was adjudged to have a negative attitude towards the use of creative
teaching methods in the teaching of Social Studies. Similarly, a respondent who scored 30 and above was adjudged
to have a positive attitude towards the use of creative teaching methods in the teaching of Social Studies.

32
32
Results
What is the attitude of male and female primary school teachers towards the use of creative teaching methods in the
teaching of Social Studies in Port Harcourt Local Government Area?
Table 1: Attitude of male and female teachers towards the use of creative teaching methods in the teaching of Social
Studies
Gender N X Sd Decision
Male 42 24.23 0.81 Negative
Female 78 24.17 0.82 Negative
Table 1 shows that the mean scores for the male and female teachers were 24.23 and 24.17 respectively.
Based on the cut-off value of 30, it could be inferred that both male and female primary school teachers in Port
Harcourt Local Government Area had a negative attitude towards the use of creative teaching methods in the
teaching of Social Studies.
What is the attitude of primary school teachers with low and high levels of educational qualification towards the use
of creative teaching methods in the teaching of Social Studies in Port Harcourt Local Government Area?
Table 1: Attitude of teachers towards the use of creative teaching methods based on qualification
Qualification N X Sd Decision
Low level of
qualification
51 24.07 0.83 Negative
High level of
qualification
69 24.28 0.79 Negative
Table 2 shows that teachers with low level of educational qualification had a mean score of 24.07 while
those with high level of educational qualification had a mean score of 24.28. Thus, teachers with low and high levels
of educational qualification had a negative attitude towards the use of creative teaching methods in the teaching of
Social Studies.
Ho1: There is no significant difference between male and female primary school teachers with regard to their
attitude towards the use of creative teaching methods in the teaching of Social Studies in Port Harcourt
Local Government Area.
Table 3: t-Test analysis of gender differences in the attitude of teachers towards the use of creative teaching
methods
Gender N X Sd Df tcal. tcrit. Decision
Male 42 24.23 0.81
118 0.39 1.98
Not significant
Female 78 24.17 0.82
Table 3 shows that the t-test analysis of the data at 0.05 level of significance and 118 degrees of freedom
yielded a critical t-value of 1.98 and a calculated t-value of 0.39. Hence, there is no significant difference between
male and female primary school teachers with regard to their attitude towards the use of creative teaching methods
in the teaching of Social Studies.

33
33
Ho2: There is no significant difference between the teachers with low and high levels of educational qualification
with regard to their attitude towards the use of creative teaching methods in the teaching of Social Studies
in Port Harcourt Local Government Area.
Table 4: t-Test analysis of differences in the attitude of teachers towards the use of creative teaching methods
based on their educational qualifications
Qualification N X Sd Df Tcal. Tcrit. Decision
Low level of
qualification
51 24.07 0.83
118 1.40 1.98 Not significant
Low level of
qualification
69 24.28 0.79
Table 4 shows that a t-test analysis of the data at 0.05 level of significance and 118 degrees of freedom
yielded a critical t-value of 1.98 and a calculated t-value of 1.40. The inference is that though the teachers with high
level of educational qualification were more positively disposed towards the use of creative teaching methods in the
teaching of Social Studies, there was no significant difference when their mean score was compared with that of
their counterparts with low level of educational qualification.
Discussion of the Results
It was found that both male and female primary school teachers in Port Harcourt Local Government Area
had a negative attitude towards the use of creative teaching methods in the teaching of Social Studies. This finding is
similar to that of Ude (2008) who found that male and female primary school teachers had negative opinion towards
the use of creative teaching methods in the teaching of Primary Science at Awka Municipal. Majority of the male
and female primary school teachers in Port Harcourt Local Government Area were of the view that the use of
creative teaching methods was cumbersome, energy and time-demanding.
It was found that teachers with low level of educational qualification as well as teachers with high level of
educational qualification had a negative attitude towards the use of creative teaching methods in the teaching of
Social Studies. This finding agrees with that of Ude (2008) who found that teachers’ levels of education influenced
their opinions towards the use of creative teaching methods in the teaching of Primary Science at Awka Municipal.
The teachers irrespective of their educational qualifications were of the view that applying creative teaching
methods in the classroom is cumbersome and time-consuming.
It was also found that there was no significant difference between male and female primary school teachers
based on their attitude towards the use of creative teaching methods in the teaching of Social Studies. This finding
agrees with that of Nwokolo (2011) who found that there was no significant gender difference in the impact of
creative teaching methods on the academic achievements of primary school pupils in Social Studies at Enugu
Metropolis. This finding of no significant differences in the attitude of primary school teachers towards the use of
creative teaching methods in the teaching of Social Studies may be explained from the fact that both male and
female teachers had the impression that the use of creative teaching methods was cumbersome, energy and time-
demanding.
Again, it was found that there was no significant difference between the teachers with low level of
educational qualifications and those with high level of educational qualifications in reference to their attitude
towards the use of creative teaching methods in the teaching of Social Studies. This finding was in line with that of
Ude (2008) who found that significant difference did not exist between teachers with a low level of education and
those with a high level of education in terms of their opinions towards the use of creative teaching methods in the
teaching of Primary Science to primary school pupils at Awka Municipal. The reason why significant difference did
not exist between teachers with low level of education and those with high level of education in reference to their
attitude towards the use of creative teaching methods in the teaching of Social Studies was that these two categories
of teachers felt that the application of creative teaching methods in everyday classroom instructions was tedious,
cumbersome, energy and time-demanding.
Conclusion
The conclusions drawn from this study are as follows; male and female primary school teachers in Port
Harcourt Local Government Area had a negative attitude towards the use of creative teaching methods in the

34
34
teaching of Social Studies. Teachers with low and high levels of educational qualification had a negative attitude
towards the use of creative teaching methods in the teaching of Social Studies.
There was no significant difference between male and female primary school teachers in reference to their
attitude towards the use of creative teaching methods in the teaching of Social Studies in Port Harcourt Local
Government Area. There was no significant difference between the teachers with low education qualifications and
those with high educational qualifications in reference to their attitude towards the use of creative teaching methods
in the teaching of Social Studies in Port Harcourt Local Government Area.
Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations were made:
1. The awareness of the effectiveness and importance of creative teaching methods should be created. This
awareness should cut across board. In other words, all categories of primary school teachers without bias to
gender or levels of education should be enlightened on the effectiveness of creative teaching methods in the
classroom instructions as they were ill-disposed towards their use. In this way they will see reasons to
apply creative teaching methods as much as possible in their everyday classroom endeavour.
2. In-service training of teachers in form of workshops or conferences during which the effectiveness of
creative teaching methods is extolled should become imperative as the primary school teachers in Port
Harcourt Local Government Area exhibited a negative attitude towards the use of creative teaching
methods.
3. The teachers could be acquainted with the modern creative methods currently in use through in-service
training in form of workshops or conferences.

35
35
References
Achuonye, K.A. & Ajoku, L.I. (2003). Foundations of curriculum development and implementation. Port Harcourt:
Pearl Publishers.
Awotua-Efebo, E.B. (2002). Effective teaching: Principles and practice. Port Harcourt: Paragraphics.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (1977). National policy on education. Lagos: Government Press.
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English.
Nenty, H.J. (1998). Effective methods for teaching of primary school mathematics. Eket: Ememobong Publishers.
Nwanna-Nzewunwa, O.P. (2001). Sociology of education. Port Harcourt: Pam Unique Publishers.
Nwokolo, P. (2011). The impact of creative teaching methods on the academic achievements of primary school
pupils in social studies at Enugu Metropolis.
Shaibu, A.M. (1998). Structured text approach to remediating difficult concepts in the teaching/learning of science
in Nigerian schools. The Journal of Nigerian Teachers. 6(1), 54-68.
Uche, S.E. (1992). Some modern approaches to teaching of primary science. Eket: Ememobong Publishers.
Ude, R.M. (2008). The opinions of primary school teachers towards the use of creative teaching methods in the
teaching of primary science to primary school pupils at Awka Municipal. Journal of Science Teachers
Association of Nigeria. 7(10), 69-74.
Unachukwu, G.C. (2001). Academic achievement of pupils in primary school core subjects in Anambra State,
Nigerian. Journal of Empirical Studies in Psychology and Education. 3(1), 78-82.

36
TEACHERS’ JOB SATISFACTION AND QUALITY ASSURANCE OF
PRIVATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN KWARA STATE
ABDULKAREEM, A.Y. (Ph.D.)
Department of Educational Management University of Ilorin, Nigeria.
ayabdulkareem@yahoo.com
OGUNDELE, M.O. (Ph.D.)
National Teachers’ Institute Federal Polytechnic Offa, Kwara State, Nigeria
michogun@yahoo.com
&
ETEJERE, P.A.O. (Ph.D.)
Department of Educational Management University of Ilorin, Nigeria.
patetejere@unilorin.edu.ng
Abstract
This study investigated the impacts of teachers’ job satisfaction on the quality assurance of private secondary schools in
Kwara State. Correlation survey type was adopted for the study. Stratified random sampling technique was used to select 630
respondents comprising the proprietors, vice principals, principals, examination officers, and the core subject teachers. The
respondents were selected from 42 (60%) private secondary schools out of 70 schools. Five hypotheses were generated to
guide the study. The research instruments used for data collection were Teachers’ Job Satisfaction Questionnaire (TJSQ) and
Quality Assurance Questionnaire (QAQ). The instruments were validated and the reliability coefficients of .68 and .72 were
obtained using split-half reliability method for the (TJSQ) and (QAQ) respectively. All the hypotheses were tested using
Pearson product moment correlation statistics at 05 significance level. The Findings however revealed that teachers’ job
satisfaction variables have low significant impacts on the curriculum delivery, academic performance, examination ethics and
school discipline. It was recommended that private secondary schools teachers’ conditions of service should be adequately
improved and modern supervisory strategies such as clinical supervision, inter and intra-school supervision should be used to
complement autocratic supervision adopted, so that quality assurance could be adequately enhanced in the private secondary
schools.
Keywords: Teachers’ job satisfaction; Quality Assurance; Private secondary schools; Kwara State.
Introduction
In recent times, many young graduates find it difficult to lay hands on the type of job that suits their academic qualifications.
Many of the graduates engage themselves in any type of job just to keep their soul and body together. They were not employed
to the jobs that are relevant to their qualifications. Those that have the jobs of their choice have to contend with the problems
or poor conditions of service, poor salaries and other emoluments, poor interpersonal relationships and poor motivation, all
which in turn affect the job satisfaction.
Fagbamiye (2000) stated the factors that are necessary for effective job satisfaction. The factors identified are: improved
teacher morale, prospects for training, promotion of interpersonal relationships. To Fagbamiye, teachers can only put in their
best if their needs are well satisfied. Abdul (2002) opined that if teachers are sufficiently motivated they will be satisfied and
would perform their duties meaningfully and effectively towards enhancing quality control and assurance in the teaching-
learning processes. Abdul (2002) also mentioned those factors that influence job satisfaction and constant goal achievement,
work recognition, responsibility and advancement, interpersonal relationship, participatory decision making, delegation of
authority, salaries and wages. The author however suggested that the proprietors should find ways of influencing posture and
behaviour of teachers towards effective teaching and learning processes, so that quality assurance could be enhanced in
Nigerian educational system.

