African journal of education and developmental studies . vol 5., no 1, july, 2008 e journal

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AFRICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION
AND DEVELOPMENTAL STUDIES
(AJEDS)
AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR
MULTI-DISCIPLINARY STUDIES
JULY, 2008
EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
PROF. B.S. OKEKE
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT
FACULTY OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF
PORT HARCOURT

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AFRICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION
AND
DEVELOPMENTAL STUDIES (AJEDS)
VOL. 5, NO.1 JULY, 2008
ISSN: 07945-760

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AFRICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION AND
DEVELOPMENT STUDIES (AJEDS)
EDITORIAL BOARD
• Professor B.S. Okeke - Editor-in-Chief
University of Port Harcourt
• Dr. Nath. M. Abraham - Editor
• Dr. (Mrs.) Maureen N. Koko - Associate Editor
Rivers State University of Science
and Technology, Nkpolu, Port Harcourt
• Dr. Musa O. Anavberokhai
Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma - Associate Editor
• Dr. David Aboho
Benue State University, Makurdi - Associate Editor
• Dr. (Mrs.) Grace K. Etuk
University of Uyo - Associate Editor
• Dr. (Mrs.) Jessica Ezekiel-Hart
Rivers State College of Education,
Port Harcourt. - Associate Editor

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CONSULTING EDITORS
Professor S.P.T. Gbamanja - Njala University, New England,
Freetown, Sierra Leone.
Professor (Mrs.) C.C. Nwagwu - Institute of Education, University
of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria.
Ms. Boakye Cecilia - Institute of Education, University
of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana.
Professor Kayode Ajayi - Olabisi Onabanjo University,
Ago-Iwoye, Ogun State, Nigeria.
Dr. Martin Fabunmi - Department of Educational
Management, Faculty of Education,
University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.
Professor Wey Amaewhule - Rivers State University of Science
And Technology, Nkpolu,
Port Harcourt, Nigeria.
William Mhuri Masocha - Applied Scholastic, Zimbabwe.
Professor Abimbola Olakanmi - University of Ilorin, Ilorin,
Nigeria.
African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies . Vol 5., No 1, July, 2008

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EDITORIAL/NOTES FOR CONTRIBUTORS
African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies (AJEDS)
is making steady progress in its avowed responsibility of publishing and
disseminating scholarly research reports. This is Volume 5, Number 1 of
the journal, and it contains 14 articles.
Being a multi-disciplinary outlet, the journal invites scholarly
articles on current issues of educational concern and those from other
disciplines.
• The Article should not be more than 15 A-4 pages, references and
appendices inclusive.
• Each article must be typed with double line spacing on one side of
paper only, using font 14.
• Article must have an abstract of not more than 200 words.
• Three (3) copies of article should be submitted for peer review with
non-refundable assessment fee as shall be decided by the Board.
• Citations and references must conform to current American
Psychological Association (APA) style.
• Each submission should be accompanied with one (1) self addressed
and stamped Large (bag) envelope as well as an official self
addressed/stamped envelope of return of assessed paper(s), and
acceptance letter respectively.
• Cover page of each article should have name(s) of author(s), title of
article, institutional affiliation, e-mail address as well as telephone
numbers of contributors.
All correspondence should be directed to:
Dr. Nath. M. Abraham – Editor
African Journal of Education and Development studies (AJEDS),
C/o Department of Educational Management,
Faculty of Education,
University of Port Harcourt,
Port Harcourt, Nigeria

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LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
Asuka, Tuemi T. (Ph.D.) - Faculty of Education, Niger
Delta University, Wilberforce
Island, Amassoma, Bayelsa State.
Paulley, F.G. - Faculty of Education, Niger
Delta University, Wilberforce
Island, Amassoma, Bayelsa State.
Robert-Okah, I. - Rivers State College of Education,
Rumuolumeni, Port Harcourt.
Abakwuru, Chikwe (Ph.D.) - Department of Educational
Psychology, Guidance and
Counselling, University of
Port Harcourt.
Ekechukwu, R. (Mrs.) - Department of Educational
Port Harcourt.
Ikenyiri, Emmanuel (Ph.D.) - Federal College of Education
(Technical), Omoku, Rivers State.
Mrs. Agabi, C.O. (Ph.D.) - Rivers State College of Education
Rumuolumeni, Port Harcourt.
Mrs. Onyeike, V.C. (Ph.D.) - Department of Educational
Management, University of
Port Harcourt.

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Mrs. Iruloh, Betty-Ruth N. (Ph.D.) - Department of Educational
Port Harcourt.
Ernest-Ehibudu, Regina I. (Mrs.) - Department of Educational
Port Harcourt.
Amalaha, Okezie O. - Federal Science and
Technical College,
Ohoada, Rivers State.
Diorgu, Faith (Mrs.) - Department of Nursing,
Faculty of Clinical Sciences
Osaat, S.D. (Ph.D.) - Institute of Education,
Union of Port Harcourt
Nbina, Jacobson B. (Ph.D.) - Department of Curriculum
Studies and Educational
Technology, University of
Port Harcourt.
Paul C.E. Iro (Ph.D.) - Department of Human
Kinetics and Health
Education, University of
Port Harcourt.

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Ifeanyichukwu Christian Elendu - Department of Human
Kinetics and Health
Education University of
Port Harcourt, Rivers State.
Ifeanyichukwu Joy Chigbata - Department of Primary
Education Studies, Nwafor
Orizu College of Education
Nsugbe, Anambra State.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Editorial i
Editorial Board ii
Consulting Editors iii
List of Contributors iv
Table of Contents v
Universal basic education (UBE) programme and the realization
of MDGS in Bayelsa State of Nigeria
TUEMI T. ASUKA & FIBAINMINE G. PAULLEY -1
Application of quality circle management techniques and approaches in
the administration of secondary schools in rivers state
NWOGU, U.J. & MADUAGWU, S. N. -22
Sharing the burden for the provision of basic education in Nigeria:
The household and community juxtaposition.
ROBERT-OKAH, I. I 32
Effective community participation-a must for the success of the universal
basic education programme.
CHIKWE AGBAKWURU, & R. EKECHUKWU 50
Teachers’ perception of values that promote and hinder
academic achievement of secondary school students
IKENYIRI EMMANUEL 60
Globalization, literacy and unemployment in the 21st
century
AGABI, C.O. & ONYEIKE, V.C. 78
Gender factors as constraints to women’s participation in
governance: implications for counselling
BETTY-RUTH NGOZI IRULOH & IJEOMA REGINA ERNEST-EHIBUDU 90

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Human resource utilization in tertiary institutions in Nigeria
AMALAHA, OKEZIE O 105
Influence of parental disciplinary practices on children’s moral development:
GOODNESS W. ORLUWENE & IJEOMA REGINA
ERNEST–EHIBUDU 119
Attitude of female undergraduate students towards breast self-examination
DIORGU, FAITH 133
Is habit in control of action?
SUNDAY DANIEL OSAAT 143
An evaluation of integrated science programme and its implementation in
the south-south states-owned colleges of education
JACOBSON BARINEKA NBINA, 160
Physiological evaluation of rapid weight loss practices among combat
athletes; PAUL C. E. IRO, 168
Attitude towards weight-control methods among athletes in University
of Nigeria, Nsukka., IFEANYICHUKWU JOY CHIGBATA &
IFEANYICHUKWU CHRISTIAN ELENDU 179

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UNIVERSAL BASIC EDUCATION (UBE) PROGRAMME
AND THE REALIZATION OF MDGs IN BAYELSA STATE
OF NIGERIA
By
TUEMI T. ASUKA (Ph.D.) & FIBAINMINE G. PAULLEY
Abstract
The UBE scheme launched in 1999 is reasoned to be one major
means through which the United Nations MDGs could be achieved
in Nigeria. The implementation of the UBE for the attainment of the
set goals (in this context Education for All and Elimination of
Gender Disparity among others) is the responsibility of the various
state governments. Accordingly, Bayelsa State being one of the
states in the country has proposed certain strategies with set target
dates to actualize the noble goals for the development of the state.
The task of the paper therefore is to ascertain how prepared the state
is in the attainment of the above goals against the backdrop of what
is on ground with particular reference to Education For All and
elimination of gender disparity in the state. From the discussions it
was discovered that the state is lagging behind on what is required
for the attainment of the above goals. Based on this, a few
suggestions are made for the way forward, among which were that
school environments should be made conducive to attract learners;
and also, to intensify mobilization and public enlightenment.
Introduction
The Universal Basic Education (UBE) scheme was launched in
Nigeria by the former Nigerian President, Chief Olusegun Obasanjo,
on the 30th
of September 1999 in the city of Sokoto. It was reasoned
by the Federal Government (ThisDay: June: 24, 2005: 7) to be one
major means through which the United Nations eight points
Millennium Development Goals (UNMDGs), particularly

