Air and Air PollutionChapter 8Long-Distanc.docx

Air and Air Pollution
Chapter 8
Long-Distance Transport of Air Pollution
Global Distillation Effect:Chemicals enter the atmosphere in
warm regions and are moved to cooler areas.Yukon, Northern
CanadaChemicals concentrate (bioaccumulate) in the body fat
of animals at the top of the food chainA single bite of whale
skin contains more PCBs than what is safe to consume in one
weekBreast milk of Inuit women (where whale is part of the
diet) has 5 times more PCB than in women in Southern Canada
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Atmospheric conditions blow pollution from Asia to America
across the Pacific OceanMany countries have policies and
regulations to limit pollution from being transported

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Learning Objectives:
Define atmosphere and list the major gases comprising the
atmosphere
Briefly describe the four major concentric layers of the
atmosphere
Define Coriolis effect
The Atmosphere
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The AtmosphereAtmosphere Gaseous envelope
surrounding the EarthOxygen and Nitrogen = 99% of dry
airOther gases = 1%Water and traces of air pollutantsFour
concentric layers:
Troposphere
Stratosphere
Mesosphere
Thermosphere

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The Atmosphere
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The Atmosphere
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Environmental InSight
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The AtmosphereAtmosphereEcosystem Services:Protects Earth
from UV radiation, x-rays, cosmic raysKeeps Earth’s
temperature within living rangeOrganisms depend on the
atmosphereOrganism modify and balance the
atmospherePhotosynthesisRespiration

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The AtmosphereAtmospheric CirculationGlobal Circulation
PatternsDifferences in air temperatures drive circulationHot air
near Equator expands and risesAs it rises, it cools and sinks
againConvection process causes air currents that mix warmer
and cooler parts of the atmospheremoderates temperatures over
Earth’s surfaceWinds Smaller-scale horizontal
movementsFluctuations in atmospheric pressuresPlanet’s
rotation
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The Atmosphere
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The AtmosphereWindSmaller-scale horizontal
movementsFluctuations in atmospheric pressuresAir pressure is
variable depending on altitude, temperature, and humidityWinds
blow from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure
The bigger the difference between the high and low
pressures, the stronger the windsPlanet’s rotationCoriolis
effectPrevailing WindsPolar EasterliesWesterliesTrade Winds

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The Atmosphere
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Global Climate Change
What gases make up the atmosphere?
What two layers of the atmosphere are closest to Earth’s
surface? How do they differ from one another?
What is the Coriolis effect, and how does it influence
atmospheric circulation?
Types and Sources of Air PollutionLearning Objectives
Define air pollution and distinguish between primary and
secondary air pollutants
List the seven major classes of air pollutants and describe their
characteristics and sources
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Air Pollution:Various chemicals (gases, liquids, solids) present
in the atmosphere in high enough levels to be harmful to
humans, other organisms, or materialsPrimary Air
Pollutants:Harmful chemicals that enter directly into the
atmosphere due to either human activities or natural
processesSecondary Air Pollutants:Harmful chemicals that form
in the atmosphere when primary air pollutants react chemically
with one another or with natural components on the atmosphere
Types and Sources of Air Pollution
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Major Classes of Air Pollutants:Particulate Matter: dusts
(solids) and mists (liquids) suspended in the atmosphere - some
are toxic or carcinogenicSoil particles, soot, lead, asbestos, sea
salt, sulfuric acidScatters and absorbs light, reducing
visibilityCan corrode metals, erode buildings and
sculpturesEventually settles out, but can remain suspended for
many yearsInhaling the particles introduces the chemicals into
the bodySmaller particles are worse because they get deeper
into the lungs

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Types of Particulate Matter:Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)Sulfur Oxide
Carbon OxidesHydrocarbonsOzoneHazardous Air Pollutants
(HAPs)
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Sources of Outdoor Air PollutantsNot all is human
generatedVolcanoes release particulate matter and sulfur
oxidesPlants can contribute to air pollution in response to heat,
producing compounds to protect themselvesHuman generated
pollutionTransportation (mobile sources)Nitrogen oxides,
carbon oxides, particulate matter, hydrocarbonsIndustry
(stationary sources)Particulate matter, sulfur oxides, nitrogen

oxides, carbon oxidesCombustion of fossil fuels is responsible
for most emissions
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What A Scientist Sees
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What is the difference between primary and secondary air
pollutants?
What are the seven main classes of air pollutants, and what are
some of their effects?