37
Ogundele (2002) suggested that the government should find ways of improving teachers’ morale in the interest of achieving
quality control and quality assurance in the teachers’ job performance. Ogundele however observed that teachers are a crucial
factor in the achievement of educational goals and overall national development. To Ogundele, teachers can only put in their
best if they are adequately taken care of. Ajayi (1998) noted that teachers’ job performance is measured through the following
variables: marking and returning of test and assignment scripts at the right time, students counseling, participation in co-
curricular activities, punctuality, coverage of syllabus, designing and using instructional materials, interpersonal relationship
and impartiality to the students. Jibowale (1999) identified the factors that aid effective teacher job satisfaction and job
performance in the schools to include high salaries, challenging work schedules, supervisory strategies, condusive conditions
of service, working environment, job security, prospect on the job, effective leadership styles.
Ogunsaju (2000) however observed that if the teachers are to perform their duties effectively towards enhancing quality
control and assurance, there is the need to create policies and avenues that will lead to teacher job satisfaction. Ogunsaju
further observed that if teachers are to be effective in their jobs, there is the need for adequate funds to engender satisfaction of
teachers needs. It is when their needs are satisfied, that the teachers will perform their jobs and duties effectively.
Ogundele (2008) described teachers’ job satisfaction in private secondary schools as an essential ingredient for teacher job
performance and invariably leading to quality assurance in children education.
Ogundele however described teacher job satisfaction as the level at which the teachers are contented with the working
conditions of service, salaries and working environment of the secondary schools which encourage them to perform their
duties effectively toward enhancing quality assurance in education.
It should be noted that if the teachers of public secondary schools who are remunerated by the three tiers of government, non-
governmental organizations and members of the society are still complaining of poor teacher job satisfaction, poor teacher
morale and poor teachers’ salaries, what then would happen to the teachers in the private secondary schools whose
responsibilities are solely shouldered by the single individual(s) and some group of people, can these individuals satisfy their
teachers towards enhancing job satisfaction for quality control and assurance? Ogundele (2008) opined that if the quality of
Nigerian education is to be enhanced and educational goals achieved, teachers must be adequately catered for.
Ogundele further noted that teachers in private secondary schools often complain about poor and irregular payment of salaries,
non-satisfactory condition of service and autocratic supervisory strategies adopted rigid condition of service. The scholar
however recommended that teachers in private schools should be adequately motivated towards effective job performance if
quality is to be enhanced.
Sakpere (2002) observed that, despite the fact that the private secondary school teachers are not satisfied with the job, yet
members of the society patronize private secondary schools purposely because of their higher graduation rate, better and
quality assurance in students’ academic performance, teachers’ commitment to work, rigorous academic activities, school
discipline, administrative effectiveness, stable academic calendar. Sakpere noted that there is significant difference in the
quality of students between the public and private secondary schools.
The rationale for this study is to investigate the impacts of teachers’ job satisfaction on the quality assurance of student
education of private secondary schools, especially in Kwara state.
Statement of problem
Since the private secondary schools are financed and controlled by the proprietors and parents, they have to source funds
internally through the students if their schools are to be effectively run. It should be noted that it is from the funds generated
by the proprietors that they will make provision for capital and recurrent expenditure.
The major problem of this study is that, when the teachers in the public secondary schools whose welfare is catered for by the
three tiers of government and meaningful individuals in the society are complaining bitterly about poor job satisfaction, low
morale, poor salaries and inadequate welfare services, what then could happen to the private secondary schools teachers job
satisfaction? Will there be quality control and quality assurance in the private secondary schools teaching-learning processes?
Is there significant relationship between teachers’ job satisfaction and quality assurance of private secondary schools in Kwara
state ?
Teachers’ Job Satisfaction & Quality Assurance of Private Secondary Schools In Kwara State

38
Purpose of the study
The main purpose of the study is to investigate the impact of teachers’ job satisfaction and quality assurance in private
secondary schools in Kwara state. Specifically, the study was to find out the extent to which teacher job satisfaction variables,
like teachers’ conditions of service, salaries and wages, and supervisory strategies influence quality assurance of private
secondary schools in Kwara state.
Research hypotheses
The following null hypotheses were postulated to guide the study:
HO1: There is no significant relationship between teachers’ job satisfaction and quality assurance of private secondary schools
in Kwara state.
HO2: There is no significant relationship between teachers’ salaries and quality assurance of Kwara state private secondary
schools.
HO3: There is no significant relationship between teachers’ conditions of service and quality assurance of private secondary
schools in Kwara state.
HO4: There is no significant relationship between supervisory strategies and the quality assurance of private secondary
Methodology
This study is a descriptive survey of a correlation survey type. This design was appropriate because if investigate the influence
of teachers’ job satisfaction on the quality assurance of private secondary schools in Kwara state. The study population
comprised of the proprietors, principals, vice principals, and core subject teachers. Stratified random sampling technique was
adopted to select 12 private secondary schools from each of the three senatorial districts, making 42 private secondary schools
in all. A total number of 630 respondents were used for the study.
Teachers Job Satisfaction Questionnaire (TJSQ) and Quality Assurance Questionnaire (QAQ) were used to collect relevant
data relating to the teachers job satisfaction and quality assurance variables in private secondary schools.
Content validity of the instrument was assured through comments and criticism from experts in educational management, and
measurement and evaluation. Split-half reliability methods was used to determine reliability of the instrument which gave
r=.66 and .68 reliability index for TJSQ and QAQ respectively, indicating that the instruments have high level reliability of
use. The data collected were analyzed. Pearson product moment correlation statistics was used to test all the null hypotheses at
.05 significance level. The basis is to determine the impacts of teachers Job satisfaction on the quality assurance of private
secondary schools in Kwara state.
Results
HO1: There is no significant relationship between teachers’ job satisfaction and quality assurance of private secondary schools
in Kwara state.
Table 1: Teachers’ job satisfaction and quality assurance of private secondary schools in Kwara state.
Variables No. X sd df Calculated
r-value
Critical
r-value
Decision
Teachers Job
Satisfaction
360 54.82 7.81
988 .46 .196
Ho Rejected
Quality
Assurance
630 60.26 7.72
Table 1: shows that the calculated r-value of .46 is greater than the critical r-value of .196 at a degree of freedom of 988 and
tested at .05 significance level. Hence, the null hypothesis which states that there is no significant relationship between
teachers job satisfactory and quality assurance of private secondary schools in Kwara State is rejected. It means that low
positive significant relationship exists between teachers’ job satisfaction and quality assurance of private. The result is in line
with the opinion of Jagbamiye (2000) which observed that poor job satisfaction is the bane of quality control and quality
assurance of teachers during the teaching-learning processes. In private secondary schools of Kwara state the existing quality
control and assurance is not based on the teachers’ job satisfaction due of salaries, participatory decision, human relations.
Olaniyan (1990) was of the fact that salaries and incentives provided for the teachers of private secondary schools are not

39
enough to bring about the desired teachers’ job satisfaction. Yet the teachers perform their duties towards enhancing effective
quality assurance in the students. They perform most of the school work effectively to the satisfaction of the proprietors.
Ogundele (2008) revealed that teachers’ job satisfaction for quality assurance of private secondary schools was enhanced
through supervisory strategies, condition of service, and constant goals achievement.
HO2: There is no significant relationship between teachers’ salaries and allowances and quality assurance of private secondary
school.
Table 2: Teachers salaries and quality assurance of private secondary schools of Kwara state
Variable No. X sd df Calculated
r-value
Critical
r-value
Decision
Teachers
Salaries
360 54.58 31.06
988 .46 .196 Ho
RejectedQuality
assurance
630 60.26 7.72
Table2: above shows that the calculated r-value of .182 is lower than the critical r-value of .196 at the degree of freedom of
988 and tested at .05 significance level. Hence, the null hypothesis which stated that there is no significant relationship
between teachers’ salaries and quality assurance is accepted. It means that no significant relationship exists between the
teachers’ salaries and the quality assurance of private secondary schools. The result however is in line with the findings of
Ogundele (2008) which opined that the private secondary schools teachers in Kwara state are not adequately paid, that the
result of their meager salaries leads to high teacher turnover to the public secondary schools. Yet teachers that are still in
private secondary schools perform their duties rigorously towards ensuring quality assurance in the school.
Atolagbe (2007) also supports the finding that there is high level commitment to duties by the private secondary
school teachers than those from the public secondary schools, despite the facts that those in the private secondary schools
receive lower salaries and other allowances than those in the public schools. No wonder that Ogundele (2002) observed that
poor teachers’ salaries and emoluments lead to the high rate of examination malpractice. Many students in Nigeria cannot
write public examinations alone; they resort to examination malpractice.
HO3: There is no significant relationship between teachers condition of service and quality assurance of private secondary
Table 3: Teachers’ condition of service and quality assurance of private secondary schools in Kwara state.
Variables No. X Sd Df Calculated
r-value
Critical
r-value
Decision
Teachers
conditions of
service
660 38.5 44.5
988 .62 .195 Ho rejected
Quality
assurance
630 60.26 7.72
The result of correlation analysis in table 3 shows that the calculated r-value of .62 is greater than the critical r-value of .195 at
.05 significance level and for 988 degree of freedom. Since the calculated r-value of .62 is greater than the critical r-value of
.195 the null hypothesis which states that there is no significant relationship between school condition of service and quality
assurance is rejected. It shows that school condition of service have high posture significant relationship with the quality
assurance of private secondary schools in Kwara State. The result was supported by Olaitan (2008) which stated that private
secondary schools ate so much committed to their duties due to the agreed condition of service signed by the teachers when
taking up the appointment in the schools. Boffette (2001) also agreed with the findings that the applicants seeking jobs in the
private schools would be given the condition in which they need to be adhere to if employed. the applicants however have no
alternative that to accept due to high rate of unemployment in the labour markers.
Based on the condition of service agreed upon the teachers have to perform their work failure to comply lead to termination of
the appointment or withdrawal of part of stipends given called salaries.