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“Education For All” (EFA) could be achieved in the country
between 2000-2015, since Nigeria is a signatory to these goals.
The UBE through which the MDGs could be achieved according to
FGN (2006:5) is to be implemented by the various state
governments’ Universal Basic Education Boards (SUBEB) in the
country in conformity with the provisions of the 1999 constitution
and the relevant sections of the 2004 UBE Act. The Federal
Government’s role in its implementation is that of ensuring quality
control and maintenance of uniform standards as well as general co-
ordination of the programme implementation.
The problem before us, therefore, is how prepared is the Bayelsa
State Government in the task of implementing the UBE programme
for the realization of the MDGs in the state within the set target dates
having fulfilled the first task of setting up its own State Universal
Basic Education Board (SUBEB) in 2006.
The paper starts by the identification of the MDGs, followed by the
aims/goals of the UBE. An attempt is made to see the position of
Bayelsa State in terms of educational development at its inception,
what are its policy thrusts and targets in line with the on-going UBE
for the realization of the MDGs in the state. Based on the analysis, a
few suggestions shall be made aimed at re-positioning the state so
that the MDGs might be achieved using the UBE reforms.
The United Nations Millennium Development Goals (UNMDGs)
The year 2000 marked a milestone for the development of the human
community. This is so because, it was the year the United Nations
set up a list of goals targeted between 2000 and 2020. These goals
are known as the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The
goals according to UNICEF (2004) focus on a more “human rights
based multi-sectoral approach towards development”. They include:

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i. Eradication of Extreme Poverty and Hunger:- Half
between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people whose
income is less than one US dollar a day and those who
suffer from hunger.
ii. Achieve Universal Primary Education:- By ensuring that all
boys and girls complete a full course of primary school by
2015.
iii. Promotion of Gender Equality and Empowerment of
Women:- Elimination of gender disparity in primary and
secondary education, preferably by 2005 and at all levels by
2015.
iv. Reduction of Child Mortality:- Reduce by two thirds the
mortality rate among children under five.
v. Improve Maternal Health:- Reduce by three quarters the
ratio of women dying in child birth.
vi. Combat HIV/AIDS, Malaria and other Diseases:- Halt and
begin to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS and the incidence of
malaria and other major diseases.
vii. Ensure Environmental Sustainability:- Integrate the
principles of sustainable development into the country’s
policies and programmes and reverse the loss of environmental
resources. Reduce by half the proportion of people without
access to safe-drinking water by 2015; achieve by 2020 a
significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million
slum dwellers; and
viii. Develop a Global Partnership for Development:
- Develop further an open trading and financial system that
include a commitment to good governance, development and
poverty reduction nationally and internationally.
- Address the special needs of the least developed countries and
land locked small island developing states such as free access
for exports, enhanced debt relief etc.
- Deal comprehensively with the debt problem of developing
countries.
Universal Basic Education (UBE) programme and the realization of MDGs in Bayelsa State
of Nigeria ASUKA & PAULLEY

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- Develop and implement strategies for decent and productive
work for youth.
- In co-operation with pharmaceutical companies, provide
access to affordable essential drugs in developing countries.
- In co-operation with the private sector, make available the
benefits of new technologies especially information and
communication’s technologies.
One way of achieving these goals is through the development of the
human skills which in the thinking of our leaders comes in the form
of making basic education accessible to all, which in the Nigerian
context came as a reform in the sector as Universal Basic Education.
What then is the Universal Basic Education and how will it help in
the realization of the MDGs in Bayelsa State?
The Universal Basic Education: Its Meaning, Scope and
Objectives
The Implementation Guidelines for the UBE (FGN: 2000: 3) quoting
the Jomtien Declaration and Frame work of Action on Education For
All (EFA) Conference in Thailand 1990 states that:
Basic Education is not defined in terms of
years of schooling. Neither is it limited to
formal schooling. It (rather) sees education in
its broader sense as of a close articulation of
the formal, the non-formal and informal
approaches to and mechanism for the
awakening and all-round development of the
human potentials. The broad aim is to lay the
foundation for life-long learning through the
inculcation of appropriate learning-to-learn,
self awareness and citizenship and life-skills.
In keeping with the above definition of basic education, the
Implementation Guidelines (FGN: 2000:3) states that, in the

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Nigerian context, the concept of Basic Education in its conclusive
sense encompasses the following:
i. Programmes and initiatives for early childhood care and
socialization.
ii. Education programmes for the acquisition of functional
literacy, numeracy and life-skills especially for adults (persons
aged 15 years and above).
iii. Special programmes for nomadic population (these include
both the nomadic Fulanis and migrant fishermen).
iv. Out of school non-formal programmes for up-dating the
knowledge and skills of persons who left school before
acquiring the basics needed for life-long learning (drop out to
drop in).
v. Non-formal skills and apprenticeship training for adolescents
and youth who have not had the benefits of formal education;
and
vi. The formal school system from the beginning of primary
education to the end of the junior secondary school.
Aims/Objectives of the UBE in Nigeria
From the above scope, the Implementation Guidelines (FRN:
2000:2) listed the following as the aims/objectives of the UBE:
i. Reducing drastically the incidence of drop-out from the formal
school system (through improved relevance, quality and
efficiency).
ii. Catering for the learning needs of young persons who for one
reason or another have had to interrupt their schooling through
appropriate forms of complementary approaches to the
provision and promotion of basic education.
iii. Ensuring the acquisition of appropriate levels of literacy,
numeracy, manipulative, communicative and life skills as well
as the ethical, moral and civic values needed for laying a solid
foundation for life-long learning; and

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iv. The provision of free universal basic education for every
Nigerian child of school going age.
The synergy between the MDGs and the UBE as presented above is
that the successful implementation of the UBE aims in the country
by the states will definitely facilitate the realization of MDGs.
Scope of the Study
In spite of the relationship, the scope of this paper is limited to the
implementation of the UBE in the realization of two MDGs in
Bayelsa State. The two MDGs for analysis are:
i. Achievement of Universal Primary Education:- that is by
ensuring that all boys and girls complete a full course of
primary school by 2015; and
ii. Promotion of gender equality and empowerment of women;
through the elimination of gender disparity in primary and
secondary education preferably by 2005 and at all levels by
2015.
The choice of the above two MDGs is informed by the fact that the
others can only be effectively accessed using the UBE with a review
of the current curriculum. The new UBE curriculum worked out by
the NERDC to meet such areas as Computer Education HIV/AIDS;
Sexuality, Education, Arts and Craft, Industrial skills/ethos among
others according to Tahir (2001:8) and Gabriel (2007:143) is yet to
be released for the effective implementation of the UBE nine years
after its launch in 1999. This also accounts for the delay in the
publication of new books relevant to these areas in the UBE scheme.
Bayelsa State and Education at Inception
Bayelsa State was created on 1st
of October 1996. At its creation, the
state had only 9 pre primary schools (the Early Childhood Care
Development Education- ECCDE of the current UBE), 278 primary
schools with 47,078 pupils and 2832 teachers most of whom were
holders of the Teachers Grade Two Certificate. This was far below

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the prescribed minimum standard by the National Policy on
Education (FGN, 2004:39) for teaching in Nigerian schools. There
were 98 post primary schools with an enrolment figure of 27, 203
and 730 teachers, one technical college with 84 students and 8
teachers, 4 crafts centers and 3 schools for migrant fishermen
(BYSG: Undated: 21). There were no tertiary institutions. These
educational institutions were considered far inadequate to meet the
developmental needs of a state with a population of 1,121,693
people made up of 584, 117 (58.2%) males, and 537,576 (41.7%)
females by the 1991 census. This figure, of course is believed to be
an underestimation.
Government in realization of the key role education plays in national
development through the equipping of the individual with requisite
skills had to address the problem head on at the inception of
democratic rule on May 29th
1999. Accordingly, by 2004, the state
had 536 primary schools with 474, 290 pupils, 148 post-primary
schools with a total enrolment of 48,357 and 2480 teachers, one
College of Arts and Science and the Niger Delta University with an
initial students population of 4,645 made up of 3,030 males and
1,615 females.
The reason for the establishment of the College of Arts and Science
in Bayelsa State was the same reason for its establishment in other
states of the federation. This according to Kosemani and Okorosaye-
Orubite (2002:211–212) was to assist states designated as
educationally disadvantaged of which Bayelsa state is one. The
essence is to improve their secondary education base through a
remedial education and to create an alternative but accelerated
avenue for manpower development. The college operates two
programmes namely remedial and pre-degree. The remedial section
is geared towards the improvement of the school certificates of
students. It thus focuses attention on the General Certificate of
Education and the Senior School Certificate Examinations. The
essence is to compensate for the weak secondary education base and

8
thus enhance students chances of gaining admission into institutions
of higher learning as envisaged in the 3rd
Development Plan. The
second tier is the pre-degree programme which prepares school
certificate holders for direct entry into universities.
Problems/Constraints of the Bayelsa State Education Sector
In spite of the expansion in the educational facilities and increased
enrolment, the Bayelsa State education sector is currently being
beset with the following problems and constraints:
i. Inadequate funding at all levels of education.
ii. Inadequate and/dilapidated school buildings, classrooms,
workshops, laboratories, libraries, furniture and equipment at
all levels of education.
iii. Inadequate teachers as well as lopsided distribution of the few
available one due to refusal of serving teachers postage to rural
terrain and the desire of most teachers to live and teach in
Yenagoa the state capital and its environs. Accordingly, there
is high student-teachers ratio and increased workload for
teachers in the rural areas where most students reside.
iv. Inadequate facilities for adult and non-formal education for
people who have exceeded the age limit for formal education
but would like to enrich their lives by some forms of
education. It is sad to observe here that this aspect of
education, which is one sure way of providing education for
all, is being catered for by private individuals even though
there is a unit in the state Ministry of Education to handle it
due to non funding.
v. Low staff/students morale due to lack of incentives and
motivation leading to high labour turnover on the part of the
staff to other areas, and school drop-out, high rate of failure
and wastages on the part of the learners.
vi. poor delivery of the curriculum content by teachers who are
mostly Teachers Grade II holders, as they are not abreast of the
new trends in the sector due to lack of retraining.

