1. THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA
Teacher training and
human development
outcomes
Kevin Sonke Kamto
2. 1
Contents
I. Introduction...................................................................................................................................3
II. Literature Review ......................................................................................................................5
III. Methodology.............................................................................................................................15
IV. Survey Results..........................................................................................................................22
V. Experiment Results......................................................................................................................41
VI. Future Work ............................................................................................................................45
VII. Conclusions and Recommendations ........................................................................................46
Bibliography.......................................................................................................................................48
INDEX OF TABLES
Table 1. Sample Calculation…………………………………………………………….. 26
Table 2. T-Test of Demographic Indicators: Control vs Treatment……………….. 33
Table 3. Results - Delivery of Content…………………………………………………. 38
Table 4. Results –Discipline……………………………………………………………....42
Table 5. Results- Motivation and Satisfaction ……………………………………….. 44
Table 6. Results- Quality of Life………………………………………………………... 47
Table 7. Results- Experiment 1 Students……………………………………………... 49
Table 8. Results- Experiment 1 Teachers……………………………………………... 50
Table 9. Results- Experiment 1 Joint………………………………………………….. 50
INDEX OF FIGURES
Figure 1: QAARDAN'S Direct Training………………………………………………. 27
Figure 2: QAARDAN'S Indirect Training…………………………………………….. 27
Figure 3: Shared QAARDAN's Training……………………………………………… 28
Figure 4: Sharing Mode………………………………………………………………… 28
Figure 4: Training and Meetings with Other Teachers ……………………………. 29
Figure 6: Types of verbal sharing………………………………………………………. 30
Figure 5: Evaluate QAARDAN's Suggestion on Teaching Improvement………. 30
3. 2
Abstract
This thesis examines the effects of a teacher training program taught to public school teachers in
Lagos, Nigeria by the Quality Assurance and Research Development Agency (QAARDAN). Being
part of a larger research project on the effects of the program on teachers, students and parental
dynamics, this thesis presents only the effects of the program on teacher outcomes. Data was
collected on a sample of 908 teachers, 1,011 students and 250 parents using a combination of
surveys and framed experiments. An integral approach was used to comprehensively investigate
the effects of the program, which in addition to considering the immediate outcomes assesses the
long-term impact on the lives of teachers as well their families and community. The results show
the program's positive impact on pedagogical outcomes such as teaching styles and disciplinary
issues. The experiment conducted highlights a disconnect between teachers and students in the
approach to disciplinary issues. The analysis also exposes the importance of social networks and
communication within a development framework and as such reinforces the importance of the
integral approach in program design and evaluation.
4. 3
I. Introduction
As developing countries grow, the need for proper investment in human capital rather
than strictly physical resources becomes more crucial (Li, et al. 2015). This is illustrated at the
global level by the explicit inclusion of educational, health and other human development goals in
various international development agendas (Odior 2014) (Imoughele and Ismaila 2013).
International consensuses such as the Millennium Development Goals and the Dakar Forum for
Education for All show that countries recognize the importance of human capital for their economic
advancement. However, although there is a show of good faith at the international level, these
endeavors are not always reflected at the national level.
Many studies have established the importance of education to economic development
through its contribution to human capital (Hanushek and Wößmann 2007). The problems faced
by various education systems in developing countries are also well documented. This study
addresses a particular set of qualitative educational issues in a developing country context.
Specifically, we analyze the effectiveness of a teacher-training program by the Quality Assurance
and Research Development Agency (QAARDAN) in Lagos, Nigeria, on the various human
development outcomes of three groups: teachers, students and parents. This unified approach
not only explores the impact of educational outcomes, but equally investigates how personal,
social and civic responsibilities are affected and changed by this program.
1 Country under Study
The Federal Republic of Nigeria is located in the Gulf of Guinea on Africa’s Western coast.
With a population of about 168,833,776 (World Bank, WDI, 2013), Nigeria is by far Africa’s most
populous country. Of this population, about 30 million are students (United States Diplomatic
Mission to Nigeria, 2013). Nigeria gained its independence from the United Kingdom in 1960.
5. 4
Following independence, the country has gone through a succession of military and civilian rule
coupled with periods of violence and civil war. As a result, the educational institutions have
suffered immensely from this instability and remain in the process of recuperating from the neglect
of former governments.