40
HO4: There is no significant relationship between supervisory strategies and quality assurance of private secondary schools in
Kwara State.
Table 4: supervisory strategies and quality assurance of private secondary schools in Kwara state.
Variables No. X Sd Df Calculated
r-value
Critical
r-value
Decision
Teachers
salaries
630 47.6 38.3
988 .58 .196 Ho rejectedQuality
assurance
630 60.26 7.72
Table 4 indicates that the calculated r-value of .58 is greater than the critical r-value of .196 at a significance level of .05 and
for 988 degree of freedom, hence the null hypothesis which states that there is no significant relationship between supervisory
strategies and quality assurance is however rejected. It however shows that high positive significant relationship exist between
the type of supervisory strategies and quality assurance of Kwara State private secondary schools. The result also indicates that
the supervisory strategies adopted by the proprietors and the principals have high significant impacts with the quality
assurance of private secondary schools the result however shows that the proprietors have a close monitoring of the teachers
while at work they dictate the way the teachers will perform their jobs. The teachers are closely monitored to see that they
comply with the directives. Failure to comply means that they should be terminated from the work. The supervisory strategies
adopted have significant impacts on the teachers job performance which eventually aid effective quality assurance of private
secondary schools.
The finding was supported by the work of Tuoyo (2000) which opined that private secondary proprietors adopted autocratic
supervisory strategies to monitor the teachers Job during curriculum delivery, examination ethics, Teaching-Learning
processes and all those activities that will aid quality assurance of the instructions provided in the schools.
Conclusion
Based on the of result of data collected, it could be concluded that teachers’ in private secondary schools are not satisfied with
the job due to the meager salaries and poor condition of service. the research study discovered that teachers perform their
duties rigorously because of the conditions of service and the supervisory strategies adopted by the proprietors. It was noted
both the conditions of service and the supervisory strategies become interplay factors for enhancing quality assurance in
private secondary schools in Kwara State.
Recommendations
Based on the result of findings the following recommendations were made so as to enhance effective quality assurance in the
private schools educational system.
• Private secondary schools teachers conditions of service should be improved. The proprietors should improve their
teachers; conditions of service in order to reduce high rate of teachers turn over in the private secondary schools and
in interest of enhancing stable teachers for quality assurance in the schools.
• Autocratic supervisory techniques adopted by the proprietors should be complemented. The proprietors should not
rely solely on the autocratic supervisory technique, it should be complemented technique, it should be complemented
with other forms of supervisions such as clinical supervision, inter and intra school supervision and collegial
supervision on the interest of bringing quality assurance in private secondary schools.
• Private secondary schools teachers salary should be harmonized. The proprietors forum in conjunction with the state
ministry of education should have a round table discussion to harmonies private schools teachers’ salaries structure so
as to bridge the wide gap that will exist in the salaries of public secondary school teachers and their private secondary
schools counterparts.
If the salaries are harmonized, is will enhance teachers job satisfaction and commitment towards enhancing quality
assurance in private secondary schools in Kwara State.
• Private secondary schools environment should be conducive for effective teaching. Learning process- The proprietors
are strongly advised to provide infrastructural facilities such infrastructural material, sporting facilities, computers,

41
transportation facilities and building that will encourage both the students and staffs to work effectively in the schools
towards enhancing quality assurance in the private schools education.
• Compliance to quality control mechanisms for quality assurance in the schools should be enhanced. The should be
private secondary schools proprietors forum for the private schools. This forum will be charged with the
responsibilities of compliance to the quality control mechanisms sucn as examination ethics, human capital
development, commitment to duties and all those activities that will enhance quality assurance on the private
secondary schools especially in Kwara State.
Reference
Abdul, A. A. (2002) Relationship between human resources management practices and staffs job performance of Nation
primary commission. M.Ed project.
Ajayi, I.A (1998) Towards effective financing of private secondary schools in Ekiti State.International journal of educational
management IJEM 2(2)27
Atolagbe, J.A (2007). Teachers job satisfaction and students’ academic performance of secondary schools in Oyo State
college of education. unpublished B.A Ed project university of Ado-Ekiti
Boffette, J.O (2001). All schools are public schools: A case to aid private education and home schooling parents. Posted online
to http/www.catholic.edu.org/articles/education/ed. retrieved on 7th
Durosaro, D.O (2000) Motivation concept and provesses in Ogunsaju .S. & Durosoro, D.O (Eds) The crafts of educational
management Ilorin: haytees
April, 2001.
Fagbamiye, B.O. (2000) Teachers’ remuneration, condition of services, job satisfaction, attitude to work and job performance
in secondary schools of Lagos State in Fagbamiye, E.O. & Durosara, D.O (Eds) Education and productivity
Ilorin: Haytees
Jibowale, J.S. (1999). Private sectors participation in the funding of education: way forward. African journal of education
1(3)45
Ogundele, M.O. (2002) Teachers’ morale: A veritable tool for successful implementation of U.B.E objectives in Nigeria.
Informant 1(1)14
Ogundele, M.O (2008) Funding teachers’ job satisfaction and students academics performance of secondary schools in
Kwara State. Unpublished ph.D thesis university of Ilorin
Ogunsaju, S.A (2004) A guide to schools effectiveness in Nigeria. Ibadan: Laville publishers.
Olaitan, J.A. (2000) Management practices in Nigeria. Ile-Ife: University Press.
Olaniyan, S.O. (1999) Financing of secondary education under a depressed economy in Oyo State. Unpublished ph.D thesis
Obafemi Awolowo University Ile-Ife.
Sakpere, P.S. (1999) Comparative study of students academic performance of private and public secondary schools in Ibadan
metropolitan city. Unpublished M.ed project university of Ilorin.
Tuoyo, M.U. (2000) Inspection and supervision as practice of quality control in school system in Fadipe, J.O & Oluchukwu,
E.E. (Eds) Educational planning and administration in Nigeria in the 21st
century. Ondo: NIEPA.

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42
Role of Physical and Health Education in the Actualization of
Millennium Development Goals in Nigeria: Challenges and Way
Forward
Dr. Ifeanyichukwu Christian Elendu & Ubong Samuel Akpan
Department of Human Kinetics and Health Education, Faculty of Education, University of Port Harcourt, Rivers
State.
E-mail: elelifey2k@yahoo.com
el_samjoy@yahoo.com
Abstract
The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) have been globally accepted and are geared towards achieving
development. The MDGs which are developed by United Nations in September, 2000, have eight goals that
centre on eradication of extreme poverty and hunger, achieving universal primary education, promotion of
gender equality and empower women, reducing child mortality, improve maternal health, combating HIV and
AIDS, malaria, and other diseases, ensuring environmental sustainability, and developing a global partnership
for development. Some of these goals are interwoven and can be achieved in tandem with educational objectives
knitted into the school system. Physical and Health Education (PHE) which incorporates sports, as a course or
subject of study in Nigerian schools can be an effective tool in the realization of the MDGs. However, PHE in
Nigerian schools is faced with some challenges which may affect the use of the subject to achieve the MDGs.
The challenges include poor status of PHE teachers; negative attitude of PHE teachers; negative attitude of PHE
pupils/students; lack or poor implementation of unified PHE curriculum; government insensitivity and
instability in academic structure; lack or poor implementation of PHE-related policies and agreements by
government; corruption; poor status of PHE teaching aids and infrastructure; inadequate time allotment for
PHE; inadequate or lack of motivation, and PHE pupils/students-teacher ratio imbalance. If PHE must
contribute effectively to the actualization of MDGs, certain measures must be taken by governmental and non-
governmental individuals and groups to address the challenges.
Key words: Millennium Development Goals; actualization; physical and health education; challenges; sport.
Introduction
The future and development of a nation can be marred and overtaken by hunger and poverty, insecurity,
mortality, morbidity, illiteracy, poor health and fitness, environmental degradation activities and absence of
global community existence and interaction in the nation, if measures are not taken. Allen (2000) defined
development as the process of economic, social, political and cultural change that is promoted in the society
through the efforts of all the relevant stakeholders both locally and internationally – including local
communities, government, private sector, non-governmental organizations, the civil society organizations as
well as financial and technical development partners which becomes obvious in order to improve the conditions
of living of people in sustainable manner. The problem of development has occupied the attention of scholars,
activists, politicians, development workers, local and international organizations for many years with an
increased tempo in the last decade (Igbuzor, 2006). Every nation including Nigeria is working towards its social,
economic, religious, political sustenance and development.
Quest for development has given rise to many and different governmental and non-governmental programmes,
policies and strategies in some countries, including Nigeria. At the global level, the United Nations articulated
and identified Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) as an instrument of development. In Nigeria, the
administration of President Goodluck Ebele Jonathan has “transformation” as its developmental goal and target.