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vii. High level of indiscipline among students and school
administrators. This seems to manifest itself in the areas of
alcoholism, examination malpractices due to poor reading
culture among students probably prompted by the influence of
home-videos. This could again be a possible reason for the
raising incidence of cultism/gangsterism, pre-marital sex
resulting in high rate of school drop-out due to early
pregnancies among teenagers in the state. While the rate of
drop-out is on the increase, there is no adequate provision for
drop-in due to lack of improved relevance, quality and
efficiency in the system. On the part of the
teachers/administrators, there are cases of extortion, corruption
and bribery.
viii. Perennial interferences of the economic activities of parents
(e.g. fishing which is the business of entire family) into the
progress of the school system. Accordingly, many children had
to leave school to participate in such economic activities in the
communities with parents or in the neighbourhood at certain
seasons in the year. A new dimension has been added to the
existing problem which is that youth militancy due to the
activities of the multi-national companies in the state. This has
led to the youth resorting to hostage taking as means of making
quick money instead of going to school.
All these have impacted negatively on the achievement of the
Universal Basic Education For All and the promotion of gender
equality and empowerment of women at all levels by 2015 in the
state.
Bayelsa State Education Policy Thrust within the Context of the
UBE and MDGs
The educational policy thrust of the state government is to improve
relevance and access to education and enhance its contribution to the
individual and state development. The state (BYSG: Undated: 25-28)

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accordingly set specific goals and target dates for herself within the
context of the UBE so as to achieve the MDGs in the state.
Among the many specific goals and target dates the following are
relevant to us for our analysis:
1. Increase the percentage of graduates of primary schools who
acquire functional literacy and numeracy by 80% by 2007.
2. Ensure that by 2015 every boy and girl will be able to
complete a full in primary school. This is to ensure the
elimination of illiteracy in the state.
3. Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education
by 2007 and at all levels of education by 2015.
4. Ensure that 80% of teachers, the major implementing agent in
any educational programme, at all levels are professionals by
2007.
5. Ensure that 50% of such professional teachers at all level are
trained in computer skills by 2007 (in 2007, the target date, the
state had just began the training of a handful of civil servants
in the ministries not teachers in schools in computer
education).
6. Reduce by 30% the number of cases of examination
malpractices in all educational institutions by 2007 (it is on the
increase now).
Bayelsa State Proposed Implementation Strategies and their
Assessment
To achieve the above target dates, the state government proposed the
following implementation strategies:
i. The renovation of dilapidated schools buildings, classrooms,
workshops, laboratories and libraries as well as providing
them with adequate infrastructural facilities to facilitate
teaching and learning. In fact, it was specifically proposed by
the state that 60% of all educational institutions at all levels in
the state will be provided with a conducive teaching and
learning environment in 2007.

11
This was made in 2004. The essence is to make these places
attractive to the potential learners so as to achieve the goal of
ensuring that “all boys and girls complete a full course of primary
school” thereby eradicating illiteracy in the state by 2015.
This is a mere wish as the reality on ground in the state in 2008
shows that most schools in the state capital of Yenagoa not to talk of
schools outside the state capital have no roof and are equally lacking
infrastructures for both teachers and students. The situation is so
pathetic that teachers have to evolve a system of sitting in turns
(shifting cultivation) in seating arrangements in schools due to
scarcity of these enablers of the teaching and learning process.
There is scarcity of chalk, notebooks to prepare lesson plans and
chalkboards among other enablers of the teaching and learning
environment. The situation is so bad in the rural areas as most
schools have no school buildings fit for habitation for learning, not
to talk of other enablers of the teaching and learning process. Most
school children and their teachers are made to have classes under
sheds of trees or make-shift structures.
The implication of this on the MDGs “Education for All” by 2015 is
that learners are not attracted to the learning environment due to their
unconducive nature to both learners and teachers. Government
intention through the Implementation Guidelines (FGN: 2000:10)
that the planning process of the UBE will involve the mobilization of
the local communities for the provision of some of these enablers is
fast fading away. This is due to the initial position of government
that “the UBE is going to be free”. This has, therefore, reduced the
willingness of the local communities and individuals to partner with
government.
ii. To achieve the objective of ensuring that “by 2015 every boy
and girl in the state complete a full course in primary school”,
the state proposed to mount state wide intensified sensitization

12
and mobilization campaigns of all stakeholders in the
education sector. These stakeholders include parents, local
communities, private sector, NGOs and vocational
organizations for active participation.
The practicability of this dream again is fast fading away as we roll
gradually towards the magic year of 2015 which is just seven years
away. Considering the level of commitment of the state political
leadership in the sector over the past years, who ordinarily ought to
show the way, one is tempted to say that, we should not expect any
miracle between now (2008) and 2015.
Accordingly, instead of the percentage of graduates of primary
schools who acquire functional literacy and numeracy appreciating
to 80% by 2007 as proposed by the state, it is rather decreasing as so
many children who attended primary education dropped out half way
and are either idling away in various towns, villages and fishing
ports or being engaged in one form of economic activity or the other,
instead of continuing with their educational pursuit. One reason for
this downward enrolment in the state is due to the various illegal fees
charged by teachers which are beyond the reach of the parents. For
instance pupils/students in almost all government schools in the state
capital are still made to pay such illegal fees as desk, examination,
caution, development levy, admission fees just to mention but a few.
This is not just limited to schools in the state capital as the trend is a
common practice in the state. Luckily the sledge harmer of the
government fell on the principals of two basic secondary schools
who are currently facing disciplinary actions instituted against them
by the Teachers Disciplinary Committee of the NUT. This is aside
eight headmasters who were demoted in 2005 on account of the
above unwholesome acts. The other reason is the inadequate public
enlightenment campaign of the UBE scheme in the state by the
government. Even among the few who are aware of its existence,
their level of partnership with government in the state is lukewarm
particularly among the individuals and the local communities. This is

13
partly due to the initial impression that the scheme was going to be
totally free and partly because they do not see any visible benefit
such involvement will afford them as individuals in view of the high
rate of unemployment in the country.
iii That the state will eliminate gender disparity in both primary
and secondary by 2007 and at all levels by 2015 is far from
being actualized.
This is so because even now (2008), the girl child education is
relegated to the background by most parents in the rural areas. The
general belief among most parents is that it is a waste of resources to
train a girl as she will end up being a blessing to her husband. This
again is being reinforced by premarital sex resulting in early
pregnancies which again increases the rate of drop-outs in schools.
The girl child is in most cases made to fend for the educational needs
of her male counterparts by helping in the family trade/occupation to
get money for his up-keep in school. Some times, they are given out
in marriage to ensure the continuity of the boy child education.
Accordingly, instead of eliminating the disparity, it is on the increase
in the state. While this erroneous belief is being held by most
uninformed people of the state, particularly at the rural areas, thereby
preventing the state from achieving the goals MDGs of gender
equality, the effort of the state government in addressing this
problem is very minimal except the activities of NGOs in advocacy
campaigns.
Indeed the education of the girl child is one sure way of dealing with
the root causes of the ravaging poverty and underdevelopment in the
land which is one of the MDGs to be tackled. This is so because the
educated girl according to Jekayinfa (2006: 118) ensures decrease
mortality rate, enhances children’s probability of getting good
education and most importantly becoming generators of wealth
which increases the economic power base of the family.