In 1999, a democratic government was elected after years of military rule with retired
General Olusegun Obasanjo voted in as president. Under President Goodluck Jonathan, Nigeria
has become Africa’s largest economy. However, the country ranks as a lower-middle income
economy where 46 percent of the population lives below the national poverty line as of 2012 while
63 percent of the population live on less than $1 a day. The economic issues hindering Nigeria
development are primarily due to corruption and poor governance, keeping Nigeria’s population
from truly feeling the effects of its economic growth.
The Nigerian Ministry of Education is the government body charged with regulating
procedures and maintaining standards in the country’s educational system. As a federal republic,
the existence of a certain amount of independence for the states vis-à-vis the federal government
is acknowledged. Due to this autonomy, there is a relative lack of involvement of the federal
government in the running of state-owned public schools, thus the quality of such schools greatly
varies from state to state.
The federal government’s philosophy with regards to education is based on developing
individuals into model citizens and the provision of equal educational opportunities for all
Nigerians at the primary, secondary and post-secondary levels. However, the type of education
received in Nigeria greatly depends on one’s own socioeconomic standing. The majority of
Nigerians receive their primary and secondary education from state-owned public schools. Under
the Universal Basic Education Act (UBEA) of 2004, enrollment in such schools is free, and
attendance is compulsory. The UBEA provides free education throughout the six years of primary
school and junior secondary school, thereby attempting to ensure nine years of uninterrupted
education (Universal Basic Education Commission, 2013). Most state-owned public schools in
6. 5
Nigeria are understaffed due to low state budgets, a lack of incentives and irregularities in the
payment of staff salaries. In Lagos’s public schools, the most basic tools set to accommodate
students are either missing or in poor condition. Overcrowded classrooms, inadequate chairs and
desks, and improper toilet facilities are among the various problems that students attending such
schools face. A rise in the rate of students dropping out of school, unmotivated teachers, and poor
school infrastructures are factors contributing to the overall low quality of state-owned public
schools.
Meanwhile, members of the Nigerian elites typically opt to enroll their children in expensive
private schools with highly qualified teachers and better infrastructure. Alternatively, they may also
enroll their children in federal schools that receive adequate funding directly from the federal
government and where admission is strictly based on merit. A few NGOs such as Modern
Montessori International (MMI) and Havering College provide training to teachers with a specific
focus on childhood education, which is directed toward primary schools. Other projects including
the World Bank’s Lagos Eko Secondary Education Project direct their focus at providing local
public secondary schools with additional funding according to the priorities defined at the school
level. However, most of these projects focus on infrastructural issues rather than qualitative
problems such as teacher training.
In the next sections of this paper, we shall be reviewing the current literature on education
and teacher training in the developing world. We would then proceed to explain the
methodological approaches used for our evaluation as well as our results.
II. Literature Review
It is important to review the scope and nature of the current literature on education within
a development context. This exercise highlights the contributions that our endeavor brings to the
subject. Additionally, it permits us to gain a better understanding of what some of the issues
related to education and teacher training across the world are.
7. 6
1. Education and Economic Growth
When looking at the relationship between economic growth and education, there has
been a recent shift of focus from enrollment to quality and cognitive skills. This change of direction
came as a result of the lackluster effects that increased enrollment has had on development
outcomes across the developing world (Hanushek and Wößmann 2009). Measuring education
quality in terms of cognitive skills shows greater impact on individual earnings and economic
growth. Cognitive skills may be developed in formal schooling, but they could also come from
family, peers, cultural inputs, and so forth. This approach therefore factors in the effects that
socioeconomic and cultural dynamics might have on educational and growth outcomes rather
than looking solely at school enrollment (Hanushek and Wößmann 2007). Hanushek and
Wößmann develop a simple growth model showing the relationship between education measured
in cognitive skills and a country’s growth rate. Their model places growth as a function of the
skills of workers and other factors that include initial levels of income and technology as well as
economic institutions and other systemic factors. Skills are affected by including family inputs, the
quantity and quality of inputs provided by schools, individual ability and other relevant factors such
as the labor market, experience and health. The use of cognitive skills in measuring education
quality allows us to capture the variations in knowledge that different schools produce. It equally
factors into the effects of external factors such as family dynamics and shows the possibly
contrasting effects of quantity versus quality of schooling and their policy implications (Hanushek
and Wößmann 2007).