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The transformational agenda of President Jonathan is in line with MDGs set by the international community.
According to Government of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (2010), the MDGs share common notions with
Nigeria’s own development vision. A nation’s development can be affected negatively by the nation’s negative
attitude towards the MDGs. The eight MDGs were established in September 2000 by the United Nations at their
Millennium Summit held in New York.
The United Nations hope to realize the eight goals which cut across all human facets by 2015. In specifics,
United Nations Inter-Agency Task Force on Sport for Development and Peace (UNITFSDP) (2003), and United
Nations (2006) noted that the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) 1 is to eradicate extreme poverty and
hunger. The MDG 2 is to achieve universal primary education. The MDG 3 is to promote gender equality and
empower women. They further stated that the MDG 4 is geared towards reducing child mortality. The MDG 5
seeks to improve maternal health. The MDG 6 is to combat HIV and AIDS, malaria, and other diseases. The
MDG 7 is to ensure environmental sustainability. The MDG 8 is to develop a global partnership for
development (UNITFSDP, 2003; United Nations, 2006).
The educational institutions have roles in the actualization of MDGs through the creation of public awareness
and implementation social programs such as sports. The school is a social institution where movement or sports
and health education skills are taught and learnt by PHE teachers and pupils/students, respectively. PHE is a
compulsory practical-based subject or aspect of a subject at the basic education level (i.e. pre-primary, primary,
and junior secondary education) and an optional practical-based subject or course at the senior secondary
education and tertiary education in Nigeria. PHE aims at educating the masses on the perils of unhealthy habits,
creating awareness on diseases, environmental hazards, providing meaningful employment, being physically fit
and productive through physical activities and sports.
The practice of PHE knowledge and skills in school and outside the school helps in the building up of the body
systems and immunity against various communicable and non-communicable diseases. The United Nations have
realized and advocated that sport is an instrument of peace and development capable of actualizing the MDGs.
The only school subject that encompasses sports is PHE. Hence, PHE deserves every attention from
governmental and non-governmental institutions. With increment in the number of people living on less than US
$1, unemployment, poor infrastructural development, lack or inadequate jobs for the teeming population, youth
restiveness and insecurity, Nigeria may not achieve MDGs if measures are not taken. PHE as a school subject,
course, discipline, or profession which encompasses sport has a vital and significant role to play on the
actualization of the MDGs.
Role of PHE in the actualization of MDG 1 - Eradicate Extreme Poverty and Hunger
Sport is a market and marketing tool capable of eradicating poverty and hunger. Sport competitions provide
marketing ground for people to sell sport and sport-related products to make money. UNITFSDP (2003)
enumerated the contribution of sport to eradication of extreme poverty and hunger to include participants,
volunteers and coaches acquiring transferable life skills which increase their employability; vulnerable
individuals are connected to community services and supports through sport-based outreached programs; sport
programs and sport equipment production provide jobs and skills development; sport can help prevent diseases
that impede people from working and impose health care costs on individuals and communities, and sport can
help reduce stigma and increase self-esteem, self-confidence and social skills, leading to increase employability.
Elendu and Orunaboka (2011) noted that elite athletes are paid millions of dollars or pounds. If everyone is to
participate actively or passively in sport, poverty and hunger can be eradicated in Nigeria. People who
participate actively in sport and improve their sport skill, they can be paid huge amount of money. The family
and other members of the society who participate passively in sport by supporting the people (children, friends,
peers, coaches and trainers,) who participate actively in sport can say goodbye to poverty and hunger when the
person whom they have supported are paid millions of dollars or pound. The highly paid athletes are likely to
remember those who supported them and help eradicate poverty and hunger in the homes of their supporters by
providing infrastructure capable of employing them. Passive sport participants recuperate their lost energy
through sport spectatorship thereby enhancing their work output or productivity. Medals have been won, laurels
and monetary prizes obtained by most sportsmen and women. These people at times earn a living through these
Role of Physical & Health Education in the Actualization of Millenium Development Goals in Nigeria: Challenges & Way
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activities. Thus, each competition won by an athlete means a reduction by one of the number people who would
have gone hungry for a day, months, or even years.
Medals have more than a dollar accompanying them. The teaching of the subject at all levels of education
informs, prepares and positions the masses for job opportunities. PHE provide a good ground for sporting
activities in educational institutions. Products of PHE have the opportunity of being self-employed by
establishing fitness centres, recreational parks and sports clubs for utilization by all irrespective of gender, age,
marital status, race, ethnicity, among others. For effective organization and administration of sport competitions
such as Olympic and World Cup, many people are employed and paid, thereby relieving them from hunger and
poverty.
Role of PHE in the actualization of MDG 2 - Achieve Universal Primary Education
UNITFSDP (2003) listed the ways sport can contribute towards achieving universal primary education to
include school sport programs motivate children to enrol in and attend school and can help improve academic
achievement; sport-based community education programs provide alternative education opportunities for
children who cannot attend school, and sport can help erode stigma preventing children with disabilities from
attending school. Sport can offer educational scholarship and sponsorship from primary to tertiary education for
members of a community through the efforts of highly paid elite athletes in or from the community. PHE
graduates can open private schools especially primary schools that are affordable to the public. Highly paid elite
athletes can partner with government to ensure a free and compulsory primary education. The partnership with
government can cover the provision of free books, school uniforms, build model and modern schools, employ
and pay teachers and other staff. In this case, every child irrespective of his or her family socio-economic status
will have the opportunity of at least receiving primary education. PHE programmes such as intramural sports
can entice and attract children to school and this will enable them to acquire basic primary education. It will not
be out to add that some children go to school because of the extra-curricular activities such as sports which they
enjoy during or after school.
Role of PHE in the actualization of MDG 3 - Promote Gender Equality and Empower Women
UNITFSDP (2003) opined that the ways through which sport can contribute to the promotion of gender equality
and women empowerment include sport helps improve female physical and mental health and offers
opportunities for social interaction and friendship; sport participation leads to increased self-esteem, self
confidence, and enhanced sense of control over one’s body; girls and women access leadership opportunities
and experience; sport can cause positive shifts in gender norms that affords girls and women greater safety and
control over their lives, and women and girls with disabilities are empowered by sport-based opportunities to
acquire health information, skills, social networks, and leadership experience. Elendu and Orunaboka (2011)
stated that sportswomen receive financial allowances for competitions either from nation, club side, team or
association. They further noted that apart from getting economic and financial entitlement as female athletes,
other women assume positions in sports industries which economically empowered them. Sport offers women
the opportunity of acquiring the required sports and leadership knowledge and skills for leadership positions.
With women acquiring the necessary skills, if possible more than men, the public will not have any option than
electing and appointing them in leadership positions. The inequality in the number of men and women in
societal institutions which does not favour women can be reversed through sport. More women are likely to be
involved in sports when they see for instance retired elite sportswomen who serve as their role model in sports
leadership position (Elendu & Orunaboka, 2011). This will help to close the inequality existing between men
and women in sports leadership positions.
PHE taught at all levels of education enlightens the girl-child on the fundamentals of health and sports. It
prepares their minds towards a career-filled future. It also gives them equal opportunity with their male
counterparts to partake in games and sports which today in the world is a major source of income to its
participants. Again, PHE contributes to social, physical, and economic empowerment of women. This is evident
in the medals and records won and set by Nigeria women at the Olympics and other international sport
competitions. Sport empowers women socially by ensuring that they establish healthy relationships with other
sport participants, empowers them physically by ensuring that they develop certain physical prowess and fitness
qualities such as strength, endurance, flexibility, among others, and economically by giving them opportunity to
receive monetary awards, and allowances as a result of their sport achievements.