14
Accordingly, there should be a change of heart towards the girl child
education in the state. This can only be effected through vigorous
public enlightenment exercises in the state, with the government
taking the lead.
iv The state being aware of the vital role of the teacher in any
educative programme equally proposed that more trained
teachers will be recruited and that the issue of retraining
existing teachers will be given a priority. Again it was
proposed that by 2007 about 50% of teachers at all levels
will be trained in computer skills.
This again is a mere dream as the state is plagued with problem of
acute shortage of professional teachers not to talk of retraining.
In fact the Bayelsa State Government (BYSG, Undated:25) equally
observed double loyalty of teachers as one major problem facing the
teaching profession in the state. This means that most teachers are
engaged in other jobs to the detriment of their teaching tasks.
Not only are the teachers in short supply, most of them in the state
primary school levels as at 2007 were not qualify to teach at that
level since they are the holders of the Teachers Grade II Certificate
which is far below the National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004:39)
minimum prescribed qualification of Nigeria Certificate in Education
(NCE).
To solve the problem of acute shortage in the state, the Federal
Government through its intervention scheme to salvage the UBE
sought to recruit 4000 NCE teachers to service the UBE schools in
the state. This was met with a shock as the state could not provide
the needed number for recruitment. Accordingly, the number was
sourced from outside the state. Teachers according to Mkpa
(2002:108) are the heart and soul of any educational enterprise,
including the UBE scheme. No educational scheme can succeed no

15
matter how well it is planned without highly equipped, sophisticated,
dedicated and professionally oriented teachers.
In spite of the above strategic role teachers play, the implementation
of the UBE in the state for the attainment of the MDGs’ Education
for All and the Elimination of Gender Disparity is being hampered
due to shortage of teachers. The shortage is as a result of many
reasons including the contempt with which the teaching profession is
being treated by the public, discouraging remuneration and poor
working condition. As a result more people go for teaching as a last
resort. For instance in the state House of Assembly there are more
than eight professional graduate teachers as members who have
never gone to the class one day to practice what they are
professionally trained to do like their counterparts in the medical,
engineering and accounting professions just to mention but a few.
Such graduate teachers are even much more in the ministries due to
the above reasons. Maybe, it was this in mind that made the state
propose that it will pay rural posting allowance to motivate teachers
accept rural posting since the problem is much more in the rural
areas. Again the state equally promised to construct staff quarters
for all teachers in all schools, construct low cost houses equipped
with social amenities around educational institutions to ease the
accommodation problems of teachers among others (BYSG:
Undated: 27). The above strategies proposed in 2004 are yet to see
the light of day, four years after. Accordingly, almost all schools on
the state are operating on non residential basis thereby subjecting
teachers to untold hardship.
The effect of this on the effective delivery of lesson is that, such
teachers will always be away from school with the excuse of
sourcing for accommodation most especially in the urban centers. It
is a known fact that no teacher can be effective if he/she is not
properly taken care of.
Due to the above problem, the proposed reduction to 30% of the
number of cases of examination malpractices by the state
government in 2004 (BYSG, Undated: 28) have not been

16
implemented. Examination malpractices have rather increased in
recent time. This is partly due to the low morale of teachers as
explained above and partly as a result of the general poor attendance
and reading culture among students. Accordingly, most students
prefer staying away from school and engaging themselves in one
form or other economic activities to make money with which they
could bribe teachers and other examination official to pass
examination. The effect of it all is that, students have excellent
results without corresponding output.
Another effect of this is the increase in the menace of cultism in the
state school system, thereby making nonsense of the state proposed
stand of reducing cultism by 80% in 2007.
There are cases where students had flogged teachers for punishing
their girlfriends or for not coming to school. Accordingly, teachers
for the love of their lives and dependents have to retire to their shells
as it were, abdicating their role in the discipline of students,
including examination malpractices. The case of cultism is even
made worst by the activities of politicians who instead of
encouraging these children to go to school would prefer using them
as thugs after buying them dangerous weapons to intimidate their
opponents.
v Above all, the state proposed increased funding to oil the
wheel of the implementing agent is yet to be appreciated as a
state annual the budgetary allocation to the education sector
is far below the prescribed UNESCO 26% of the state
budget.
Dibie (2000:108) had observed that how much fund the education
sector gets at any point in time in any state is a function of the
political will of its leaders and the way it conceives education to be a
priority. Bayelsa state education budget over the years had been

17
within the range of 5 to 15% even though the state is rich due to its
oil producing nature.
Granted that the entire funding of the UBE as provided in the UBE
Act 2004 (Part 111: Sec 1-3) cannot come from a single source, the
seriousness being exhibited by the state in implementing the scheme
through generous funding will motivate the much talked about
counterpart fund to come. For now, except the contribution from the
World Bank, the envisaged “contributions from the variety of
sources” as proposed in the Implementation Guidelines/Act are yet
to be appreciated visibly especially those from the local communities
and individuals due to poor public enlightenment and mobilization of
the people by the government.
Obanya (2002:58) had warned that:
for the (state) government (the implementing
agent) to even yet the willing support of the
much talked about development partners
(both internal and external) in the funding of
the UBE, the government needs to reach out
to all stakeholders, intensify consultations
with all of them and above all, its ability to
demonstrate commitment to the UBE in
concrete terms by going beyond rhetoric to
positive action.
He went further to advise that:
(The state) government has to put its house in
order if it is going to mobilize even the
Nigeria’s internal resources (PTA, the
Organized Private Sector, etc) for funding of
the UBE (adding that) as long as the UBE
programme is seen as a source of patronage
for party faithfuls, as long as most of the
concrete activities are in the form of supplies

18
and as long as “ contractocracy” continues
to take prominence over the promotion of the
goals of Education for All EFA), non
governmental financial resources will
continue to elude the UBE programme.
The above in fairness to the state UBE programme is the case in
Bayelsa. This is because the State UBE Board (SUBEB) which was
established in 2005 following the passage of the State UBE Law is a
means to massage the political nerves of political faithfuls by the
politicians in the state.
This being the case, what is the way forward so that the state in
particular and the Nigerian state in general will achieve the MDGs of
Education for All and Elimination of Gender Disparity by 2015?
Way Forward
i. The school environment should be made conducive to
attract the learner.
ii. There should be a intensified social mobilization and
enlightenment of the public, particularly those in the rural
areas to make them have a change of heart towards girl
child education. This could done by pointing out the
benefits of educating the girl child.
iii. Teachers’ welfare should be taken a little more serious.
This should come in form of improved salary, provision
of accommodation, better working environment and tools
among others. These will motivate them to put in their
best for the achievement of MDGs in the state. The rural
posting allowance proposed should be implemented
without further delay to encourage teachers accept rural
posting.
iv. Funding of the entire education sector should be accorded
priority as it is the key to prosperity of the nation’s
development march. Through adequate funding, the

19
achievement of the other MDGs will naturally follow.
Accordingly, the UNESCO prescribed 26% that has the
blessing of Nigeria’s Vision 2010 and Estu Nupe Panel
Report (Newswatch, September 13, 1999:24) should be
implemented.
Conclusion
Bayelsa State as an educationally less developed state cannot afford
to play with issues bothering on education, for it is the only way out
of underdevelopment. Luckly the MDGs have provided us with
targets. For us to get there we need to take the on-going UBE
scheme little more serious. It is only through that way that, we will
be bold to invite historians to come and see by 2015 our genuine
gains in the UBE investment. Otherwise, by 2015 when others
according to Obanya (2002: 45) will be counting the gains of their
genuine investments and commitments on Education For All (EFA),
here in Bayelsa, historians will say there was once a UBE.
References
Bayelsa State Government (BYSG) (Undated), Bayelsa State
Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy (BY-
SEEDS) Yenagoa: Ministry of Budget and Economic Planning.
Dibie, E: (2000). Understanding Public Policy in Nigeria: A Twenty
First Century Approach Lagos: Mbeye & Associates MP Ltd.
Federal Government of Nigeria (2000). The UBE Implementation
Guidelines. Abuja: Federal Ministry of Education.
Federal Government of Nigeria (2004). Compulsory Free Universal
Basic Education Act. Lagos: Federal Government Press.

20
Federal Government of Nigeria (2004). National Policy on Education:
Lagos. NERDC Press.
Federal Government of Nigeria (2006). 40 Frequently Asked
Questions (FAQs) on Universal Basic Education (UBE)
Programme. Abuja: Universal Basic Education Commission.
Gabriel, A. O. (2007) “Assessing the Universal Basic Education For
All Implementation in Nigeria, 1999-2005”. African Journal
of Historical Sciences in Education. 3 (1) pp. 142 - 152
Jekayinfa, A. A. (2006). The Role of the United Nations Children’s
Fund (UNICEF) in Revatilizing Girls’ Education in Nigeria”
African Journal of Historical Sciences in Education.. 2 (1) pp.
115 – 122.
Kosemani, J.M & Okorosaye-Orubite, A. K (2002). History of
Nigeria Education: A Contemporary Analysis. Port Harcourt:
Uniport Press.
Mkpa, M. A (2002). “The Teacher Preparation for a Successful
Universal Basic Education (UBE) in Nigeria” in Searchlight
on Secondary School Education in Nigeria: A Handbook of 21
Year Education Research Papers from ANCOPASS: Ado
Ekiti; Bamabayer Co Publication Nigeria Limited
Newswatch September 13 1999 “1st
100 Days: Education/Health, So
Far, So Silent”. 30 (10) pp. 22 – 24.
Obanya, PAI (2002). Revitalizing Education in Africa. Ibadan:
Stirling Horden Pub. Nigeria.

21
Tahir, G. (2001). “Federal Government Intervention in Universal
Basic Education” in UBE Forum: A Journal of Basic
Education in Nigeria. 1 (1) pp. 1 – 12.
Thisday Newspaper. (June 24, 2005) “UBE Implementation
Problematic -FG”. Lagos: Leader & Company Ltd. No 3595.
p. 7.
UNICEF (2004). Gender Parity Needs a Multi-Sectoral Approach”.
UNICEF State of the World Report: http: //www. The dailystar
net/magazine/2003/1/03/human. html.