Effects of Air PollutionLearning Objectives:
Relate, in general terms, the adverse health effects of air
pollutants
Describe industrial smog, photochemical smog, temperature
inversions, urban heat islands, and dust domes
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Effects of Air PollutionAir pollutionInjures organismsReduces
visibilityAttacks and corrodes materials (metals, rubber, plastic,
fabrics)Harm the respiratory tracts of animalsCan worsen
existing conditionsLung disease, cardiovascular diseaseReduces
productivity of cropsInvolved in acid deposition, global
warming and ozone depletion
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Effects of Air PollutionAir Pollution and Human
HealthIrritation of the eyes and inflammation of respiratory
tractSuppression of immune systemChronic emphysema and
bronchitisEmphysema: alveoli become irreversibly
distendedBreathlessness and wheezingBronchitis: bronchi
become permanently inflamedBreathlessness and coughing
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Effects of Air Pollution
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Effects of Air PollutionUrban Air PollutionSmog/Industrial
SmogSmoke pollutionRelated to coal combustionSulfur oxides
and particulate matterWorse in winter, due to combustion of
fossil fuels for heatingLaws have made it better in developed
countries.Photochemical SmogLos Angeles, 1940sInvolves
nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons and sunlight to produce
secondary pollutantsWorse in summer, due to higher
sunlightSources: automobiles, dry-cleaners, bakeries
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Effects of Air PollutionEffects of Weather and
TopographyChanges in temperature produce air circulation

patterns that help disperse air pollutionTemperature inversion:
pollutants get trapped in a cold layer of air close to the ground,
by an upper layer of warm airCan last several daysCertain
topographies increase the likelihood:Cities in valleys, coastal
areas, leeward side of mountains.
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Effects of Air PollutionAir Pollution in Los AngelesSome of the
worst smog in the worldTopography and climate are conducive
to temperature inversions1969, CA became the first state to
enforce emissions standards on motor vehiclesStringent smog
control lawsLA now has the cleanest air since the 1950s, but
still exceeds federal air quality standards on more days than any
other city in US
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EnviroDiscovery

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Effects of Air PollutionUrban Heat IslandsLocal heat buildup in
an area of high populationStreets, rooftops, parking lots absorb
lots of heat during the day and radiate it back during the
nightHeat from human activities, such as combustionAffect
local weather conditionsIncrease the number of thunderstorms
in the summer
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Effects of Air PollutionUrban Dust Domes:A dome of heated air
that surrounds an urban area and contains a lot of air pollutionIf
wind speed increases, the particulate matter moves downwind
from the city and the polluted air spreads to rural areas
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What are some of the health effects of exposure to air pollution?
What are urban heat islands? What are dust domes?
Controlling Air PollutantsLearning Objectives:
Summarize the Effects of the Clean Air Act on US air pollution
Contrast air pollution in highly developed countries and in
developing countries
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Controlling Air PollutantsTechnology exists to deal with Air
Pollutionsmokestacks with precipitators, fabric filters,
scrubbers reduce particulatesCareful excavation, sprinkling
water over soil being moved also reduce particulatesMeasures
that increase fuel efficiency also reduce pollutionUsing low
sulfur fuels, or removing sulfur before combustionModification

of furnaces and engines to provide fuller combustionCatalytic
afterburnersReduction of spills and evaporation of petroleum
and benzene
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Controlling Air Pollutants
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Controlling Air PollutantsThe Clean Air Act (CAA)Air quality
has improved since 1970s, thanks to CAAUpdated and amended
in 1977, 1990Authorizes EPA to apply and enforce CAA by
establishing limits on the amounts of specific air pollutants
permitted in the USLead, particulates, carbon monoxide,
nitrogen oxides, ozoneLead showed a 98% decrease between
1970 and 1990Since 2008, EPA can also regulate CO2
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Controlling Air PollutantsAir Pollution in Developing
CountriesEnvironmental quality is a low priority in economic
developmentOld technology is less expensiveAir pollution laws
are non-existent or not enforcedAir quality is deteriorating
rapidly in many developing nationsGrowing number of
automobilesNo pollution control devices, 10+ yrs oldLead
pollution form leaded gasolineRespiratory disease is the leading
cause of death for children worldwideMore than 80% of deaths
is for children under 5 who live in cities in developing countries
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What is the U.S. Clean Air Act, and how has it reduced air
pollution?
Where is air pollution worse: in highly developed nations or in
developing countries? Why?

Indoor Air PollutionLearning Objectives:
Summarize at least four sources of indoor air pollution and
explain their role in sick building syndrome
Describe the effects of indoor air pollution in developing
countries
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Indoor Air PollutionDeveloped CountriesMost common indoor
air pollutants- Radon, cigarette smoke, carbon monoxide,
nitrogen dioxide, formaldehyde, household pesticides, cleaning
solvents, ozone, asbestosViruses, bacteria, fungi, dust mites,
pollenSick Building SyndromeEye irritations, nausea,
headaches, respiratory infections, depression, and fatigue
caused by indoor pollution 20 million employees are exposed to
health risks from indoor air pollutionEPA estimates $50 billion
cost in loss of work, productivity, health costs to the economy
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Indoor Air PollutionDeveloping Countries:Most common air
pollutantsSmoke form indoor cooking with firewood or animal
dung containsCarbon monoxide, particulates, hydrocarbons,
formaldehyde and benzeneWomen and children are most
exposed and harmedLower respiratory infections, eye

infections, lung cancerWHO estimates 1.6 million people die
each year from the health hazards of smoke from indoor cooking
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Indoor Air Pollution
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Indoor Air PollutionRadonColorless, odorless, tasteless
radioactive gasImportant indoor air pollutant in USSeeps
through ground and enters buildings, where it
concentratesCauses 12% of lung cancersCigarette smoking
makes it worseEPA: 6% of US homes have too much
RadonSoutheastern PA, northern NJ and NY
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What are some common indoor air contaminants?
Why is indoor air pollution such a serious health hazard in
developing countries?
Case StudyCurbing Air Pollution in ChattanoogaWorst air
pollution in the US in 1960sHeadlights were necessary during
the dayToday, air is cleanCAA allowed the city to apply and
enforce air quality regulationsIn 2000s, Chattanooga continued
to move toward environmental sustainability Planning to
renovate a brown-field and convert it into an industrial
ecosystem, where people live near their places of work
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Case Study

