This chapter discusses different types of market structures beyond perfect competition, including imperfect competition in both selling and buying. It provides examples of monopolistic competition, oligopolies, and monopolies as imperfect competitors in selling, characterized by their ability to influence prices through product differentiation or barriers to entry. On the buying side, the chapter examines monopsonistic competition, oligopsonies, and monopsonies as imperfect competitors who are not price takers. The chapter concludes by outlining various governmental regulatory measures implemented to counteract the adverse effects of imperfect competition in markets.

1. Market Equilibrium and Market Demand: Imperfect Competition Chapter 9

5. Merging Demand and Supply Price Quantity D S P E Q E Chapters 6-7 Chapters 3-5 Chapter 8

6. Firm is a “Price Taker” Under Perfect Competition Price Quantity D S P E Q E Price O MAX AVC MC The Market The Firm

7. If Demand Increases…… Price Quantity D S P E Q E Price AVC MC The Market The Firm 10 11 D 1

8. If Demand Decreases…… Price Quantity D S P E Q E Price AVC MC The Market The Firm 9 10 D 2

9. Firm is a “Price Taker” in the Input Market Price Quantity D S P E Q E Price L MAX MVP MIC Labor Market The Firm

10. Firm is a “Price Taker” in the Input Market Wage rate Quantity D S P E Q E Price L MAX MVP MIC Labor Market The Firm

11. Effects of Increasing the Minimum Wage Price Quantity D S P MIN Q D Price L MAX MVP MIC Labor Market The Firm Q S Market surplus

13. Imperfect Competition in Selling

14. Unlike perfect competitors who face a perfectly elastic demand curve, imperfect competitors selling a differentiated product benefit from a downward sloping demand curve Page 150

15. Page 150 See table 11-1 on page 199 The marginal revenue in this instance is also downward sloping, and goes to zero at the point where total revenue peaks

18. Short run profits . The firm produces Q SR where MR=MC at E above, but prices its products at P SR by reading off the demand curve which reveals consumer willingness to pay Page 150

19. Short run loss . The firm suffers a loss in the current period following the same strategy of operating at Q SR given by MC=MR at point E. Page 150

20. At quantity Q SR , average total cost (ATC SR ) is greater than P SR , which creates the loss depicted above… Page 150

21. In the long run, profits are bid away as more firms enter the market. Or losses will no longer exist as firms leave the market. At Q LR , the remaining firms are just breaking even as shown by the lack of gap between the demand curve and ATC curve. Page 151

22. Top 10 Burger Restaurants Page 152 Imperfect competition you face weekly

24. Page 154 Demand curve DD represents the case when all oligopolists move prices together and share the market.

25. Page 154 Why? Rival oligololists will match price cuts but not price increases in the short run because they want to capture a larger market share. Demand curve dd represents the case when a single firm changes its price above P e at point 1. This leads to a kinked demand curve d1D and a discontinuous marginal revenue curve.

26. Page 154 Meeting demand along the lower segment of the kinked demand curve, the firm is maintaining its market share.

27. Page 154 Note that shifting MC curves reflecting technological advances will not affect P E and Q E . It does affect profit however (MC drops from point 3 to point 4).

30. Page 156 Total revenue is equal to the area 0P E CQ E , which forms the blue box to the left… Notice the monopoly, like the previous forms of imperfect competition, produces where MC=MR (point A), but then reads up to the demand curve (point C) when setting price P E .

31. Page 156 Total variable costs for the monopolist is equal to area 0NAQ E , or the yellow box to the left.

32. Page 156 Total fixed costs for the monopolist is equal to area NMBA, or the green box to the left…

33. Page 156 Total cost is therefore equal to area 0MBQ E , or the green box plus the yellow box to the left

34. Page 156 Finally, the economic profit earned by the monopolist is equal to area MP E CB, or total revenue (blue box) minus total costs (green box plus yellow box).