22
APPLICATION OF QUALITY CIRCLE MANAGEMENT
TECHNIQUES AND APPROACHES IN THE
ADMINISTRATION OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN
RIVERS STATE
BY
DR U.J. NWOGU & DR S. N. MADUAGWU
Abstract
This study was carried out to analyze the application of Quality
Circle Management techniques and approaches in the
administration of Secondary schools in Rivers State. A sample of
1500 teachers in private and public secondary schools participated
as study participants. Three research hypotheses were postulated
and tested. Data collected were analyzed using mean scores,
standard deviations and the t-test while the results were compared at
0.05 level of significance. The findings revealed that: There is no
significant difference in the approaches applied by male and female
Quality Circle Management technique members in secondary
schools in Rivers State. There is a significant difference in the
techniques applied by private and public quality circle members. It
was recommended that training on the application of Quality circle
management technique should be made compulsory for all quality
circle groups.
Background
Quality circle (QC) Management technique is a management
technique employed to achieve quality, increase workers
participation in decision making , increase workers’ motivation etc.
Essentially, it refers to a small group of employees usually 5-12 who
meet regularly to identify, analyze and solve work related problems.
After the problems have been identified, analyzed and
solved, the solutions are recommended to the school management for

23
implementation. This is why it is imperative that the management
should be involved in the formation of Quality circle groups in any
school. However, as a modernized form of participative
management, it allows workers to have a say in the decision making
of the school. This participation increases the commitment of the
teachers because they believe that their contributions form part of the
management’s decisions.
The application of QC management in our present situation
in Nigeria is being appreciated the more as a result of the gradual
shift from traditional management to Total Quality Management
(TQM). TQM is a comprehensive approach towards improving
competitiveness, effectiveness and flexibility through planning ,
organizing and understanding each activity and also involving each
individual employee at each level. Oakland and Porter (1999:269)
contend that “one of the management teams employed by
organizations implementing Total Quality Management is Quality
Circle”. This assertion is true because Quality circle stands to bridge
the gap between traditional management and Quality management
by achieving the following:
1. Enabling the organization of tackle problems which are beyond
the capacity of a single administrator through pooling of
expertise and resources.
2. Exposing problems to a greater diversity of knowledge, skills
and experience.
3. Bringing satisfaction to the workers through their participation
in problem-solving and decision making
4. Identification and solving of problems which cut across
departmental or functional boundaries.
5. The recommendations of the team is seen as the group-will
instead of an individual suggestion. In view of these
established advantages, Chase (1983) reported that by 1983,
over 4000 organization who recognized these advantages were
involved in the application of and implementation of Quality
Circles.

24
Quality Circle Techniques
Chase (1983) identified eight techniques applied by any quality
circle management group in the course of its work. These techniques
are: Brainstorming, voting to achieve group consensus, cause –and-
effect analysis, data collection, decision analysis , generation of
solution, presentation of solution to management and evaluation.
These techniques are carried out systematically so that all avenues
towards the identification and solution of the problem are exhausted.
The essence of the brainstorming session is to generate
several ideas with the hope that the greater the number of ideas, the
greater the chances of a solution. Nwogu, (2005) states that the
essence of brainstorming is to enable the quality circle participants to
breakout off their normal conceptual limits to other possibilities
which they could normally not have considered. Voting enables
members to reach a consensus on a particular idea and hence bring
out the democratic ideal which is inherent in every man.
Furthermore, these ideas are processed through a cause and –
effect analysis. During this process data are manipulated to
determine the true cause of a particular problem.
Sharp and Smith (1999) posit that the process begins with a solution
statement in which the enquirer explores possible ways of
accomplishing the action at each stage by asking why?, using a
convergent process to narrow the list of alternative before the next
divergent step is taken. Based on these, data about the identified
problem are collated, decisions are taken, solutions generated and
presented to management for solution. Finally, the solution are
evaluated and reviewed where applicable.
Approaches applied in Problem –Solving by Quality Circle
Groups.
A problem could be defined as any question which is waiting for an
answer. Mali (1981:797) says a problem is “a difficult question,
uncertain of solution, which demands an answer”.
Application of Quality Circle management techniques and approaches in the Administration
of secondary schools in Rivers State. NWOGU MADUAGWU

25
Generally, problems in administration arise when unexpected result
is forth-coming. Hauser (1981) therefore contends that problems are
generally divided into two namely:
(a) Formal problems
(b) Informal problems
Formal problems could be seen as those problems in which the group
can restrict their thinking to a specific set of given information and
courses of action and in which goals can be precisely stated. Non-
formal problems are those problems which have no restrictions.
Both formal and informal problems could be new or old. In
dealing with old problems the Quality Circle group can make
reference to literature for solution or consultation with experts.
However, Hauser (1981) advised that where there is difficulty in
locating the record of the previous problems , the Quality Circle
group should treat it as a new one.
New problems in a school organization can be influenced by
a number of factors and some of them may become so difficult to
solve except though a combination of people (team) such as in
quality circle. As a consequence, Wickelgren (1974) as cited by
Hauser (1981) proposed an eight-process approach to solving a
problem at the disposal of the Quality circle group. These processes
include: inference, Trial and Error, Hill Climbing, sub goals,
contradiction, Working backwards, similarity, contrasts, and
invention.
Inference: This is the process whereby deductions are made from
available information about a problem.
The QC group may draw inference from the perceived deduction in
order to arrive at a solution. But where the solutions are not in sight
it should be abandoned.
Trial and Error: The QC group may try this method especially
where there is no straight forward solution.
Hill Climbing: This is a new method of measuring improvement. As
the school measures the improvements towards realization of school
goals, successive steps are taken to make more improvements.

26
Sub Goals: Here, the problems can be broken down into parts, for
examples, the school problem can be grouped under Arts, Science,
Vocational, etc thereby bringing the problem into specifics.
Contradiction: Some problems may differ in solution. When their
insolvability have been determined, they have been contradicted and
hence alternative solutions are to be sought outside the problem
statement .
Working Backwards: This is applied to those problems which have
tightly defined statement . It is a kind of flash back which usually
results in an exclamation, Ah!.
Similarity: This is applied when the group compares the information
at hand with details of previously solved ones. The knowledge for
the solution may come from information based on previous
experience, information from the group who solved the problem
previously or the information acquired from reading or hearing as
reported by the observer.
In view of the rigors involved in problem-solving , Wilson
(1999) notes that team-based problem-solving as is relevant in
Quality circle is a natural choice to many organizations.
Team based problem-solving inherent in Quality Circle enables the
teachers to achieve the three higher needs of Maslow’s (1954)
motivation theory namely: belonginess and love, Esteem needs and
self-actualization. When the teachers who are members of quality
circle belong to these teams , love is shared. When their suggestions
are accepted, they have a sense of self-worth and feel actualized
because their input is part of management .
Statement of the Problem
The application of management techniques in secondary school
administration is a pre-requisite for effective school administration.
However, there appears to be an existing gap between theory and
practice hence quality management has become a matter of great
concern. Subsequently, many educational administrators have shown
genuine interest in their desire to shift from traditional concept of

27
management to a more modern and result –oriented method of
management.
Although, these administrators indicate that they are applying Total
quality Management (TQM) techniques, it appears that they have
failed to incorporate management teams such as Quality Circle (QC),
a component of TQM.
Furthermore, inspite of the advantages accruing from the
application of quality circle, it is possible that the techniques and
approaches utilized during the QC sessions may be misapplied or
even not applied.
These therefore call for a study to establish whether the techniques
and approaches are actually being applied where necessary and
applicable.
Purpose of the Study
This study aimed at determining the application of quality circle
management techniques and approaches to problem-solving in
secondary schools in Rivers State
Hypotheses
Two null hypotheses were tested, namely:
Ho1: There is no significant difference between the perception of
private and public school teachers on the techniques applied by
quality circle members in secondary schools in Rivers State
Ho2: There is no significant difference between the perception of
male and female secondary school teachers on the approaches
applied by quality circle members in secondary schools in Rivers
State
Method
This study is a descriptive survey research. The population consisted
of the 7000 teachers in the 394 public and private secondary schools
in Rivers State. A sample of 1500 respondents were used as study
participants. A self-designed questionnaire tagged Application of
Quality Circle Management Techniques and Approaches

28
Questionnaire (AQCMTAQ) containing 14 items was used for data
collection. The Pearson’s product moment correlation coefficient
method of reliability was applied. The reliability index was 0.74. The
mean, standard deviation and the t-test were computed using the
statistical package for social sciences and science students (SPSS) at
0.05 level of significance .
Results
Table 1: Private and Public school Respondents’ Perceptions on
the Techniques Applied by Quality Circle Members in
Secondary schools.
Variable N
x
SD DF Cal.t
Value
Critical t-
value
Decision
Private 760 28.29 2.51 1498 12.50 1.96 Ho
RejectedPublic 740 26.44 3.16
The result on table 1 shows that the calculated t-value of 12.50 is
greater than the critical t.value of 1.96. The decision therefore is that
the null hypothesis is rejected.
The implication is that the technique applied by quality circle
members differ.