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Human Population Change and the Environment
Chapter 7
India’s Population PressuresWorld’s second most populous
nation1.2 billion1950s - government sponsored family
planningNumber of children per woman declined from 5.3
(1980) to 2.7 (2009)Despite successPopulation pressure has
cause environmental degradation76% live under poverty level
(less than $2 /day)
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India’s Population Pressures

Define population ecology
Explain the four factors that produce changes in population size
Define biotic potential and carrying capacity
Population Ecology
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Population EcologyPopulation:Individuals of the same species,
living in the same place at the same timePopulation
Ecology:Study populations’ responses to
environmentCompetition for food and resources; predation,
disease, etc.How environmental pressures affect population
growth
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Population Ecology
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Population EcologyHow Do Populations Grow in Size?Two
factors:Birth Rate (b) = expressed as number per 1000
people/yrDeath rate (d) = expressed as number per 1000
people/yrGrowth Rate (r): rate of change of population size

(natural increase)R = b – dIf population is growing, r > 0 (d <
b)If population is shrinking, r < 0 (d > b)If population is stable,
r = 0 (d = b)
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Population EcologyGrowth rate is also affected by
dispersal:Immigration (i) = individuals enter a
populationEmigration (e) = individuals leave population
r = (b – d) + (i – e)
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Population Ecology
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Maximum Population GrowthBiotic Potential (maximum rate of
increase under optimal conditions)Life history
characteristics:Age at first reproductionReproductive fraction of
life spanNumber of reproductive periods/eventsNumber of
offspring per reproductive eventLarger organisms tend to have
smaller biotic potentials (e.g., whales)Smaller organisms tend to
have larger biotic potentials (e.g., bacteria)
Population Ecology

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Population EcologyPopulation Growth Rates:Some bacteria
time, the
graph looks like a JJ-shaped growth is called exponential
growthExponential growthAccelerating population growth that
occurs when optimal conditions allow a constant reproductive
rate
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Population Ecology
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Population EcologyEnvironmental Resistance:Environmental
factors that limit the exponential growth of populationsFood,
water, shelter, disease, predation, waste accumulationAs the
environment deteriorates population growth declinesdeath rate
increasesThe environment controls population sizeAs the
population grows, so does environmental resistance, which
limits population growthExponential growth is no longer

possible
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Population EcologyCarrying Capacity (K):The largest
population a particular environment can support sustainably
(long term), if there are no changes in that environmentAt K,
population growth (r) is nearly zeroGause, 1930s ecologist,
experiments with ParameciumLimited daily amount of food, and
removal of wasteAt first, exponential growth, then leveled offS-
shaped curve
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Population Ecology
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Population EcologyCarrying Capacity:Populations rarely
stabilize at KUsually, the overshoot K, then drop back
belowSometimes, there is a Population CrashAbrupt decline
from high to low numbersResource depletionE.g., Reindeer
crash, 1911

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Population Ecology
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What is population ecology?
How do each of the following affect population size: birth rate,
death rate, immigration, and emigration?
How do biotic potential and/or carrying capacity produce the J-
shaped and S-shaped population growth curves?
Human Population PatternsLearning Objectives
Summarize the history of human population growth
Identify Thomas Malthus, relate his ideas on human population
growth, and explain why he may or may not have been wrong
Explain why it is impossible to precisely determine how many
people Earth can support—that is, Earth’s carrying capacity for
humans

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Human Population PatternsExponential growth curve of Human
Population 8000 BCE to 180
billion
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Human Population Patterns
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Human Population PatternsThomas Malthus (1766–1834)British
economistPopulation can’t grow indefinitelyConsequences
would be famine, war, diseaseSince Malthus’ timeHuman
populations have continued to increase exponentiallyBirth rates
have not increased dramaticallyDeath rates have decreased
dramaticallyFood production has kept pace due to scientific
advancesHealth improvements