35. Page 157 Let’s compare a monopoly with perfect competition from an economic welfare perspective

36. Page 157 Consumer surplus under perfect competition is equal to the sum of areas 1, 4, 5, 8 and 9, or the blue triangle to the left Perfect Competition Case

37. Page 157 Producer surplus under perfect competition is equal to the sum of areas 2, 3, 6 and 7, or the green triangle to the left Perfect Competition Case

38. Page 157 Total economic surplus under perfect competition is therefore equal to the blue and green triangles to the left, or the sum of areas 1 through 9. Perfect Competition Case

39. Page 157 Consumer surplus under a monopoly is equal to the sum of areas 8 and 9, or the new blue triangle to the left Thus, consumers would be economically worse-off by areas 1, 4 and 5 under a monopoly. They are paying a higher price P M for a smaller quantity Q M . Monopoly Case

40. Page 157 Producer surplus under A monopoly is equal to the sum of areas 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7, or the green area to the left. Thus, producers lose area 2 but gain areas 4+5, making them economically better-off than perfect competitors Monopoly Case

41. Page 157 Finally, society as a whole would be economically worse-off by areas 1+2. This is called a dead weight loss. This reflects the fact that less of the economy’s available resources in this market are being used to provide products to consumers…. Monopoly Case

42. Summary of imperfect competitors from a selling perspective Page 157

43. Imperfect Competition in Buying

46. Page 160 Marginal revenue product same as marginal value product under perfect competition. Buying Decisions by Perfect Competitors

47. Page 160 Buying Decisions by Perfect Competitors Review graph on page 161 in Chapter 7 for more background on the MVP=MIC concept

48. Page 160 Buying Decisions by a Monopsonist Monopsonist makes decesions along the marginal reveuve product curve, which now differs from MVP. The firm will equate MRP=MIC at point A and decide to buy quantity Q M

49. Page 160 Buying Decisions by a Monopsonist This causes price to fall from P PC to P M which is referred to as monopsonistic explotation .

50. Page 161 Case #1 : Monopsonist in buying and sole seller of product. Equilibrium is where MRP=MIC at Point A. Pricing off supply curve gives Q MM and P MM .

51. Page 161 Case #2 : Perfect competition in buying but monopoly in selling. Equilibrium is where MRP=Supply at Point C which gives Q PCM and P PCM .

52. Page 161 Case #3 : Perfect competition in selling but monopsony in buying. Equilibrium is where MVP=MIC at Point E. Pricing off supply curve gives Q MPC and P MPC .

53. Page 161 Case #4 : Perfect competition in both selling and buying. Equilibrium is where MVP=Supply at Point F which gives Q PC and P PC .

56. Page 162 Various segments of the livestock industry Exhibit several forms of imperfect competition.

57. Governmental Regulatory Measures Various approaches have been taken over time to Counteract adverse effects of imperfect competition In the marketplace. These include 1.Legislative acts passed by Congress, including the Sherman Antitrust Act 2.Price ceilings 3.Lump-sum Tax 4.Minimum price or floors Page 162

59. Page 164 #2: Implications of a Price Ceiling Without regulatory interference, the monopolist will equate MR and MC at point C, produce Q M and charge price P M .

60. Page 164 #2: Implications of a Price Ceiling The monopolist’s profit is equal to AP M BC or the blue box to the left.

61. Page 164 #2: Implications of a Price Ceiling If government imposes a price ceiling P MAX , the demand curve is given by P MAX ED. This is also MR up to Q 1 . Beyond Q1, FG becomes the MR curve.

62. Page 164 #2: Implications of a Price Ceiling The price ceiling has the effect of of causing the monopolist to produce more (Q 1 >Q M ) at a lower price (P MAX <P M ).

63. Page 164 #2: Implications of a Price Ceiling The monopolist’s profit falls to area IP MAX EH or green box above.

64. Page 165 #3: Implications of Lump-Sum Tax The monopolist equates MC=MR at point F, producing Q M , and reading up to the demand curve at point B and charging P M .

65. Page 165 #3: Implications of Lump-Sum Tax The lump-sum tax on the monopolist raises the firm’s average total costs from ATC 1 to ATC 2 . This lowers the monopolist’s producer surplus from AP M BC to EP M BT, but does not change its level of output or price.

66. Page 165 #3: Implications of Lump-Sum Tax The lump-sum tax on the monopolist raises the firm’s average total costs from ATC 1 to ATC 2 . This lowers the monopolist’s producer surplus from AP M BC to EP M BT, but does not change its level of output or price. The loss in producer surplus is area AETC or blue box above.

67. Page 166 #4: Implications of Minimum Price Without a minimum price, the monopsonist would equate MRP=MIC and employ Q M units of the input and pay P M .

68. Page 166 #4: Implications of Minimum Price If a minimum price P F is imposed (think of a minimum wage rate), the monopsonist’s MIC curve would be P F DCB. Here the firm would actually employ more of the resource.

70. Chapter 10 focuses resource use in agriculture and the environment ….