29
Table 2 Male and Female school respondents’ Perception on the
approaches applied by Quality Circle members in Secondary
Schools.
Variable N
x
SD DF Cal.t Value Critical
t-value
Decision
Private 940 20.75 .48 1498 .987 1.96 Ho
upheldPublic 560 20.70 .46
The result of table 2 above shows that the calculated t-value of
0.987 is lesser than the critical t-value of 1.96 at 0.05 significant
level. Therefore, the null hypothesis is upheld implying that the
approaches applied do not differ.
Discussion
The results obtained revealed that the private school respondents had
a mean score of 29.29 and a standard deviation of s.51 while the
public school respondents had a mean score of 26.44, and standard
deviation of 3.16. The techniques tested were brainstorming, voting
to achieve consensus, cause-an-effect analysis, data collection,
decision analysis, presentation of solution to management and
evaluation. Chase (1983), Lily (1993), and Sharp and Smith (1999),
confirm that these techniques are employed in Quality Circle
processes.
Furthermore, a study carried out by Fountain (1993) reveal
that Quality circle techniques were applied in the Nova University
towards the solving of English and Mathematics problems.
Volunteer Quality circle members used brainstorming to develop a
list of goals for the centre, rank ordered those goals by priority on a
decision grid, and drew cause-and-Effect diagrams to determine why
those goals are not met.
This study further established that quality circle members at
First international academy Port Harcourt applied these techniques in
solving the problem of students discipline.

30
The approaches tested in this study included trial and error, hill
climbing, breaking problems into parts, contradiction, flash back and
comparing of information obtained. The obtained result indicated no
significant difference with mean and standard deviations of 20.75
and .48 for male respondents and 20.70 and .46 for females
respectively.
Mali (1981) and Hauser (1981) also confirmed the use of these
approached in solving problems.
Conclusion
The techniques applied by members of Quality circle differ in
private and public secondary schools in Rivers state.
The approaches applied by quality circle members in secondary
schools do not differ.
Many school administrators and teachers are not properly trained on
the various techniques and approaches of Quality circle management
techniques.
Recommendation
The following recommendations were made:
1. The management of both private and public secondary schools
should provide training for teachers on Quality circle
management.
2. Government, through the ministry of Education should sponsor
seminars and workshops on quality circle for both private and
public secondary schools.
3. Further research is needed on the application of quality circle
techniques and approaches.
4. The techniques applied by quality circle management
technique groups in private and public secondary schools
should be harmonized through training and workshops.

31
References
Chase, L, (1983). Quality Circle. Illinois: North West Educational
Cooperative.
Hauser, R. I. (1981). “Problem Solving” In p Mali (Ed) (1981).
Management Handbook, Operating Guidelines- and
Techniques. New York: John Willy & Sons
Fountain, R.L. (1993). Development of a study skills packet to
improve grades in Ninth and Tenth Grade students Eric
Digest, 8.
Lily, E.R. (1993). Quality Circle and Organizational change in
Educational Administration Eric Digest, 9
Mali, P. (Ed). (1981). Management Handbook: Operating
Guidelines and Techniques. New York: John Willy & Sons.
Nwogu, U.J. (2005). Application of Quality Circle Management
Technique in the Administration of secondary schools in
Rivers State. An unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, University
of Port Harcourt
Oakland, J.S. & Porter, L.J (1999). Total Quality Management Text
with cases, Oxford: Martins Printers
Sharp, S. & Smith, P.K. (Eds) (1999). Tackling bullying in your
school: A practical Handbook for Teachers. London:
Routledge and Kegan Paul.

32
SHARING THE BURDEN FOR THE PROVISION OF BASIC
EDUCATION IN NIGERIA:
THE HOUSEHOLD AND COMMUNITY JUXTAPOSITION.
BY
ROBERT-OKAH .I
Abstract
This paper addresses the need for community and parental
participation for improved delivery of the Universal Basic Education
in Nigeria. It identifies some strong and positive points in sharing in
the UBE project. It analyses the various means through which
stakeholders like parents and communities can meaningfully co-
operate with the government to bring about the successful
implementation of UBE in Nigeria, citing examples of countries
where it has worked. The paper demonstrates that while parents
may serve as monitors, curriculum designers, para-professional aids
and as prime educators, the community initiates and executives
specific projects, provides logistic support and enabling environment
and ensures safety and maintenance of infrastructure. The paper
recommends introduction of strong and viable parent Teachers’
Associations, and adequate provision of infrastructure, equipment
and other support services by communities as veritable ways parents
and communities can share in the burden of Basic Education
implementation in Nigeria.
Introduction
The National Economic Empowerment and Development
Strategy (NEEDS) as a reform agenda provides for the full
involvement of the private sector and other development agencies in
all aspects of social service delivery. The UBE Act (2004) also
categorically emphasizes active partnerships and collaborations
between all stakeholders for efficient Basic Education delivery. This
places an obligation and mandates the UBEC (Universal Basic
Education Commission) to develop both inter-sectoral linkages as

33
well as collaborations with the private sector, Development Partners,
Donor Agencies, Civil Societies, Non-Government Organizations
and other stakeholders. The organized private sector and other
stakeholders in social service delivery have constantly played vital
roles in the socio-economic advancement of many third world
countries and their interventions have always contributed immensely
to the educational advancement of many African countries.
Policy makers, educators and others involved in
implementation of the Universal Basic Education (UBE) are seeking
ways to utilize limited resources efficiently and effectively in order
to identify and solve problems in the education sector and to provide
quality ‘education for all’ children (which is “the responsibility of
all”), according to the UBEC (2004) sub-slogan. These efforts
have contributed in realizing the significance and benefits of
combined participation of parents, community and government as an
important strategy to improve educational access and quality.
Highlighting the need for these collaborative efforts is not for
lack of evidence that they existed before now. It is due to the fact
that these efforts have not yielded the desired result in the face of the
new challenges that confront Basic Education delivery in Nigeria. In
March 1990, the World Conference on Education For All was held
in Jomtein, Thailand, by over 2000 specialists from 150 countries
(Shekarau, 2006). The Conference which was organized by the
WorldBank, UNDP, UNICEF and UNESCO came out with a
document titled “World Declaration in Education For All”. It was
in this conference that “Basic Education For All” was advocated.
King and Singh (1991) describe Basic Education as the
activities of Primary and Junior Secondary School and Programmes
of out-of-school levels both for children and adults. It covers 8 or 9
years of schooling. In Nigeria, it is planned to include three years of
Junior Secondary School. The content extends beyond literacy. It
embraces all kinds of basic knowledge and skills necessary for an
individual to live a successful and contented life.

34
UBE was initiated in reaction to the United Nations
Millennium Goals to provide every child at least primary education
by 2015. Basic Education needs to be priority as a catalyst for the
growth and development of the country. Basic cognitive skills
learned in primary schools are the ‘building blocks’ to success in
other sectors and level of learning. Primary Education, according to
Psacharapollous (1981) has been found to achieve returns up to 23%
in developing countries, compared to 16% from secondary schooling
and 13% from higher education. Quality Basic Education may
bring greater economic benefit than expanded access to poor quality
education. Economic and social returns to primary schooling
according to Colclough (1985) are better than other investments in
other levels of education. The introduction of UBE in Nigeria is
therefore a welcome development.
The achievement of educational goals depends on adequate
financial support. Government realizes this, and therefore provides
funds to all levels of institutions to meet their capital and recurrent
expenditures. State governments fund secondary and tertiary
institutions in their areas of jurisdiction. Presently, the Universal
Basic Education Board (UBEB) is responsible for the management
and funding of Basic Education at the State and Local Government
levels. Despite the several efforts of the different governments in
the federation to provide fund for education and or huge amount of
money expended, educational institutions in Nigeria still lack funds
to implement various programmes. It is obvious that inadequate
financial resources will certainly have a limiting effect on the
educational development policy of basic education. This fact has
been acknowledged by Aderounmu and Ehiametalor (1985) who
stated that inadequacy in financial resources will certainly have the
effect of limiting the educational development policy of both the
State and its local government.
Schools do not exist in isolation. They are a part of a wider
community within the neighbourhood and nationality. They are also
part of a professional community of those schools which contribute
Sharing the Burden for the provision of Basic Education in Nigeria: The Household and
Community Juxtaposition. OKAH

35
students to them and of the Colleges and other institutions, which
students may go. So, there is the need for schools to make
relationship not only with parents, the Parent Teachers’ Association
but also with employers and neighbourhood communities.
Therefore, the needs of all the second clients such as parents,
stakeholders, families, industries, private enterprises, governmental
and non-governmental organizations must be considered by the
school. In the opinion of Dean (1993), any school that does not
succeed in carrying along all her clients with her, will dwindle in
number and consequently in resources leading to failure.
Many of our primary schools today are an eye-sore. To say
that they are dilapidated is to say the least, an understatement. There
could be a good number of reasons for this one of which could be
lack of adequate and meaningful public participation in the
educational process. Parents, the community, private enterprises and
other stakeholders appear to have been antagonized and sidelined by
our administrative policies, making them less an aid to education to
mere criticism organs only. But a good number of researches
(Hargreaves 1984; Austin & Reynolds, 1990) reveal that for a
meaningful required change in education to occur and for education
to be effective, particularly at the basic level (primary and junior
secondary levels), the involvement of parents (households),
communities, private enterprises and other outside support, whether
this be consultative assistance or mere direct provision of advice and
assistance, cannot be overemphasized.
Parents Participation in Basic Education
Researches have shown that the closer the parent (household)
is to education of their children, the greater the impact on child
development and educational achievement (Epsteur & Dauber
1988; Edwards & Jo Warm 1999). The co-operation of well
meaning people in educational development cannot be
underestimated. It has become imperative that community
beneficiaries of UBE come together to provide sequential and