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Human Population PatternsProjecting Future Population
NumbersZero population growthThe population size remains
constantBirth rate equals death rateUnited Nations and World
Bank experts predict we will reach ZPG by end of 21st
centuryBy 2050, there will be 7.7–10.6 billion peopleMain
unknown factor: Earth’s Carrying CapacityEstimates say Earth
can support 4–16 billionAnalysis of 69 studies says 7.7 billion
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Human Population PatternsApproaching Earth’s KWhat will
happen to humans?Optimists: Birth rates will decrease,

population will stabilizePessimists:Environmental degradation
from growing population will make Earth uninhabitable for
humans and other speciesMassive human suffering and
deathMany experts say we have already surpassed K
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How would you describe human population growth for the past
200 years?
Who was Thomas Malthus, and what were his views on human
population growth?
When determining Earth’s carrying capacity for humans, why is
it not enough to just consider human numbers?
Demographics of CountriesLearning Objectives:
Define demographics and describe the demographic transition
Explain how highly developed countries differ in population
characteristics such as infant mortality rate, total fertility rate,
replacement-level fertility, and age structure
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Demographics of CountriesDemographics:Applied branch of
sociology that deals with population statisticsCountries are
grouped byPopulation growth ratesDegree of
industrializationRelative prosperityGNI PPP = gross national

income in purchasing power parityPer person GNI PPP = GNI
PPP/number of peopleThe amount of goods and services an
average citizen of a particular country could buy in the US
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Demographics of Countries
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Demographics of CountriesHighly Developed CountriesLowest
birth rates (some have shrinking pops)Low infant mortality
ratesLonger life expectanciesHighest per capita GNI
PPPModerately Developed CountriesHigher birth and infant
mortality ratesMedium industrializationLower GNI PPPLess
Developed CountriesShortest life expectanciesHighest birth and
infant mortality rates
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Demographics of CountriesReplacement-level Fertility RateThe
number of children a couple must produce to replace
themselvesKeeps population size stable2.1 children per
womanTotal Fertility RateThe average number of children born
to each womanCurrently 2.6 children per woman
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Demographics of CountriesDemographic Transition:Stages
through which a population progresses as it becomes
industrializedFour Basic Stages
Preindustrial
Transitional
Industrial
Postindustrial
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Demographics of CountriesWhat happens when a population
reaches the 4th stage?We don’t know:We see that TFR are
dropping as countries become more industrializedBrazil1960 =
6.7 children/woman, 2010 = 2Worldwide1970 = 6.1
children/woman, 2010 = 2.7Despite great advances, population
still increasing
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Demographics of CountriesAge Structure of CountriesThe
number and proportion of people at each age in a
populationRepresented in an age-structure diagramHelps predict
future population growthRapid growthSlow
growthStableDecliningPopulation Growth momentum
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Demographics of CountriesGrowing PopulationsMostly in
developing countries82% of world’s populationDue to high
population growth momentumGreat economic difficulty
supporting growthDeclining Fertility RatesSocial and economic
implicationsAging populationsReduces country’s productive
workforceIncreases tax burdenStrains social security and health
systemsLower violent crime rates
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What is the demographic transition?
What is infant mortality rate? How does it vary in highly
developed and developing countries?

Stabilizing World PopulationLearning Objectives:
Relate total fertility rates to each of the following: cultural
values; social and economic status of women; the availability of
family planning services; and government policies
Explain the link between education and total fertility rates
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Stabilizing World PopulationReducing fertility rates to reduce
Population GrowthCultural traditionsWomen’s social and
economic statusFamily planningGovernment policies
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Stabilizing World PopulationCulture and FertilityCulture is
defined (partly) by Values and norms of a societyVarying roles
men and women are expected to playDifferent societies have
different gender expectationsFertilityA couple is expected to
have the traditional number of children for their society
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Stabilizing World Population
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Stabilizing World PopulationHigh TFRs are traditional in many
societiesInfant and child mortality are high, but
decliningImportant economic and societal roles of children218
million children under 15 yrs work full-timeChronic health
problems, no childhood, no educationAs they grow, the provide
for aging parentsContrast with HDCs (highly developed
countries)Children have no value in work force, less labor is
required in industrialized economy, social security provides for
the elderly, so children attend schoolSocial pressure to produce
male childrenReligious values
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Stabilizing World PopulationSocial and Economic Status of

WomenGender inequityLower political, social, economic, and
health status of womenIn developing countries, more women
live in poverty than menNot guaranteed equal legal rights,
employment and earnings, education, political participationGirls
are kept home to work (instead of being sent to school) more
often than boysHigher percentage of women are illiterate
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Stabilizing World PopulationSingle most important factor
affecting high TFRs in many society is the low status of
womenMarriage is the only option to achieve social status and
economic securityImproving the social and economic status of
women will help deal with population issues
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Women with more education Marry later and have fewer
childrenReduces childbearing years, increases time between

generationsHave lower infant mortalityHave more control over
fertilityChildren with more education have better chance at
improving standard of livingParents may choose to invest in
fewer children who earn more
Family Planning ServicesReducing fertility can’t happen
without access to health and family planning servicesPrenatal
contraceptionProvide contraception devicesDon’t try to limit
the number of children in a family, just explain why it is better
to have fewer children
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Family Planning ServicesWork best if sensitive toCultural and
social beliefsRole of males in the planning (women may not
want any more children but they are pressured by husbands and
in-laws)In HDCs, 68% of married women use contraceptivesIn
developing countries where contraceptives are available, TFRs
are declining
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What a Scientist Sees
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EnviroDiscovery
Microcredit ProgramsSmall loans ($50–500) to very poor people
to help them establish businesses and generate incomesewing
machines to make clothingused refrigerators for opening small
grocery storesFINCA (Foundation for International Community
Assistance)Not for profit agency, administers microloansTargets
women (70% of world’s poorest are women)If mothers are
employed, children benefitStatus of women is raised when they
have their own income
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Stabilizing World PopulationGovernment Policies and
FertilityInvolved in childbearing and childrearingMinimum