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Role of PHE in the actualization of MDG 4 - Reduce Child Mortality
UNITFSDP (2003) noted that the ways sport can contribute to the reduction of child mortality include using
sport to educate and deliver information to young mothers, resulting to healthier children; increased physical
fitness improves children’s resistance to some diseases; sport can help reduce the rate of higher-risk adolescent
pregnancies; sport-based vaccination and prevention campaigns help reduce child deaths and disability from
measles, malaria and polio, and inclusive sport programs help lower the likelihood of infanticide by promoting
greater acceptance of children with disabilities. Elite athletes can provide health institutions and health care
services specifically for the children. They can equally engage themselves in health enlightenment campaigns
and awareness programmes, and provide safe drinking water for children to prevent water-borne diseases.
Children who participate in sports and physical activities are less likely to experience morbidity and mortality.
PHE contributes to redressing the environmental challenges that impede pupils/students’ healthy living through
awareness and enlightenment campaigns. It educates the public on the need for vaccines and a healthy nutrition.
Most children die or develop ailments as a result of poor nutrition. Deficiency in the basics of a child’s diet
leads to complication that is rather life-threatening especially for a growing child. Only health-informed mothers
appreciate the worth of vaccination and persist on it unfailingly. The less-informed or illiterate tend to miss
medications and skip vaccines, which invariably becomes drug abuse. Unequipped medical centres and low
income to give prior medical care to children becomes life threatening.
Role of PHE in the actualization of MDG 5 - Improve Maternal Health
UNITFSDP (2003) pointed out that the ways which sport can contribute to improve maternal health to include
sport for health programs offer girls and women greater access to reproductive health information and services,
and increased fitness levels help speed post-natal recovery. They further noted that sport can contribute by
reducing the risk of adolescent pregnancy in sport participants in some contexts. Sport helps to improve the
physical, mental, social and reproductive health of women. Maternal mortality can be prevented through talks,
presentations and seminars given by health education professionals to these women when they gather together
for their pre and post natal visitations to health centres. The level of training these professionals have obtained
will be very valuable in this quest to establish a reduced maternal mortality rate before, during and after child
birth. PHE experts can educate and expose mothers on the type, frequency and duration of sports and exercises
to engage in during pregnancy and after child-birth as a way of improving maternal health in Nigeria.
Engagement in appropriate physical activities associated with PHE, maternal health will be improved and the
number of women who die as result of pregnancy-related complications and morbidity will be highly reduced.
Most sports ambassadors and elite athletes can and have assisted in providing accessible health care services and
institutions to community members including women. The elite athletes can provide free, near, accessible health
institutions and services for women. Health education will equally educate pregnant women and nursing
mothers on the type of food to eat and other ways to take care of their health to ensure that their health
improves. Health education can drastically reduce maternal mortality by educating mothers and women on
available reproductive health services and health institutions.
Role of PHE in the actualization of MDG 6 - Combat HIV and AIDS, malaria, and other diseases
Sport is particularly well suited to HIV and AIDS education and prevention because it is popular, enabling it to
connect with and engage hard to reach groups; fun and appealing to youth – a primary prevention target group;
attracts public and media attention through the use of elite athletes and major sport events; provides a safe
environment to discuss sensitive issues and information with trusted adults (coaches and teachers); can be used
to build protective factors into the lives of youths through the coach-child relationship, provision of social
support, sport skill acquisition, and leadership development opportunities; and possesses a natural convening
power that can bring together different groups within communities and help to mobilize shared prevention
efforts (UNITFSDP, 2003). The ways through which sport can contribute in combating HIV and AIDS, malaria,
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and other diseases, according to UNITFSDP (2003), include reducing stigma and increasing social and
economic integration of people living with HIV/AIDS; sport programs are associated with lower rates of health
risk behaviour that contribute to HIV infection; programs providing HIV prevention education and
empowerment can further reduce HIV infection rates; sport can be used to increase measles, polio and other
vaccination rates, and involvement of celebrity athletes and use of mass sport events can increase reach and
impact of malaria, tuberculosis and other education and prevention campaigns.
Elite athletes and coaches who serve as sport ambassadors can be used to reach to other sport participants
especially youths who see them as role models and the youths are likely to imbibe healthy behaviours which the
elite athletes and coaches encourage that have the potentiality of preventing diseases. Most youths love every
action of elite athletes who serve as their role model and these athletes are used as an educational platform and
any health risk behaviour condemned by these athletes are mostly condemned by the youths. Hence, elite
athletes can be used to prevent HIV, AIDS, and other diseases in Nigeria. Elite athletes can be used to educate
people to develop positive attitude towards utilization of health care services. With HIV, AID and other diseases
in PHE curriculum, many people are aware of the diseases. Through PHE sensitization programs, people are
now aware of the means of contacting the diseases, their ways of prevention and treatment. The degree of
incursion of this menace into the fabrics of societal health can further be reduced by educating pupils and
students in schools on the various means of staying away from the syndrome, and how to relate with those who
are already victims without any form of stigmatization.
Through PHE, people can become equipped with information about where to go to for health issues related to
HIV and AIDS. It even goes beyond this to also enlighten them on the viability of most practices targeted
towards combating HIV and AIDS. PHE can effectively be utilized in the dissemination of information about
the deadly nature of malaria as well as other killer diseases. Also, exercises that could help the body fight off
most diseases can be taught in PHE classes and programs. With the aid of health education programmes, the
masses are brought to light the disease prevention strategies.
Role of PHE in the actualization of MDG 7 – Ensure Environmental Sustainability
UNITFSDP (2003) observed that the ways sport can contribute towards ensuring environmental sustainability
include sport-based public education campaigns to raise awareness of importance of environment protection and
sustainability, and sport-based social mobilization initiatives which can enhance participation in community
action to improve local environment. PHE as a discipline can be directed towards teaching people about the
consequences of allowing the environmental resources to become degraded. Ways to curb this depletion of the
environment should be made known to them, as well as methods of reversing the loss. Elite athletes can be used
in supporting and promoting environmental-friendly practices. Elite athletes can be used to encourage
afforestation and discourage deforestation without replacement of trees, bush burning, and imbibe the culture of
clean and green environment. Advertisements on ensuring healthy environment can be staged during mega sport
competitions such as World Cup and Olympics. Loss of biodiversity can be prevented through the efforts of
PHE. People can be educated to ensure that endangered species are protected, to prevent them from becoming
extinct. Clean environment is prerequisite for good health. Thus, PHE can be engineered towards ensuring that
people realize the importance of environmental sanitation and preservation. This can be achieved through the
school PHE curriculum, as well as sensitization programmes by both government and non-governmental
organizations.
Role of PHE in the actualization of MDG 8 - Develop a Global Partnership for Development
Sport ensures peaceful atmosphere for foreign partnership and investments before, during and after competition.
UNITFSDP (2003) stated that sport can contribute towards developing global partnership for partnership
through sport for development and peace efforts, catalysing global partnerships and increased networking
among governments, donors, NGOs and sport organizations worldwide. Globalization and internationalization
of sport have provided ground for countries to share developmental ideas, policies, strategies and programmes.
People can be taught through sport to co-exist and partner with others in the general quest of human
development. Sport competitions like Olympics and World Cup bring presidents and ministers of sports of
different countries to partner and cause global development through sports. The international community has

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always partnered with elite athletes in disseminating developmental information and encourages developmental
projects and practices through the athletes.
Challenges Facing PHE in Nigerian Schools
The contributions of PHE to the actualization of MDGs may not be achieved if the challenges facing the subject
or course in Nigerian schools are not addressed. The challenges include poor status of PHE teachers; negative
attitude of PHE teachers; negative attitude of PHE pupils/students; lack or poor implementation of unified PHE
curriculum; government insensitivity and instability in academic structure; lack or poor implementation of PHE-
related policies and agreements by government; corruption; poor status of PHE teaching aids and infrastructure;
inadequate time allotment for PHE; inadequate or lack of motivation, and PHE pupils/students-teacher ratio
imbalance.
Poor status of PHE teachers
There are unqualified, inadequate and lack of PHE teachers in some schools. The unqualified teachers do not
know the pedagogy of teaching PHE and sport to pupils/students. Inability of any PHE teacher to demonstrate
the sport skills is a clear indication the he or she is not qualified to teach the subject or course. This
incompetence is obtainable in some schools. There are schools that do not have PHE teachers or the number of
PHE teachers is not enough to cover the population of pupils/students to guarantee effective teaching and
learning. These may affect the hope of using PHE to achieve the MDGs.
PHE teachers’ negative attitude
Some PHE teachers get to class without proper preparation. Some of the teachers are not dedicated to the
teaching of the subject or course, as could be seen in their late attendance and poor attendance to classes. Some
of the PHE teachers describe the activity to be performed by the students without doing or demonstrating them.
Some of the PHE teachers theorize rather than practicalizing the sport skills. This lackadaisical attitude affects
the learning processes and performance of the pupils/students. Some PHE teachers’ lateness to school is a mark
of their negative attitude towards teaching as a profession and PHE as a subject.
PHE students’ negative attitude
Some of the PHE students have negative towards the subject or course. This could be seen in their irregular
attendance to practical classes, and poor dressing pattern for practical classes. Some of the students, especially
university students, feel reluctant putting on the correct attire for practical PHE classes. They often see putting
PHE practical attire as a punishment and degrading to their personality.
Lack or poor implementation of unified PHE curriculum
The unified PHE curriculum for Nigerian secondary schools is not implemented and used by some PHE
teachers. PHE in Nigerian colleges and universities does not have a unified curriculum. Hence, every college
and university designs its own curriculum which is not exactly the same with other colleges or universities. The
non-unified curriculum has led to students graduating with different orientations, backgrounds and exposures.
PHE students in some colleges and universities graduate with different course outlines. Due to curriculum
differences, a PHE course taught in one college or university may not be existing as that course, neither is it
integrated in a related course in another college or university, and the graduates from all the colleges and
universities are expected to function as PHE experts in the field.
Government insensitivity and instability in academic structure
With the low budgetary allocation and implementation in education sector by government, it shows government
insensitivity to the call for quality education through the provision of teachers’ and students’ welfare packages,
facilities, equipment, and supplies. Government insensitivity to the demands and decay of the educational sector
have led to incessant strike actions by teachers thereby paralysing or slowing down the academic activities that
would foster the actualization of the Millennium Goals. Changes in government always affect every sector
including education and PHE as a subject. School sport programmes and policies of a past government are
usually sometimes suspended, delayed or changed as soon as there is new government in power.
Lack or poor implementation of PHE-related policies and agreements by government
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There are good educational policies and agreements reached by government and representatives of educational
sectors but the fundamental problem is the lack or poor implementation of the agreements and policies. One of
the reasons for the incessant strike actions by teachers in Nigeria is government’s failure or poor implementation
of agreements reached with various teachers’ unions. Some of the demands in relation to PHE include the
provision of adequate instructional materials, sports facilities, equipment, library stocked with PHE textbooks,
teachers and students welfare.
Corruption
Corruption has been on the increase in every sector of the society, including education. The money allocated for
some PHE facilities, equipment and teaching aids are sometimes embezzled. The money for construction of
PHE facilities and procurement of sport equipment are being diverted into individual pockets. This has led to
PHE pupils/students learning without doing much of the practical aspect of the subject or course. PHE teachers
except where they improvise are left with no option than to teach the pupils/students without the facilities and
equipment or with substandard facilities and equipment. This has always resulted to producing graduates with
little or no practical skills of PHE.
Poor Status of PHE teaching aids and infrastructure
The status of PHE teaching aids and infrastructure in Nigerian schools is poor. The unavailability, inadequacy,
sub-standardization, and inaccessibility of PHE teaching aids (e.g. audio-visual materials, visual materials, sport
supplies, etc.) and infrastructure such as sport facilities and human performance laboratory are challenges to
effective teaching and learning of PHE in schools. The role of audio-visual, visual, audio materials and other
learning aids in the teaching and learning of PHE cannot be over emphasized. The unavailability, inadequacy
and inaccessibility of some of these instructional aids have by far dampened the zeal and morale of both
teachers and pupils/students as far as teaching and learning of PHE is concerned. Some schools cannot boast of
good and recent textbooks of PHE in their libraries.
Inadequate time allotment for PHE
For mastery of PHE skills by pupils/students, it requires enough time. PHE is both a theory and practical-based
subject or course which demands enough time for teacher’s and pupils’/students’ demonstration of the sport
skills and health (e.g. first aid) skills. Each PHE class is expected to be preceded with a warm up session and
cool down at the beginning and end of the practical classes, respectively. The practical-oriented nature of PHE
should be put into consideration during time allotment to school subjects or courses. Unfortunately, PHE is
treated like any other school subject or course in terms of time allotment.
Inadequate or lack of motivation of PHE teachers
PHE teachers are not well motivated for their service-delivery. The necessary motivational packages in terms
teachers’ welfare, teaching aids, and enabling environment is inadequate in Nigerian educational sector. The
teachers usually experience late payment of salaries and allowances. The absence of research grants by
government affects the development of the teachers in their career. The employee-assistance package for PHE
teachers is not adequate. The low motivation especially the extrinsic motivation of the teachers is as important
as the intrinsic motivation for effective teaching and learning of PHE.
PHE pupils/students-teacher ratio imbalance
PHE requires individualized teaching and learning process especially in practical classes. Every individual
pupil/student is expected to be attended to especially during practicals. This is to ensure that the pupils/students
master the sport and health skills, techniques and ensure their competency. Unfortunately, the PHE
pupils/students-teacher ratio in Nigerian schools especially primary and secondary schools may never encourage
adequate individualized class interaction between the teacher and pupils/students. Some of the schools or classes
are over-populated and difficult to be managed by a PHE teacher. Some PHE graduates who are supposed to
help in addressing the manpower need for the subject or course are not employed.
Way Forward
1. Adequate and qualified PHE teachers should be employed in government and private schools to teach the
subject or course.