In a 2004 paper, Cardak uses the neoclassical gowth theory to show the impact of
education on growth. In his model, Cardak assumes that each parent has only one child and the
opportunity to choose between public and private education. If the public option is selected, then
the household consumes all of its after-tax income. Alternatively, if private education is selected,
after-tax income is split between private consumption and education spending. The results of the
8. 7
model show that in a consistent state, public education offered the poor higher growth; however,
it also offered a lower steady income than private education (Cardak 2004). Knowles and Dorian
also use the neoclassical model to look at the impact of education on growth. Using nationwide
empirical estimates for 77 countries over a period of 25 years and an effective labor growth model,
they find a strong positive relationship exists between growth and health (as proxied by life
expectancy). However they do not find any significant relationship between output per worker
and education (Knowles and Owen 1997)
2. Teaching Styles and Pedagogy
Measuring education in terms of skill and quality implies paying greater attention to
classroom dynamics, particularly the relationship between teachers’ instructional styles and
students’ learning outcomes. Empirical evidence coming form various developing countries shows
that teachers use a rather authoritative pedagogical approach. This trend is noticeable across the
literature despite the variety of existing measures of teaching styles.
In a 2014 study done in Malaysian secondary schools for instance, Grasha uses the
Grasha-Riechmann scale to investigate the relationship between teaching styles and student
interest. This measure identifes five teaching styles: expert, formal authority, personal model,
facilitator and delegator (Grasha 2014). They identify five styles that are ordered from rigid to
interactive. The results of the study suggest that the formal authority, personal and delegator
models were the most widely used (Pying and Rashid 2014). In Botswana, similar results were
found when looking at teaching styles amongst religious educators in the countries' secondary
education system. The study used a mix of observation, focus groups and questionnaires on 42
respondents chosen through convenient sampling from 24 schools from three regions earmarked
for the study. The results of the observation showed that teachers occupied center stage in the
classrooom and allowed for limited interaction with and between students. The findings from their
questionnaires also revealed that the majority of teachers, 86 percent, viewed the teaching style
9. 8
employed in the country as closed and opposed to interactive (Lumadi and Awino 2009). This
trend is visible in other Sub-Saharan African countries with some noticeable contrast between
teachers’ approaches and students’ demands. In South Africa for example, a study of 299
students and 29 teachers in secondary schools in the country’s North-West Province showed that
while teachers encouraged independent work and an authoritative approach, the majority of
students favored a hands-on appraoch and class interaction (Dreyer 1998).
It is also noteworthy to look at other aspects of pedagogical issues, particularly those
issues related to discipline. Teachers' disciplinary policies have been shown to have important
implications for students, especially when corporal punishment is involved. In Pakistan, a 2011
paper showed that mild and severe punishment impedes class participation, decreases
attendance and increases the drop-out rate at the student level. In this study, mild corporal
punishment was regarded as hitting or slapping students with a bare hand, hitting or slapping with
a hand, arm or leg, spanking and shaking, pushing and pulling, while severe corporal punishment
is understood as hitting or slapping students on the head, beating the buttocks with a stick, hitting
or slapping students on the face, pulling ears and hair, and making the students sit-stand (Naz,
et al. 2011). It should also be noted that the study uses chi-square to test for difference in mean
and therefore, although it can show a relationship between corporal punishment and these
outcomes, this method does not allow for the establishment of causality. In Turkey, a study carried
out over the course of three years on 4,948 students at secondary educational institutions located
in two provinces (Kastamonu and Karabük) found no significant effect of punishment on student
behavior. Although physical violence was the most reprimanded transgression at 34.6 percent,
there was no observed decrease in its occurrence resulting from punishment (Ergün 2014).
Although this study might be a signal of the negative impacts of corporal punishment, it
appears that in developing countries, teachers still believe in the validity of this method. In Kenya,
for example, a 2014 study shows that a majority of teachers believed corporal punishment to be
beneficial to preschool learners and admitted to using the technique. In a sample of 128
10. 9
interviewed pre-school teachers, 80 percent admitted using corporal punishment. However, the
study fails to distinguish between the types of physical punishment used by teachers (Mwai,
Kimengi and Kipso 2014). In Nigeria, a 2013 paper found corporal punishment to be the most
widely used approach by teachers. The sample, consisting of 250 secondary school teachers in
the city of Calabar, showed that 85 percent of respondents reported using the technique ranging
from spanking to kneeling (Ekanem and Edet 2013).