marriage ageAmount of educationBudgetary support to family
planning services, education, incentives for smaller or larger
family sizesGovernments of at least 78 countries have
recognized they must limit population growthSponsor family
projectsHealth care, education, economic development,
women’s social status
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What is family planning? Is family planning effective in
reducing fertility rates?
What is the relationship between fertility rate and educational
opportunities for women?
Population and UrbanizationLearning Objectives:
Define urbanization and describe trends in the distribution of
people in rural and urban areas
Describe some of the problems associated with rapid growth
rates in large urban areas
Explain how compact development makes a city more livable
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Population and UrbanizationUrbanization:Movement of people
from rural areas to densely populated citiesApproximately 79%
of people in US live in citiesCities are urban ecosystems:Flow
of energy, water, and other resources is linked to the flow of
money and the human populationPolitical power is important in
wealthy neighborhoods
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Population and Urbanization
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Population and UrbanizationCharacteristics of Cities:Size,
climate, culture, economic developmentHeterogeneous
populationRace, ethnicity, religion, socioeconomic statusCity
populations tend to be youngerInflux of younger people looking
for workMale to Female ratiosIn developing countries, more
males than femalesIn developed countries, equal
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Population and UrbanizationUrban Environmental

ProblemsBrownfields: abandoned areas, usually contaminated
from previous industriesVacant factories, warehouses,
residential sitesResult form people moving to suburban
areasSuburban Sprawl: Suburbs expand around a city,
encroaching onto natural areas and farmlandMany cities are
redeveloping brownfieldsImportant land resources (after
pollution clean-up)New residential and commercial sites
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Population and UrbanizationTransportationCommuting is a
necessityPeople live in suburbs, work in cityIncreases air
pollution and other environmental problemsPollutionHigh
density of cars, factories, etc.Buildup of airborne emissions,
particulates, Sulfur oxides, carbon oxides, nitrogen oxides,
VOCsWorst urban pollution is in developing countriesWater

FlowBuildings and paved soilsNo soil to absorb
precipitationRain water becomes polluted with organic waste,
motor oil, lawn fertilizer, etc.If sewage is not treated, polluted
runoff affects other water sources away from the city
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Population and UrbanizationEnvironmental Benefits of
UrbanizationCompact DevelopmentEfficient design of cities,
uses less landTall buildings, lots of housing on small
footprintClose to shopping and jobsConnected by public
transportationFewer parking lots and highwaysBusiness
development along pub. transportation linesMore open room
for parks, open space, etc.More livable and attractive to
peoplePortland, Oregon
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Population and UrbanizationUrbanization Trends50% of world’s
population lives in urban areas75% in HDCs40% in developing
countriesIncreasing rapidly400 cities have more than 1 million
peopleMegacities, more than 10 million peopleAlso
increasingUrban agglomerationsUrbanized core regionsSeveral
cities or megacities and surrounding suburbsTokyo-Yokohama-
Osaka-Kobe; 50 million people

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Population and UrbanizationUrbanization Trends Highly
Developed Countries ( e.g., US) Most migration to cities in last
150 yrsNeed for industrial laborSlow growth, services could
keep upWater purification, sewage treatment, education,
adequate housingDeveloping CountriesRapid growth - cities
can’t provide basic servicesLow job possibilities (still greater
than in rural areas)Substandard housing
(slums)PovertyUnemploymentPollution, water, and sewage
issues
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Which countries are the most urbanized? The least urbanized?
Which countries have the highest rates of urbanization today?
What are some of the problems caused by rapid urban growth in
developing countries?
How does compact development affect city living?
Case StudyUrban Planning in Curitiba, Brazil2.9 million
peopleEfficient mass transit systemHigh density development
restricted to buss lines (72% of commuters use the bus)Since
1970s, population has doubled, but traffic has declined 30%Less
traffic congestionCleaner air“Big Sidewalk” of 49 blocks of
pedestrian walkways connected to bus stops, parks, and bicycle
pathsExcellent example of compact urban planning
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Case Study

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How Ecosystems Work
Chapter 5
Lake Victoria’s Ecological ImbalanceWorld’s second largest
freshwater lake400 species of cichlids, important food
sourceNile Perch introduced in 1960s1985, most catch was
perch, ate cichlidsToday, more than 50% of cichlids and other
native fish are extinctAlgae eating cichlids disappeared, algal
cichlids disappear, perch won’t have anything to eat, and fisher
will collapse
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Lake Victoria’s Ecological Imbalance

What is Ecology?Learning Objectives:
Define ecology
Distinguish among the following ecological levels: population,
community, ecosystem, landscape, and biosphere
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What is Ecology?The study of the interactions among organisms
and between organisms and their abiotic
environmentEnvironment:Biotic (living) - all organismsAbiotic
(non-living) - physical factors: space, temperature, sunlight,
soil, precipitation, etc.Focus can be local or globalBroadest
field of BiologyLinked to all parts of biology, and to geology,
chemistry, physics
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What is Ecology?Levels of Interest:Population: a group of
organisms of the same species that live in the same place at the
same time, e.g., population of marsh grass,
walrusesCommunities: a natural association that consists of all
the populations of different species that live and interact
together within an area at the same time, e.g., Alpine meadow,
tidal poolEcologists would study how species interact with each
other, including feeding relationships