36
cumulative education that will promote all sectors of the Nigerian
economy in which basic education will lay a solid foundation.
The roles and responsibilities of the individual in the
blueprint is in effect the same as that of parents. It shall be to:
(i) Provide and or mobilize infrastructural and material resources for
successful implementation of the scheme. (ii) initiate, design and
execute specific projects for the attainment of the objectives of the
UBE scheme (iii) encourage and support increased enrolment,
retention and completion by target groups in the programmes of the
scheme.
The role of parents in the successful implementation of UBE
scheme is therefore by no means a child’s play. Parents’
participation in instructional and non-instructional areas of the
school could lead to effective school climate. As pre-school
educators, education of children for the first five years of their life is
largely in the hands of parents. They have been instrumental in
helping their children learn all things they can learn before they set
foot in a school. In the case of mother tongue, this is no mean
achievement given that the child has a spoken language achievement
of precisely zero. It is important parents as educators utilize their
skills in the development of reading in school in partnership with
teachers in apprenticeship approach. Thus, the role of parents for the
first five years should rather be augmented and amplified by the
schools instead of been substituted or taken over. Co-operation
between home and school is therefore essential.
Parents as Para-professional Aids
Here again, researches reveal that children could improve
their performances when parents form part of the education team
(Epstein & Dauber 1988, Fantimi 1980). Where parents are made to
assist in classroom instruction, a lot of progress and improvements
have been recorded. The practice of involving parents in the
teaching of reading in developed countries has led to the
improvement of reading skills among children. Students / pupils

37
also develop better attitudes towards their works when their parents
are involved with the school instructional programme.
The study on the effects of parental involvement conducted
in US and Canada concluded that parents’ involvement in
instructionally related activities at home and/or in school benefits
children (UNICEF, 1992). A World Bank Study (1997) which
analysed primary education in India, discovered that families that
were aware of importance of education contributed immensely to
their children’s learning achievements, even in disadvantaged
districts. It also showed that students from families that encouraged
schooling by allocating time at home for study, encouraged reading
and supported their children’s educational aspirations, scored
significantly higher on tests of learning achievements.
The families (households) who are involved in school
activities not only have better understanding about education but also
become more willing to cooperate with schools in attempts to
improve children’s learning. Parents in addition, can help their
children with homework, making sure that children are physically
ready to study at school. From their extensive literature, Heneveld
and Craig (1996) argued that the household is a determining factor in
school effectiveness since they prepare children’s readiness to go to
school and their cognitive development in ensuring their well-
balanced nutrition and health.
The issue here, however, is the fact that not all parents show
interest in their children’s school work and unfortunately, not all
teachers and schools themselves seek active parental involvement.
Educators should always create avenues to involve willing and
capable parents in classroom instruction. Where schools are
perceived as authoritarian institutions, parents (households) and
community members do not feel welcomed to participate in their
children’s education. They may not be interested in school issues and
may perceive education as the responsibility of core professionals.
Most minority groups in developing countries develop this kind of
negative attitudes towards education when they are not treated with

38
respect by teachers. This creates unfavourable educational
environment to parents and teachers and therefore, contributes to low
participatory, poor academic performance and high drop-out rates
among students. Involving the household in school management is a
way of demonstrating democracy through identifying and addressing
inequities embedded in the institutions and society as a whole. It is
equally a strategy that creates comfortable environment for parents’
participation in school activities.
Moreover, parental involvement in education is considered a
right or an outright democratic value in some countries. According
to OECD Study (1997), in Denmark, England and Wales, parents
have the right to be represented on the governing bodies of schools.
In France, they have a right to representation on a wide range of
policy-making bodies; the parents’ charter gives English and Welsh
parents a number of rights including the right to censor information
from the school; in Spain, the institution recognizes the rights of
teachers, parents and students to participate in defining the scope and
nature of the education service’ and some legislation in Ireland
places parents at the centre of the education process, giving them a
wide range of statutory rights in relation to education.
Parents as Prime Educators
Parents are Prime Educators in most cases until children
attain the age of five. When children move to school, control
changes hand. It becomes the responsibility of the particular school.
Even at that, parents still have certain roles and responsibilities
towards their children’s education. In developed countries like U.K
and US, some parents still prefer to retain control and remain the
prime educators of their children. They take up the responsibility to
educate their children at home as provided by law thereby,
encouraging the growth of a mutual aid and support group in U.K
called “Education otherwise” set up in 1976 and “Growing Without
Schooling” in the United States, set up in 1964 (UNICEF, 1997).

39
This may not be possible in Nigeria for obvious reasons, but
parents can still be involved in the education of their children
through home-based education which provides child-care and
education based on the socio-cultural conditions of the families and
communities programmes. The implementation will involve the use
of existing human, physical and material resources from the
environment.
Parents as Monitors
For proper implementation of the UBE, parents should be
given free hands to create governing boards for primary and
secondary schools in which parents will dominate, thereby
effectively monitoring the activities of the school and staff. Parental
involvement in school governance is a means of making school more
accountable to the society that funds them. This is the case in such
places as England and Wales, Canada and United States. The
notion of parental involvement for accountability derives from a
more market-oriented concept in which school-family partnerships
are viewed rather like business partnership, through which two
parties receive mutual and complementary benefits that enable them
to operate more effectively (OECD, 1997).
The extensive examination of six case studies on the
Philippines, Kenya, Bangledash, Pakistan, Columbia and Bolivia led
Rugh and Bossert (1998) to the conclusion that teachers and other
school staff will only be accountable to community clients when the
community holds some power over them, when they come from the
same village and societies, if their continued employment and
salaries depend on community satisfaction, or sometimes, when
community education committees exist to manage schools and
members are empowered to exert their influence. Accountability
could also develop through routine parents’ meetings and reporting
systems of student progress. When parents contribute their time,
labour, materials, land and funds, they tend to be more involved in
school activities, including participating in meetings with teachers

40
and monitoring teachers’ performance. Teachers and staff in turn,
feel obliged to deliver better education for the students in order to
respond to the needs of parents and communities. Participation can
greatly develop accountability which contributes to improving
education delivery. Therefore, the State Universal Basic Education
Boards (SUBEB) should be expanded to include more grassroot
parents. Caution should however be taken to make sure that a small
minority of parents do not dominate and dictate their preferences to
both school and other parents.
Parents as Obstacles
Some teachers perceive the roles of parents in school
activities as very dangerous to school development. They feel that
too much involvement may affect the progress of the school.
Teachers see enlightened parents as ‘interferers’ or ‘meddlesome’.
As a result, must parents are reluctant to attend to school matters
because of the feelings that they are not actually wanted. Gaynor
(1998) in her analysis of the complex relationship between teachers
and parents in a study on teacher management with a focus on
decentralization of education, argues that many parents in most
countries would like to be more involved in selecting and monitoring
teachers. Analysis of impacts of the El Salvador’s EDUCO project
in which parents are responsible for school management and
monitoring of teachers however, reveals that teachers feel threatened
by parental involvement, believing that it will diminish public regard
for their professional status.
One reason why the role of parents is confusing according to
Fullman (1991) is that parents’ involvement is not specifically
defined nor linked to a particular outcome. Areas of parents’
involvement may include: (i) Parents’ involvement at school as
volunteers and assistants. (ii) Parents’ involvement in learning
activities at home as home tutors. (iii) Parents’ involvement in
home/community school relations (iv) Parents’ involvement in
governance as members of PTA, advisory committees. There are

41
however, some teachers who feel that they can be effective only
when there is parental assistance on learning activities at home.
Parents as Curriculum Designers
The UBE programme blueprint (2004) has suggested a
school-based curriculum that will make schools less alien to parents
and the community. As mentioned earlier, sometimes there is the
feeling that parents, particularly those in the rural areas and who are
illiterates or not well-educated, cannot make useful contributions to
curriculum development. But Educators in some developing
countries who tried to involve parents have found their involvement
very rewarding (Kann, 1989). This has been experimented in
Botswana and Tanzania where community members, teachers and
students were actively involved in curriculum development
activities. Current concerns of the villagers were integrated into the
school curriculum which formed the basis of some lessons and
projects that involved the students.
Community Participation
Inspite of the popularity of the concept of community
participation, commonly acceptable definition is yet to be agreed
upon. Today, development literature is replete with a variety of
definitions and interpretations which are necessarily exclusive and
contradictory. No matter the perspective from which this concept is
viewed, it is generally agreed that at the core of the community
participation debate is the idea that intended beneficiary population
of a development programme and project should be involved in the
decision-making process at every stage of the programme circle
including the identification of problems, planning, implementation
and evaluation. Participation approach to development
presupposes that the beneficiary population should be masters of
their own development in terms of identifying their own problems
and providing solutions acceptable and feasible by them. Thus, the