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2. Students/pupils and teachers should change their negative attitude towards PHE at all levels of education.
3. A unified PHE curriculum should be designed, monitored and implemented in all schools at various levels
of education.
4. Government should be sensitive and proactive in providing the needs of the educational sector and PHE in
particular to avoid incessant strikes in the sector.
5. Good educational policies and agreements between teachers (PHE teachers) and all educational
stakeholders should be properly made and implemented.
6. Anti-graft agencies should be involved in the fight against corruption in educational sector.
7. Adequate and standard PHE instructional aids and infrastructure should be provided and made accessible to
all pupils/students and teachers.
8. Adequate time should be allotted to PHE to ensure that the theory and practicals of the subject or course are
well covered.
9. PHE teachers should be properly motivated through the provision of teachers’ welfare packages.
10. More qualified teachers should be employed to ensure that the number of PHE pupils/students is not too
much for a teacher in a class.
References
Allen, T. (2000). Meaning and views of development. In T. Allen & A. Thomas (Eds.) Poverty and
Development in the 21st
Elendu, I. C. & Orunaboka, T. T. (2011). Sports as an institution for gender stereotype challenge and women
empowerment: A reflection on Nigerian elite sportswomen at the Olympics. International Journal of
Physical Education & Sport Science, 6, 57 – 69.
Century. London: Oxford University Press.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2010). Nigeria Millennium Development Goals Report. Retrieved from
www.mdgs.gov.ng
Igbuzor, O. (2006). The Millennium Development Goals: Can Nigeria meet the goals in 2015? A paper
presented at a symposium on Millennium Development Goals and Nigeria: Issues, challenges and
prospects organized by the Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria, Abuja District, on 27th
United Nations (2006). The Millennium Development Goals Report. New York: United Nations Department of
Economic and Social Affair.
July,
2006 at Sheraton Hotel and Towers, Abuja.
United Nations Inter-Agency Task Force on Sport for Development and Peace (2003). Sport for Development
and Peace: Towards achieving the millennium development goals. Geneva: United Nations
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REFORMS IN THE UNIVERSAL BASIC EDUCATION PROGRAMME IN NIGERIA: THE
CHALLENGES AHEAD
Josephine Ebere Elekwa (Ph.D.)
Department of Educational Foundations and Management,
Ignatius Ajuru University of Education,
&
Bright Okanezi (Ph.D.)
Department of Educational Foundations,
Rivers State, Nigeria.
Abstract
The paper focuses on the need for reforms in the on-going Universal Basic Education (UBE) programme.
The programme as declared is free and compulsory for all children of school age, adolescents and adults
who for one reason or the other could not complete a formal school course. In spite of its laudable
objectives and scope, the hope for the programme to address the illiteracy and poverty problems of the
nation, is challenged by multi-faceted problems of planning and implementation, infrastructural decay,
administrative ineptitude, teacher image/status and poor instructional materials. The paper recommends
the depoliticization of education, massive infrastructural development in the sector, teacher motivation as
veritable approach to revamp the programme and enhance the quality of its products.
Introduction
The introduction of the Universal Basic Education (UBE) and its launching in 1999 was an echo of hope
for the Nigerian child of school age, the adolescents (school-dropouts) and the adults whose educational
chances were truncated by uncontrollable circumstances.
The dire need for reforms in the currently implemented UBE programme that has not survived a decade
(from 2004 when the Act was passed) is a lucid premonition of the programme going down the way of the
defunct UPE programme. The sophisticated nature of the UBE and the priority given to it by government in
terms of budgetary allocation would provoke the question: To what extent has the UBE programme
addressed the issue of illiteracy, poverty and educational imbalance in the nation? An attempt to answer the
above question will lead us to the issue of ‘reform’, the heart of this paper. The UBE programme was a
search for an educational system that will carry along every Nigerian child, adolescent and adult citizens in
the fight for the reduction and possibly eradication of illiteracy in the society at the shortest possible time.
Okorosaye-Orubite (2008:40) reflecting on the status of the UBE states that the UBE:
aims at not only making the young to acquire the skills for permanent literacy, numeracy
and the ability to communicate effectively, but also to acquire practical skills with which
to earn a living for life. In fact the ultimate goal is to achieve ‘Education For All’ - the
advantaged and the disadvantaged; the gifted and the uneducable; the physically
challenged and the non- challenged; the rural, and the urban dwellers; the rich and the
poor; the nomadic and the sedentary; etc.

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Such an educational system may not be relevant if it lacks quality and efficacy. Okonkwo in Nworgu and
Emenogu (1990:30) opine that the quality of education has to do with “the issue of relevance, validity,
functionalism and efficacy... in the achievement of national goals and priorities”. The above implies that an
educational system that does not efficiently lead to the attainment of national goals lacks quality and
therefore requires total changes or reforms.
Challenges of the UBE programme
The success or failure of any programme depends largely on the level and strategies of
implementation. In Nigeria the attainment of educational goals has always been a mirage. Sub-standard
plans without coherence in the planning and implementation of such programmes has been responsible for
that. Okorosaye-Orubite in Kosemani (2000:49) complains about the inability of Nigeria to put her lofty
ideas into practice. Olumoyina in Noah and Simeon (2006:173) sees political instability and ideological
inconsistencies as problems standing against putting ideas into practice in Nigeria. The above has in no
small measure dampened the social, economic and political environment of the nation for the effective
implementation of the UBE in spite of the government’s acknowledgement of education as “an instrument
‘per excellence’ for effecting national development” (Federal Republic of Nigeria FRN:2004:4). The
concept of implementation of an educational programme is very broad, and encompasses among other
factors:
(i).Infrastructural facilities
(ii). Administrative factor
(iii). Teacher factor
(iv). Instructional materials.
The Need for Infrastructural Facilities
The FRN (2000:10) defines infrastructure and facilities as “the physical and spatial enablers of
teaching and learning”. In that wise, no education system can bring about the anticipated results without
infrastructure. Infrastructural facilities in this sense refer to: classroom blocks, offices, workshops,
laboratories and writing materials (desks, tables, and chairs).
Classroom Blocks
The FRN (2000) indicated the need for the expansion of training facilities (classrooms as
paramount). That was aimed at making provision for the accommodation of the target population for
enrolment in the UBE programme. Regrettably, Nwideeduh (2003:1) lamented that “despite the
leapfrogged school population the same building set up to accommodate 30 (thirty pupils) students in 1960s
were still expected to accommodate students’ population that had quadrupled in latter years”.
Reforms in the universal basic education programme in Nigeria :the challenges ahead

52
In spite of government plans as indicated above, the same government, in FRN (2 004:9) states that
“education and training facilities shall continue to be expanded in response to societal needs... .” Perhaps, it
was in the above direction that the Universal Basic Education (UBE) (2002:12) prescribed 3096 three
classroom blocks with 3,096 offices for head teachers 3096 stores and 9,288 VIP toilets for construction
across the nation.
A study carried out by Morrison (2006) on the infrastructural needs of the UBE in Abua/Odual
Local Government Area of Rivers State revealed that the number of classroom blocks approved by
government for construction, when divided by the 774 Local Government Areas in the nation, each Local
Government Area shall only be lucky to get four (4) such buildings (if completed). In order words, only
twelve (12) classrooms per Local Government Area. The study further revealed that the gesture was more
of a political show-piece as such buildings would only be sited at urban centres and named ‘model
schools’. To actualize the above, UBE (2002:12) reports that the project was - divided in phases. Below is a
tabular representation of the achievement of government as at September 2001, as revealed by the study of
Morrison (2006).
Table 1:Classroom Blocks for the UBE (in phases as at 2002)
Phases Total number of
classroom blocks
Number
completed
Number under
construction
Number
abandoned
Total
3096
Phase I 734 280 439 15 734
Phase II 1195 18 1175 3 1196
Total 1929 298 1617 18 1930
Source: Morrison (2006)
The above reminds us of the prayer of Okorosaye-Orubite in Kosemani (2000:55): “We pray that
the rush does not make these classrooms victims of the Nigeria factor as was the case during the planning
and implementation of the UPE Scheme”. The case is not different about workshops, laboratories and
libraries. How can these be put in place where there are no classrooms and offices? Maduekwe (2003) and
Godgift (2005) lamented on the near absence of libraries and laboratories in almost all Nigeria primary and
secondary schools, let alone workshops. What could be expected of students, particularly in the technical
and vocational schools which are part of the UBE? It was in that sense that Ajeyalemi as cited by Kosemani
(2000:143) laments in these words: ‘’Nigerian universities have been producing more of scientific
historians than scientists, those who could only read and memorize scientific facts and principles... .” In
practical terms, what is obtainable there is what Morrison (2006) refers to as “more of ‘talkshop’ than
workshop”.