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What is Ecology?
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Ecosystem: includes all the biological interactions of a
community AND the interactions of organisms with their abiotic
environmentVery complex interactions between energy flow and
nutrient cyclingEcologists would study how energy, nutrients,
or water level affects the organisms living in a desertLandscape:
studies ecological processes over large areas and several
interacting ecosystems
What is Ecology?
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What is Ecology?
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Biosphere: the layer of Earth that contains all living

organismsEcologists study the global interrelationships among
water, land, atmosphere, and organismsIncludes organisms,
communities, ecosystems, landscapes, etc. depend on the
Earth’s other layers:Atmosphere: layer of airHydrosphere:
supply of waterLithosphere: soil and rock of Earth’s crust
What is Ecology?
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What is the definition of ecology?
What is the difference between an ecosystem and a landscape?
Between a community and an ecosystem?
The Flow of Energy Through EcosystemsLearning Objectives
Define energy and state the first and second laws of
thermodynamics
Distinguish among producers, consumers, and decomposers
Summarize how energy flows through an ecosystem
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The Flow of Energy Through EcosystemsEnergy: the ability to

do workPotential energy: stored Kinetic Energy: energy of
motion
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The Flow of Energy Through Ecosystems
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The Flow of Energy Through EcosystemsThermodynamics:
study of energy and its transformationsFirst Law of
ThermodynamicsEnergy cannot be created not destroyedCan
change from one form to anotherPhotosynthesis/cellular
respirationHeat - not usable for biological workTotal energy of
organisms and surroundings is constant
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The Flow of Energy Through EcosystemsThe Second Law of
ThermodynamicsThe amount of usable energy in the universe
decreases over timeAs energy is converted form one form to
another, some of it is degraded into ‘heat’Heat: less usable form
of energy, disperses into environment, less organized than
usable energyEntropy: a measure of disorder or
randomnessEnergy conversions are is not 100% efficient
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The Flow of Energy Through EcosystemsProducers, Consumers
and DecomposersProducers: manufacture large organic
molecules from simple inorganic moleculesConsumers: consume
other organisms as a source of energy and bodybuilding
materialsPrimary Consumers/Herbivores: eat
producersSecondary Consumers/Carnivores: eat primary
consumersTertiary Consumers/Carnivores: eat secondary
consumersOmnivores: eat everythingDetritivores/Detritus
feeders: eat detritus (animal carcasses, leaf litter,
feces)Decomposers: break down dead organisms and waste
productsRelease simple inorganic molecules that can be re-used
by producers
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The Flow of Energy Through EcosystemsThe Path of Energy
Flow in EcosystemsEnergy Flow The passage of energy in a
one-way direction through an ecosystem, as part of a food
chainFood ChainA diagram showing linear feeding
each link
in a food chain First trophic level: producersSecond: primary
consumersThird: secondary consumers, etc.Decomposers are at
every stepFood WebA complex of interconnected food webs in
an ecosystem
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*
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The Flow of Energy Through EcosystemsEnergy FlowLinear
movement of energy along food chain or food webFrom one
organism to the nextWhen ‘food’ energy is converted into
‘work’ energy, some is degraded into heatSecond Law of
thermodynamicsThe longer the food chain, the less energy is
available for higher trophic levelsLimited numbers of trophic
levels
*
What is the first law of thermodynamics? What is the second?
Why is a balanced ecosystem unlikely to contain only producers
and consumers? Only consumers and decomposers? Explain
your answer.
How does energy mover through a food web?
Diagram and explain the carbon, hydrologic, nitrogen, sulfur,
and phosphorous cycles
The Cycling of Matter in Ecosystems
*

Biogeochemical CyclesMatter: the material of which organisms
are composedBiogeochemical: involves biological, geological,
and chemical processesHumans have GREAT influenceCycling
vs. Flow:Matter cycles through ecosystemFrom abiotic
environment to organisms to environmentEnergy flows through
the ecosystemFrom producers to consumers to decomposers, to
heat
*
The Carbon CycleThe global movement of carbon between the
abiotic environment (atmosphere, ocean) and
n is an essential component of organisms’ moleculesAlso
essential component of abiotic environment
*
*

The Hydrologic CycleWater circulates from the ocean to the
atmosphere to the land, and back to the oceanProvides
renewable supply of purified waterBalance of water on land,
oceans, and
atmosphereEvaporationTranspirationPrecipitationRunoff from
watershedsPercolation
*
*
The Nitrogen CycleNitrogen is an essential component of
proteins and nucleic acidsAtmosphere is 78% Nitrogen
gasSteps:Nitrogen fixation: N gas into ammonia, by bacteria
physical, and human activities Nitrification: ammonia to nitrate,
bacteriaAssimilation: plants absorb
nitrate/ammoniaAmmonification: organisms produce N-
containing wasteDenitrification: nitrate is converted back into N
gas
*