42
emphasis of community participation is on the people as actors
rather than mere tools to be used by the ‘experts’.
When we talk of the school and community relations, what
easily comes to the minds of some educators is the Parents Teachers
Association (PTA). But the education community refers to any and
all elements of the society (neighbourhood, district, town and city)
involved in the school for any purpose. The community could also
be defined as a group of people who share social, economic and
cultural interests. Its members recognize social obligations to each
other, hold at least some common values and identify themselves
with each other as “We”. This is the scope with which community
is referred to in this paper.
Education cannot be discussed or operated in a vacuum but in
relation to the community and life of the people, hence our education
needs to be constantly recast and progressly harmonized at all levels.
In an extensive study, Maduewesi cited in Oyebamiji (2000)
discovered that teaching and learning environment is differentiated
on the basis of the community values, human and material resources.
Learning outcome in his opinion reflected the same bias for the
community.
Horwich (1993) established that if empowerment is to occur,
community participation should provide for early and on-going
participation at all stages i.e. identification, planning,
implementation and evaluation. Allowing for a wide range of local
interests and incorporating the community education goals within the
process are the basis of community participation. It is to this end
that Summons (1994) sees community participation not only as the
ability to control and manage resources in a sustainable way, but in a
manner that meets their social, cultural and economic needs.
Community participation is therefore an educative process, a
way of preparing citizens for their own development. It helps to lay
the foundation for self-directed and self-sustaining process of
development. It needs not be over-emphasized that for
empowerment of the people to occur, community participation for

43
effective Universal Basic Education delivery should take the
following forms: (i) making provision for early and on-going
participation at all stages, (ii) making allowance for the involvement
of a wide range of local interests, and (iii) the incorporation of the
community and parental input into successful implementation of the
UBE process.
In fact, the African Charter (ECA, 1990) believes that
people’s participation is a fundamental right of the people. The
school is a microcosm of the macro community since the input into
the school in a sense are from the community. All members of the
community are affected by what happens in the larger society and
schools cannot be isolated from such influence. Parents and the
general public expect the pupils of the school to develop certain
attributes that are necessary for improvements of their lives and the
society. Hence the need for community involvement in taking
positive decisions, working towards implementing such decisions,
monitoring and evaluating the success or otherwise of their input in
promoting educational development at the community level for their
benefit.
The BluePrint on UBE (2004) recognizes the role and
responsibilities of communities, both local and international to make
the UBE programme a success. The roles and responsibilities are
specifically to: (i) initiate and execute specific projects and activities
within the framework of the scheme within their localities. (ii)
provide logistic support and enabling environment for the execution
of the scheme in their localities. (iii) provide relevant human and
material resources for the successful implementation of the scheme.
(iv) ensure safety and maintenance of the scheme’s infrastructure
and UBE implementation resources and materials in their localities.
(v) organize and ensure the support and effective participation of the
entire community in the scheme.
International communities are not left out of UBE. The roles
and responsibilities of the International Community and Donor
Agencies as stipulated in the UBE BluePrint (2004) are as follows:

44
(i) collaborate with the Federal, State and Local Governments in the
designing and execution of specific projects for the success of the
scheme; (ii) assist in capacity building to enhance efficiency and
effectiveness in the implementation of the scheme; (iii) provide
advisory and consultancy services to Federal, State and Local
Governments to facilitate the aforementioned objectives of the
scheme; (iv) support and facilitate research, monitoring and
evaluation of the UBE scheme.
The major benefits that can accrue from adopting a
participatory approach to the Universal Basic Education delivery
according to Oyebamiyi (2000) include; (a) Acceptability:
Community participation will ensure acceptability of UBE initiative
by government. Where social acceptability is not achieved, UBE
may not begin, participation level may be very low where it begins
and services may not be adequately utilized; (b) Improved design:
Community participation may lead to improvement in the design of
UBE delivery since advantage will be taken of local technology and
knowledge of climatological and topographical conditions at the
early stage of primary education delivery; (c) Mobilization of
resources: Participation will ensure resource mobilization. For
instance, participants will be willing to pay user charges and provide
labour in the process of implementation. Where land is needed to
build additional classrooms or a new school is entirely needed, the
community will not hesitate to release land for such purpose; (d)
Equitable distribution of benefits: If the UBE is not co-opted by the
powerful community members, it ensures that politically or
economically weak groups may have access to UBE project services;
(e) Sustainability: Community participation will help in sustaining
the UBE delivery after the UBE project cycle. The moment the
government’s hands are off from the UBE project, it will be left in
the hands of the community.
Oyebamiji (2000) advances the reasons for involving people
in programmes that affect them as ethical, functional and
administrative. Participation is relevant to the educational needs of

45
the community because: (i) It plays a part in the definition of basic
education needs; i.e., it helps to determine priorities, standard of
service and allocation of materials; (ii) It enhances the generation
of resources to meet basic educational needs; i.e. by being associated
with decisions, people become more willing to provide labour, skills,
financial resources of theirs individually and collectively; (iii)
Participation helps to satisfy the psychological desires of people who
are given the opportunity to take decisions that affect their lives.
There are unlimited resources that can be made available for
Universal Basic Education use. These resources need to be
organized and utilized to facilitate UBE for community
improvement. Due to economic down-turn in Nigeria, the use of
community resources has become imperative. The locally available
resources that are untapped can be of immense benefit to the schools,
government, communities and individual beneficiaries. Examples
of resources that can be used for effective UBE delivery according to
Oyebamiji (2000) include (i) Human resources: Opinion leaders
may be invited to supply information on local cultures. Other human
resources include professionals, parents and retired teachers in the
communities, women group and others who may be invited to serve
as auxiliary personnel some as teachers aids or school aids. Old
students and Philanthropic Organizations can also serve as volunteer
workers for improved UBE delivery; (ii) Financial resources:
Community participation can also be in form of financial support as
grant-in-aid or donations for physical development of community
primary schools. Well-to-do individuals, some donor agencies, the
Board of Governors, Old students Association can contribute in cash
or kind for successful UBE delivery. As Adelabu (1997) cited in
Oyebamiji (2000) rightly observed, increased community funding
can improve linkages between schools and the general public; (iii)
Physical and Natural resources: For improved UBE delivery, the
community must be seen as learning laboratories or industries.
Assisting primary school pupils to use their immediate environment
as facilities or aid will make learning easy. Some educational

46
resources such as Mountains, Rivers, Valleys, Market places,
Agricultural Farms, Water Works, Police Station, Health Centres,
etc. can serve as resource centres that will facilitate pupils
educational process.
Conclusion
The actualization of a lofty programme such as UBE is not an
individual’s task. The need for participation of parents and
community therefore, cannot be overemphasized. Government in
realization of this had already appealed for the cooperation of all and
sundry. In this article, the need for community and household
participation for improved UBE delivery has been properly
articulated. It has demonstrated that community and parental
participation has a good number of advantages if properly planned
and implemented.
Recommendations
The following recommendations are considered germane:
1) A parent centre, stocked with resources to help parents,
should be set up in each school.
2) Heads of schools should regularly tap from the vast parents’
pool, inviting them to talk to students or even teach a class.
The business community can be contacted regularly.
3) In Nigeria, every school should operate a Parents Teachers
Association (PTA). Such customized body of men and
women out of enlightened self-interest contribute to
successful running of school programmes.
4) Communities should be regularly requested to share
infrastructure, equipment and supporting services for a
successful UBE delivery.
5) Educational services like libraries and medical services can
through judicious approach and request be provided and
maintained by volunteers, Philanthropists, professional
bodies and retirees.

47
6) Regular workshops and seminars should be organized for
headteachers, teachers with the participation of traditional
rulers, church leaders and community leaders to intimate
them with UBE programme and remind them of their
statutory contributions to make the programme succeed.
References
Aderounmu, W. O. & Ehiametalor, E. T. (1985). Administration of
Schools in Nigeria. Ibadan: Evans Brothers Limited.
Colclough, C. (1985). Donor Agency Support for Primary
Education: Strategies Reconsidered. International Journal of
Education Development. Vol. 5, No. 4. Pp. 16 –28.
Dean, J. (1993). Management in Secondary School. New York:
Routledge.
E. C. A. (1990). African Charter for Popular Participation in
Development. Arusha.
Fantimi, M. (1980). Community Participation: Alternative Patterns
and Their Consequences on Education Achievements. Paper
Presented at American Educational Research Association
Annual Meeting.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). Implementation Guideline for
the Universal Basic Education. Abuja: Federal Ministry of
Education.
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Fullman, M. G. (1991). The New Meaning of Educational Change.
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Gaynor, C. (1998). Decentralization of Education. Teacher
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Saharan Africa. Washington D. C.: The World Bank.
Horwich, R. (1993). Ecotourism and Community Development: A
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Ecotourism: A Guide for Planners and Managers. USA:
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Kann, U. (1989). Who Defines What Quality Community
Involvement in the Quality of Basic Education. Paper
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King, K. & Singh (1991). Improving the Quality of Basic
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Oyebamiji, M. A. (2000). Community Participation for Improved
Delivery of Primary Health Care Services (PHC) in Osun
State, Nigeria (1990 – 1998). Ph.D. Thesis, University of
Ibadan.
Psacharopoulos, G. (1981). Rates of Returns to Investment in
Education Around the World” in Comparative Education
Review. 16 (1) 32 – 48.
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Participation in the Delivery of Education Programmes.
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Washington D. C., Creative Association Int’l Inc.
Shekarau, I. (2006). Community Participation in Education in a
Dwindling Economy. A Paper delivered at the 4th
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