53
Educational Administration
A country’s education system is rooted in the social, political and economic life style of the
people. It is what society puts into the education system that the school returns back to the society
(Maduagwu, 1998). Kosemani (1995:2) states that “whatever system of education is operative in any nation
is a function of social, historical, political, racial, geographical, linguistic, cultural, economic and secular
forces prevalent in that society.” The Nigeria political scene, the instrument of governance and
administration, is characterized by ethnicity, nepotism, favouritism and ‘godfatherism’. Administrative
posts are politicized and are associated with political parties’ biases. Consequently, seasoned educationists
and able hands are neither consulted in decision making nor given the opportunity to man administrative
posts in the education industry.
The Teacher and the UBE
No nation can actualize its educational goals without the teacher at the centre of the system. And
no teacher does his/her knowledge dissemination role well without job satisfaction. It is in realization of
this truth that the FRN (2004:39) states that government will “help teachers to fit into social life of the
community and the society at large and enhance their commitment to national goals”. Ironically, teachers
are regrettably discriminated against, downtrodden and despised, and find it difficult to fit into the
economic life of the community and the society at large. Since there is no job satisfaction, the teacher finds
it difficult to show commitment to work.
Unachukwu in Okeke (2002:158) talks of job satisfaction as a motivator that boosts the ego of one
to do his job well. No teacher feels satisfied with the condition of his/her teaching job. This accounts for
perpetual strike actions embarked upon by teachers at all levels. The nation-wide strike action embarked
upon by the Nigerian Union of Teachers (NUT) from the 1st, July 2008 is a glaring evidence. A situation in
which a salary structure approved 15 years ago was neither implemented nor given any attention can only
be a source of industrial conflicts.
Instructional Materials
In the words of Orifa in Obomonu (2001:56) “education can best be enhanced through the ... use
of visual aids... .” Considering the status of the UBE, it requires more teaching aids than any other universal
free education programme that was practiced in Nigeria. Still to regret, Gbamanja (1999:38) reports that
“teaching materials are not actually available in many classrooms in Africa...” Kosemani (2000:15)
reacting to the above remarks that “... institutionalized learning must provide the infrastructural facilities
needed to create a science literate society”. By implication, it is not enough to initiate, launch and
implement an educational programme without a matching provision and distribution of instructional
materials that will facilitate the achievement of the objectives of the programme. Government, as reported
in the Vanguard of April 17th 2008, shifts interest from public schools to unity schools - the school for the

54
privileged to the detriment of the public schools. Such interest cannot lead to the actualization of the
objectives of the UBE
Conclusion and Recommendations
Illiteracy and poverty are diseases that disintegrate society and build blocs of marginalization and
discrimination especially in a multi-ethnic nation like Nigeria. Only an educational system that is
universalized can cure the diseases and hold the nation together. The UBE programme is a welcome
development in Nigeria, a society identified with high levels of illiteracy and poverty.
It is the hope of all well meaning Nigerians that illiteracy will soon be drastically reduced in the
country with the introduction of the UBE prograrnme. The hope seems to be strengthened by foreign
support through material and financial grants. Political leaders and stakeholders of other institutions of
society who already have acknowledged education as an ‘instrument par excellence’, should accord
education the needed attention in terms of finance, supervision and oversight, especially in the area of
scientific and technological education. Until government detaches education from party politics and stops
to use funds allocated to the education sub-sector as the surest way for the actualisation of personal gains,
the hope of “Education For All (EFA) through the UBE programme may elude our society, and continue to
be a mirage. Teachers’ welfare should be given a facelift. This will boost the morale and ego of teachers
and elicit the best from them. Teachers should not only be laden with instructions and commands but
should be allowed to participate in policy making and implementation of educational programmes. Their
contributions may be of big help since they are to put the implementation into practice. Instructional
facilities should be provided at all levels and arms of the education industry. Since no skilled work can be
successfully learned without tools for practical studies, it is therefore imperative for such materials to be
fully made available in all workshops and stores.

55
References
Eheazu, B. A. (2006). Repositioning Education in Nigeria. Multi Disciplinary Journal of Research
Development. 7 (6).
Enyi D. (2003). The Reform of Basic Education in Nigeria - A study of Head-teachers competencies in
Micro-level Management. In A. C. Okeke (ed.). Educational Reforms in Nigeria for the millennium.
Enugu: Snap Press Ltd.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National Policy on Education. Lagos: NERDC Press.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2000). Implementation Guidelines for the Universal Basic Education (UBE)
programme. Abuja: UBEC.
Gbamanja, S. P. T. (1999). Modern Methods in Science Education in Africa. Port Harcourt: Paragraphic.
Godgift, P.E. (2005). Education and Politics in Nigeria: The case of UPE and UBE: Unpublished M.Ed.
Thesis.
Kosemani, J.M. (1995)(ed.). Comparative Education: Emergent National Systems. Port Harcourt: Abe
Publishers.
Kosemani, J.M. (2000)(ed.). Nigerian Education: Matters Arising, (Volume 1) Port Harcourt: Para-
graphic.
Morrison, U.I. (2006). The infrastructural needs of the UBE programme in Abua/Odual Local Government
Area. An unpublished seminar paper presented to the Department of Educational Foundations,
Maduekwe, A. (2003). Reading and UBE Scheme: A proposal for life long education at the JSS level.
Journal of Curriculum Studies, 10 (1).
Niger Delta Standard (March 19, 2006). 2006 Budget, Education Gets Lion Share, Port Harcourt: Mark
Rose Company Limited.
Nwideeduh, S. B. (2003) (ed). Trends and Issues in Managing Universities in Nigeria. Owerri: Springfield
Publishers.
Nworgu, B.G. & Emenogu, B.C. (1990) (ed). Concept and Indications of Quality Education. Owerri: Totan
Publishers.
Obanya, PAI (2002). Revitalizing Education in Africa. Ibadan: Stirling-Horden Publishers Nigeria ltd.
Obomanu, B. J. (2001) (ed). Trends in Technology Teacher Education in Nigeria, Uyo: Ivy Press Limited.
Okorosaye-Okubite, A.K. (2008). From Universal Primary Education (UPE) to Universal Basic Education
(UBE): What Hope For Nigeria? School of Graduate Studies Seminar Series No 1; Port Harcourt:
University of Port Harcourt Press Limited.
The Daily Independent (Thursday March 16, 2006). Federal Government Clamps Down on States over
UBE Fends Divertion; Lagos; independent Newspaper Limited
Unachukwu, G. O. (2002). Education and Job Satisfaction among Nigerian workers. In E. C. Okeke (2000)
(ed). Sociology of Education: Concepts and Applications. Owerri: Springfield Publishers Limited.

56
Universal Basic Education Programme (2002). Information on UBE; Abuja: Research and Publication Unit
of the Planning, Research and Statistics Department.
Vanguard, (Thursday, 17/04/2008) Lagos: Vanguard Media Limited.

60
THE NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY SYSTEM OF NIGERIA: PROBLEMS AND
PROSPECTS
Josephine Ebere Elekwa Ph.D.
Department of Educational Foundations and Management,
Ignatius Ajuru University of Education,
Port Harcourt, Nigeria
&
Bright Okanezi Ph.D.
Department of Educational Foundations,
Port Harcourt, Nigeria.
Abstract
Distance education is an application of teaching and learning methods to overcome spatial and
temporal constraints, using Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) as important enabler
of the distance system. This work x-rays the National Open University system in Nigeria, its problems
and prospects as well as the benefits and relevance to the development of the educational sector in
Nigeria. To enhance the quality of programmes and products of the National Open University, the
paper suggests among others, that professional online material developers should strive to be
knowledgeable and versatile in multimedia’s highly sophisticated technologies, such as CD-Rom,
Internet website and the incorporation of sound, vision and animation; that government must ensure
that all parts of the country receive telecommunication services to deepen the participation of students
resident in the rural areas in the programme.
Introduction
Distance education is the use of a variety of media including Information and Communication
Technologies (ICT) to provide and improve access to good quality education to large numbers of people
whether because they missed the opportunity earlier in life or because their present socio-economic and
family circumstances would not permit them to acquire education through the formal school system
(Common Wealth of Learning International, 2001:108).
Education is seen as the bedrock of every nation and a dynamic instrument of change. The Federal
Government of Nigeria, realizing this since independence, has continued to demonstrate an irrevocable and
unwavering commitment to education as a tool for national and personal development, and as an
inalienable right of her citizens. With this, the Nigeria educational policy makers, in formulating the
National Policy on Education expressed awareness of the fact that education is the most important
instrument of change in any society. Fundamentally, any change in the intellectual and social outlook of
any society has to be preceded by an educational revolution. Educational reform is therefore adopted by the

61
federal government as an instrument ‘par excellence’ for effecting national development, especially at the
tertiary level.
University education is one of the best means for developing national consciousness. It is in this
realization that the Federal Government set up the Ashby Commission in 1960. The Commission
recommended four universities for Nigeria. By the middle of 1970s, however, the total number of federal
universities had risen to thirteen with establishment of the second-generation universities of Jos, Kano,
Calabar, Ilorin, Maiduguri, Sokoto and Port Harcourt, added to the first generation universities of Ibadan,
Zaria, Lagos, Nsukka, Ife and Benin. By 1999, five of the six first generation universities had each been
grappling with annual student population of between 16,000 to 30,000 students (Mbachu, 2007:2).
By 1999, the federal universities had a total of almost 400,000 students. Every year since
independence, however, the demand for places in the universities had remained unmet. Between 1990 and
year 2000, there was no time the universities had been able to admit more than 15 per cent of qualified
applicants. Olugbemiro (2006) asks; “how many universities does this country need if it were to provide
places for all qualified applicants?” Hence, the need for National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN), to
meet the yearning desire and aspiration of the teeming youths and adults of Nigeria for tertiary education.
Concept of Open and Distance Education
` The National Open University of Nigeria was initially established on the 22nd July 1983 as a
springboard for open and distance learning in Nigeria. It was suspended on 25th April, 1984 by the then
Military Head of State. Because of its tremendous role in tackling the country’s educational problems and
providing access to education for all, it was resuscitated on 1st October, 2002; with its administrative
headquarters located in Lagos.
The National Open University of Nigeria is designed to increase the access of all Nigerians to formal and
non-formal education in a manner convenient to their circumstances. It was to cater for the continuous
educational development of professionals such as teachers, accountants, bankers, lawyers, nurses,
engineers, politicians, self-employed, businessmen and business women. The programme also dedicates
itself to preparing professionals in various disciplines through the distance-learning mode. It also offers a
choice of qualifications from certificates, diplomas to degrees (NOUN, 2007; Wali, 2007).
The national open university system of nigeria: problems and prospects

62
Relevance of the National Open University
The National Open University system is a superb programme which is a way out of the problems
that the satellite campuses could not solve. It provides cost effective, flexible and life-long education to a
very large majority of Nigerians who would otherwise not have a chance to undertake tertiary education.
Jegede (2006) states that the National Open University is regarded as the foremost university providing
highly accessible and enhanced quality education, anchored by social justice, comprehensive reach that
transcends all barriers. He went further to say that the National Open University of Nigeria is the only
federal government established single-mode, tertiary institution in Nigeria dedicated to quality open access
education through distance learning. Its set up is geared towards taking the distance out of education for
many Nigerians who would not normally have the opportunity to study through the conventional mode of
face-to-face, full time study. According to Jegede (2006), the National Open University of Nigeria is
designed to increase the access of all Nigerians to formal and non-formal education in a manner convenient
to their circumstances. It provides education for all and promotes life-long learning in Nigeria, and it fills
the gap created by the closure of the sub-standard outreach satellite campuses across the nation.
Obasanjo (2006) acknowledged the relevance of open and distance learning through National
Open University by saying that it will provide unrestricted access for all, and achieve equitable
representation in all facets of our national life. It is cost effective in the educational delivery system. Open
and distance learning improves on the economics of scale; that is, more Nigerians receive quality education
but at a reduced cost. Technical and vocational education have in recent years played important roles in
assisting individuals to improve their employment prospects in a rapidly changing socio-economic
environment. In this regard, the role of the National Open University in the field of technical and vocational
education is significant.
The programmes offered, the teaching and degrees awarded are subject to the same quality
assurance as all Nigerian universities. Besides, due to globalization, the National Open University of
Nigeria (NOUN) collaborates with the Commonwealth of Learning (COL) in Canada, the International
Council for Distance Education, the African Council for Distance Education (ACDE), and well-established
distance and Open Universities of the United Kingdom, Hong Kong, India, Australia, South Africa and the