*
*
The Sulfur CyclePoorly understoodMost Sulfur is
undergroundErosion releases Sulfur to oceanS gases enter
atmosphere from natural sourcesSea delivers sulfates to
landVolcanoes release Hydrogen sulfides and Sulfur
oxidesHydrogen sulfides react with water to form sulfuric
acidSome sulfur compounds in living organismsBacteria drive
the Sulfur cycle (like the Nitrogen cycle)
*

*
The Phosphorous CycleCycles from land into living organisms
and backNo atmospheric componentErosion of rocks releases
phosphorous into soilPlants absorb it and use it for nucleic
acids and ATP, pass it on to consumersDecomposers release
phosphorous into waterCan be lost at bottom of ocean fro
millions of yearsAquatic cycle is also interesting
*
*
What are the differences and similarities between the five
biogeochemical cycles, particularly in the roles organisms play
in them?
Ecological NichesLearning Objectives:

Describe the factors that contribute to an organism’s ecological
niche
Explain the concept of resource partitioning
*
Ecological NichesNiche:The totality of an organism’s
adaptations, its use of resources, and the lifestyle to which it is
fittedDescribes the place and function of an organism within the
ecosystemTakes into account all aspects of an organism’s
existenceThe “way of life of an organism”Habitat:Part of an
organism’s niche, the place where the organism lives
*
Ecological NichesFundamental Niche:The potential, idealized
niche of an organism It’s probably broader than it is in
natureRealized Niche:The niche an organism actually has and
the resources it actually usesCompetition and other factors
usually make the realized niche narrower than the fundamental
niche
*

Ecological Niches
*
Ecological NichesResource PartitioningThe reduction in
competition for environmental resources among coexisting
species, by reducing similarities in their nichesWhen two
species are very similar, their niches may overlapEcologists
think that species cannot occupy the same niche in a
communitySpecies with similar niches divide up resources in
such a way that they reduce competition among themselves
*
What a Scientist Sees
*
What are three aspects of an organism’s ecological niche?
What is resource partitioning?

Interactions Among OrganismsLearning Objectives:
Distinguish among mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism
Define predation and describe predator-prey relationships
Define competition and distinguish between intraspecific and
interspecific competition
Discuss an example of keystone species
*
Interactions Among OrganismsOrganisms are not independent
from othersSymbiosisPredationCompetitonKeystone Species - a
special case
*
Interactions Among OrganismsSymbiosisAn intimate
relationship or association between members of two or more
speciesOne species lives in or on another speciesRelationship
may be beneficial, neutral or harmfulResult of
coevolutionInterdependent evolution of two interacting
speciesE.g., plants and pollinators
*

Interactions Among Organisms
*
EnviroDiscoveryBee Colonies Under ThreatCoevolutionary
relationships are very specificIf one species is affected suffers,
so is the otherColony Collapse Disorder (CCD)Since 2006, 30–
90% of bees in colonies in US have diedPesticides, pathogens,
parasites, viruses Bees are necessary for pollination of many
important crops and wild species
*
EnviroDiscovery
*
Interactions Among OrganismsSymbiosisThree
types:MutualismAn association where both organisms
benefitBull Horn Acacia and acacia antsCommensalismOne
species benefits, the other doesn’t benefit or is harmedTropical

trees and epiphytesParasitismOne species benefits, the other is
harmedParasite-Host relationshipInternal and external types of
parasites
*
Environmental InSight
*
Interactions Among OrganismsPredationThe consumption of one
species (prey) by another species (predator)Coevolutionary
“arms race”Predator strategies - more efficient ways to catch
preyPrey strategies - more efficient ways to escape/avoid
predator
*
*

*
Interactions Among OrganismsCompetitionThe interaction
among organisms that vie for the same resources in the same
environmentResources are limitedFood, shelter, living space,
sunlight, etc.Intraspecific CompetitionAmong individuals of the
same population (same species)Interspecific CompetitionAmong
individuals of different species
*
Interactions Among OrganismsKeystone SpeciesVital in
determining an ecosystem’s species composition Crucial to the
maintenance of an ecosystemWhen keystone species is removed
other organisms may become more common, more rare, or
extinctUsually not numerous, but very influentialAffect
availability of food, water, or other resourcesE.g.,Gray Wolf
*

What is one example if mutualism? Of parasitism?
What is one example of a predator-prey interaction? Or
competition?
What is the difference between interspecific and intraspecific
competition?
How does a keystone species affect its ecosystem?
Global Climate Change:How does it affect the Carbon
cycle?Biggest culprit: levels of CO2 in atmosphereLevels of
CO2 have increased 20% in last 50yrsGenerated by burning of
fossil fuels, clearing and burning land and forestsNeed to
stabilize and reduce emissions with ‘stabilization wedges”, each
reduces 1 billion tons/yr
Case Study
*
Case Study
Vincent Smith