63
Africa Virtual (Ololube & Ifinedo, 2007). In summary, the need/relevance of National Open University
includes:
 Provision of education for all and promotion of life-long learning.
 Cost effectiveness
 Improved economics of scale
 Flexibility of delivery system
 Maximum utilization of academic personnel
 On the job teacher training
 Poverty eradication
 Vocational and life-long education
 Provision of non-formal education
 Teaching the unreached
 Avenue for propagation of national orientation.
The National Open University of Nigeria employs a range of delivery methods to take education
to the people and make learning an enjoyable activity. According to Wali (2007:152), these methods
include:
 Printed instructional materials, audio, videotapes and CD ROMs
 Television and radio broadcast of educational programmes
 Electronic transmission of materials in multimedia (voice, data, graphics, video) through fixed line
(telephone or leased lines), terrestrial and VSAT wireless communication systems.
All these methods lead to the following benefits of studying at the Open University:
 Enhanced access to quality education
 Improved general level of literacy
 Studying through variety of methods
 Increased opportunity for skill acquisition
 Cost effective educational opportunities
 Organized and comprehensive open and distance learning programmes
 The learner studies at his own pace using all avenues within his disposal

64
In the National Policy on Education (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004), the advantages of open and
distance education is often taken for life-long learning by those who:
 Left school for one reason or the other, but who having matured would want to make a re-entry into the
knowledge arena.
 Did not avail themselves the opportunity to go to school but, who are still interested in acquiring basic
education in view of the goal of education for all.
 Were not successful when they finished school but now wish to remedy their deficiencies and proceed
for further studies.
Challenges of the Open/Distance University Education in Nigeria
In spite all the juicy benefits/advantages of the Open University system it is not without a
problem(s). Some of the problems associated with distance education are enumerated below (Akinyemi,
1991; in Wali, 2007).
 Lack of finance
 Lack of qualified instructors
 Lack of good course writers and carefully prepared materials
 It costs a lot of money to run a correspondence course, and unless the programme is sufficiently
funded, it might be difficult to get qualified instructors and good course writers. It will also be difficult
to get other personnel to prepare other materials that are needed for the running of the course.
Furthermore, there is the problem of postage, the use of radio, television, other utility services, vehicle
and equipment, all of which cost much money to acquire and maintain.
For Ochoma (2006:160), the absence of teacher poses a lot of problem for the student. The face-
to-face contact between the teacher and the student, which is lacking in distance education goes a long way
to make learning difficult and this has effect on cognitive independence.
 The materials used in distance education is prepackaged, seen as sacred knowledge that cannot be
criticized or challenged. There is no input from the students’ angle and they just must accept it “hook,
line and sinker”.

65
 Group pressures that strengthen the learning process are missing. The students study on their own;
areas of difficulty can for instance, result into frustration and eventually into dropping-out from the
programme.
 The society accords such programmes as distance education a very low regard. This makes it difficult
for most people to participate.
 Assessment poses its problem too, as there is no standard benchmark in assessing assignment and
examinations. Moreover, feedback is slow and irregular.
Other challenges of the NOUN include;
 Understaffing
 Inadequate (centres) i.e. lack of infrastructure, too little space for students to learn.
 Over population
 Information dissemination between student/management is far i.e. it does not flow well.
Prospects of National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN)
Galbreith (2002) appraises the NOUN by saying that the university will make a priority of
ensuring that course content will have a local flavour, with any course taken from the western world
explicitly customized to fit the Nigeria’s linguistic and cultural needs. He contends that rather than waiting
for western distance learning programmes to scoop up Nigerian students first, it is important to develop
“from an African perspective”. He is optimistic that Open University learning in Nigeria will harness the
opportunities of the information age for the enhancement of skills acquisition, so that Nigeria will be on the
right side of the digital divide.
 It will also help to create a penetration, wider reach, affordable and cost effective educational
opportunities for all so that nobody is left behind.
 Open distance learning will facilitate workplace training and professional development and provision
of education at all levels nationwide, especially through community resource/study centres.
 The programmes available to people under the National Open University system are essentially
designed to widen the access to education and to ensure equity and equality of opportunities for all and
sundry.

66
 It is to be used as an instrument for poverty alleviation especially in rural communities, by providing
opportunities that support Education For All (EFA) and life-long learning.
 It is to equip the Nigerian populace for the emerging global culture of technological literacy via its
programmes and the use of information and communication technology.
 The National Open University of Nigeria will provide a flexible educational delivery system in our
country, which will help meet up with the economic realities where a lot of people desire to work and
learn simultaneously.
Obaji (2006) admits and applauds that the NOUN has come to give Nigeria’s population, our growing and
increasing need for higher education as well as the demand by employers for knowledge renewal.
According to her, through the NOUN, the enormous challenges of providing access to thousands of our
citizens that are constantly excluded from access to education because of the limited provision of schools
and facilities will be solved.
 The NOUN currently has eighteen (18) study centres and plans to have at least one study centre in each
of the 774 local government areas of Nigeria.
 Good interactions between the students and facilitators, which has enhanced high academic level in the
system.
 Also enough materials are provided for study.
In a nutshell, it is expected that the Open University will among other things do the following:
 Raise the literacy level in Nigeria
 Substantially increase access to university education
 Widen the catchment scope of beneficiaries of university education thus reaching the hitherto
unreachable and ensuring that nobody interested in, and capable of having university education, is left
out.
 Help Nigerians to be on the right side of the digital divide.
 Enhance and facilitate workplace training and professional development.
 Meet the yearnings of Nigerians for university education.
 Reduce the pressure on university place in the conventional universities (NOUN, 2007:6).

67
Conclusion
NOUN was introduced in Nigeria to provide education to the teeming population of people in the
country. It is a programme designed for people who were not successful or had no opportunity when they
finished their secondary education, but wish to remedy their deficiencies or shortcomings and proceed for
further studies in any study centre of their choice, probably nearer to them. It is a programme of study
meant for even graduates who would desire to update their knowledge and skills in disciplines or courses of
their choice for their continuing professional entrepreneurial development. No doubt the programme has
achieved some results at inception, but there is much more to be done to enhance the programme success.
Low technology innovations, low publicity, and the exorbitant cost of programmes do not help the quality
and patronage of the programme by the people.
Recommendations
The following recommendations are considered important:
 Professional on-line material developers should strive to be knowledgeable and versatile in multimedia
highly sophisticated technologies such as CD-Rom, Internet website and the incorporation of sound,
vision and animation.
 The facilitator(s) should develop teaching methods that would improve and impact ways of presenting
information and ideas to students and to stimulate their thinking, providing opportunities for students
to be active learners, taking into cognizance individual differences in learning styles.
 Government must ensure that all parts of the country receive telecommunication services- the rural
parts should not be neglected. In short, universal access should be encouraged in totality.
 The Nigerian government may have to waive certain import duties and tariffs for goods and equipment
imported for delivering distance education.
 Shortages in other infrastructural facilities, e.g. electric power generation need to be addressed.
 The national policy for distance education and e-learning initiatives in Nigeria national IT policy need
to be reinvigorated. Government’s commitment in this area should be unequivocal.

68
 The government should set-up enabling regulatory and legal policies for distance education using ICT.
Such policy would help address the emerging issues such as freedom of press, freedom of expression
and privacy rights.
 Those with limited skills and knowledge may require training to enable them to reap the benefits of
using ICT for and in education.
 More relevant technical and computing education in the country is needed.
 The providers and users of distance educational facilities in the country may require financial
resources. Government may consider granting soft loans and subsidies to universities that use and
support distance education. Similarly, students and learners could get loans to help them get the most,
out of the initiative.
 Government should fund the programme adequately to ensure competence in delivering distance
education in the country.
References
Common Wealth of Learning International (2001). Building capacity to Deliver Distance Education in
Nigeria’s Federal University System
http:I/siteresources:worldbankEXTN/Resources/Capacityde.pdf.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National Policy on Education. Lagos: NERDC Press.
Galbraith, K. (2002). National Open University Plans to Start Operation. Chronicle
com/free/2002/05/2002052202u.htn
Mbachu, C.E. (2007). The National Open University. Edge over the conventional university: A Bold step in
revolutionalizing tertiary education in Nigeria. A paper presented at the 19th Annual National
Conference of the Association for Promoting Quality Education in Nigeria. Held at Rivers State
College of Education, Rumuolumeni, Port Harcourt, 2nd – 5th October.
Obaji, C. (2005). Why we need Open University System. Daily Sun. Tuesday, 26, p.19.
Obaji, C. (2005). Minister of Education’s Opening Address. In National Open University Prospectus.
Obasanjo, O.O. (2006). President’s Opening Address. In NOUN Student Handbook.
Ochoma, M.U. (2006). Adult Education in Nigeria: Principles and Practices. Port Harcourt: Pearl
Publishers.
Ololube, N.P. & Ifinedo, P. (2007). A Discourse on the Problems, Prospects and Progress of Distance
Education in Developing Countries. Focus on Distance Education Development. Finland: Nova
Science Publishers.
Olugbemiro, J. (2006a). A Profile- National Open University of Nigeria. Lagos.

69
Olugbemiro, J. (2006b). Getting to know your University: An Orientation and Information Guide for
Students of National Open University of Nigeria. Lagos: NOUN.
Wali, W.I. (2007). A Handbook of Contemporary Issues on Education in Nigeria. Port Harcourt: Pearl
Publishers.

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