ES 200, Entry 4
2 July 2016
Environment in the News
To be completely honest, I did not know much about the issue
of Air Pollution prior to
reading chapter 8 of this text. I never considered all the sources
of air pollutions and it’s effect on
us. The book shows a pie chart outlining the sources of primary
air pollutants listing
transportation at 57%, fuel combustion (electric power plants)
at 21%, industrial processes at
12%, and miscellaneous pollutants at 10%. So what does this all
mean? What effects do our cars
and trucks and planes really have on us? I’m aware there must
be some effect on our
environment, but it has never personally impacted me (that I’m
aware of) so my ignorance has
kept me in the dark. According to the text, air pollution actually
injured our organisms, reduces
visibility, and attacks and corrodes materials such as plastics
and metals. The list of things it
effects is momentous, everything from worsening existing
medical conditions, to reducing the

productivity of crop plants, and effects ozone depletion (Berg,
page 201). This is incredibly
dangerous even more so because we can’t actually physically
see the damage that is being done.
So while I wasn’t completely aware of it’s effect on me
personally, this whole time my
encounters with everything from smog to carbon monoxide
could have been surprising my
immune system or reducing my bloods ability to transport
oxygen (Berg, page 203). It’s effects
are incredibly significant, and if we aren’t actively working to
combat it’s effects, the results can
be detrimental.
Last September a series came out in the National Geographic
profiling the struggles of
three different neighborhoods in each city that Pope Francis
visited. These included Washington
DC, New York City, and Philadelphia. This was a great tool to
see the realities of air pollution
illustrated in real life, present day scenarios. This also shined a
light on the reality that the
poorest people are always the most effected by worst

environmental turmoil. The pope’s
entreaties about the link between poverty and the environment
are especially pertinent in East
Harlem. A vast number of families being effected by air
pollution due to mold, cockroaches, and
other poor housing conditions all of which are directly
impacting their health (Konkel). This also
has a correlation to race. East Harlem’s population is over half
Hispanic or Latino, and
approximately one third black. The director if Columbia
University’s Center for Children’s
Environmental Health said that “[t]he fumes—linked to asthma
attacks but also to cancer,
reduced IQs, child behavioral problems, and heart attacks—waft
across the city” (Konkel). In
fact, 73 our of every thousand kids under the age of fifteen are
treated by emergency room doctor
for asthma attacks, which is more than two times the city’s rate.
In addition, “chronic stressors of
poverty may fundamentally alter the way the body reacts to
everyday pollutants” (Konkel). So
those who are more susceptible to being in contact with air
pollutants are also less susceptible to
be able to fight off its negative effects. The pope throughout his

trip does a good job describing
the link between good housing and good health. The conclusion
of this paper proposes that
everyone must come together, not just who are being personally
effected, but those who are in
positions of privilege, to advocate for better living conditions
for all New Yorkers. Of course,
this message isn’t specific to New York but world wide. What
this assignment has left me is not
just to get better housing for minorities in New York, but also
to work on external factors that are
effecting our air pollution such as conserving energy (turning
off lights and unplugging electric
appliances when they’re not in us), using other forms of
transportation such as walking or biking,
reporting smoking heckles, buying environmental products, etc.
References
Berg, Linda R.; Hassenzahl, David M.; Hager, Mary Catherine
(2013). Visualizing
Environmental Science, 4th Edition. Wiley. Kindle Edition.
Konkel, Lindsey. "Kids Struggle to Breathe in This

Neighborhood on Pope's Tour." National
Geographic. National Geographic Society, 24 Sept. 2015. Web.
Environment in the NewsES 200
Student guideline:
I want you to do two different assignments both assignments
should be approximately two double-spaced pages in length. So,
total of 4 pages, two different topics, two different files. I
provided the three chapters for this week these two assignment
should be related to the course topics for this week. I also added
a sample for the Environment in the news so you can have an
idea how this assignment looks like.
Professor guideline:
You will complete two Environment in the News log activities
per week for each of the four weeks. Each log entry must
describe an environmental event that has happened since June 1,
2015, is tied in some way to human effects on the environment,
and is related to the course topics covered in the textbook for
that week. A good log entry describes the event, explains why
the event caught the student’s interest, relates the event to
specific course content in the textbook, and is based on a strong
reference source. The event can be something that humans did
to the environment or something that the environment did to
humans (as long as humans had a role in creating the event); it
can also be release of new data or studies on topics related to
the impact of humans on the environment. Because
environmental science is a broad umbrella (see Chapter 1), it
includes the social sciences as well as the physical and
biological sciences; consequently, log entries can also include
social science topics related to human impact on the
environment. Sample data sources are provided on the course
Moodle site. Log entries should be approximately two double-
spaced pages in length.

Web Resources for Environment in the News Posts
Here are some web resources for your Environment in the News:
1. NASA News: http://www.nasa.gov/news/index.html
2. NOAA News: http://www.noaa.gov/newsarchive.html
3. American Geophysical Union
News: http://www.agu.org/news/press/
4. National Science Foundation News: http://nsf.gov/news/
5. National Geographic
Newswatch: http://newswatch.nationalgeographic.com/
6. Environmental News Network: http://www.enn.com/
7. United Nations Environment
Programme: http://www.unep.org/
8. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency: http://www2.epa.gov/newsroom
9. Grist: http://www.grist.org

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