3. Teacher Training
Strong evidence of the effects of teacher training on pedagogical and motivational
outcomes is lacking at the sub-Saharan African level. Across the literature, most findings lack
strong quantitative evaluation tools and the capacity to show causality between given variables
and factors and their potential outcomes. In Nigeria, with some few exceptions, a lot of the
research is centered on finding what qualities students look for or value the most in a good
teacher. Yet, in a 2010 study Babalola and Yara evaluate the effects of the Primary Education
Studies (PES) program on 1,563 prospective teachers and primary school teachers in colleges of
education in southwestern Nigeria. The PES was introduced in Nigeria in 2009 as a teacher
training curriculum aimed at equipping teachers with the relevant knowledge, skills, attitudes and
methods to make them teach all subjects in the primary school curriculum effectively. This new
requirement was added to complement the National Certificate of Education which is the basic
needed to be a primary school teacher in Nigeria. The results show that 69 percent of primary
school teachers who received the program rate themselves as being able to teach effectively
across all subjects in the Nigerian primary school curriculum to a great extent (Babalola and Yara
2011). It should be noted that a chi-square test was used to obtain these results and with the
absence of a control group it is hard to truly judge the program’s effectiveness.
Similar to Nigeria, in Kenya most studies approach teacher effectiveness and training
from the students’ perspectives. As such, in a 2014 paper, Misigo, Kodero and Too use a
11. 10
qualitative approach to investigate the qualities of effective secondary school teachers in the
Nyanza, Western, and Rift-Valley Provinces of Kenya. They use a phenomenological study design
(a study where lived experiences for several individuals are described as related to a
phenomenon they have in common) and a sample of 90 Form Three male and female students.
Their findings reveal that knowledge and mastery of the subject matter ranks second for students
regarding the qualities of a good teacher. However, given its small sample size and the qualitative
approach of the study, it is hard to extract generalizable conclusions (Misigo, Kodero and Too
2011). In another study, Misigo and Kodero deepen their analysis and shed more light on their
previous findings. Using survey questionnaires, principal component as well as factor analysis
and a sample of 475 high school students in the aforementioned Kenyan provinces, they found
that knowledge of the material is the component most valued by students in a good teacher.
However, they take their analysis further and use their results to formulate teacher selection
criteria and set the basis for teacher potential training programs (Kodero, et al. 2014). While also
looking at teacher know-how and teaching styles, in a 2012 paper, Mutai investigates the
pedagogical approach of English teachers in the Eldoret municipality. With a sample of 180
students drawn from six public schools and with the use of only descriptive statistics, the author
founds that a majority of teachers opt for lectures more often when teaching with a lower
percentage choosing interactive techniques such as debate or role reversal (Mutai 2012). As
previously mentioned, a few studies in the countries use more quantitative approaches. In a 2010
study for instance, Yara uses a descriptive survey design and multiple regression analysis to
observe the effects of teaching and learning resources on academic performance in mathematics
for 405 senior high school students. His results suggest that a lack of trained teachers decreases
academic performance in mathematics for students (Yara and Otieno 2010). However it is not
clear in his analysis what constitutes a trained teacher. Additionally, in the same vain as the
previously discussed studies, his approach focuses solely on students and their outcomes.
12. 11
Studies coming out of other East African countries have tackled the similar issues with the
same reliance on descriptive statistics rather than regression analysis in their methodology. In
Tanzania for instance, Mwenda, Mwidige and Sanga use this method to assess the factors
influencing trainee teachers' attitude towards the teaching profession. Their results showed that
out of 183 sample teachers, 32 percent of respondents pointed to low salaries as the reason why
they were dissatisfied with their profession (Mwenda, Asheri and Sanga 2014).
In another study conducted in Tanzania, Barrett uses an in depth interview approach to
assemble information on 34 teachers across 18 schools in both urban and rural areas of the
country. In this attempt to measure the role Tanzanian teachers believe they play in their
communities, the author founds that living conditions such as proper housing greatly affected
teacher satisfaction, particularly the female teachers interviewed. This also translated into a
higher level of dissatisfaction for teachers in rural areas. However, the remoteness and
consequent lack of access to professional learning such as training was also identified as one of
the causes of rural teachers’ dissatisfaction (Barrett 2005).
In South Africa, Gudmundsdottir also finds teacher training to be an important component
of educational outcomes. In a 2010 study of a program aimed at integrating information
technology in four primary schools in Cape Town, the author founds that schools in which teachers
received additional training prior to the program's implementation had better performing students.
However, the study also uses a qualitative approach with in-depth interviews as the main form of
information collection making it hard to establish causality between training and the students’
performance. Additionally, with a sample size of 36 respondents, it is hard to generalize the
findings (Gudmundsdottir 2010).
Fehrler, Michealowa and Wechler find a significant positive causal relationship between
teachers’ educational levels and teacher training and students’ performance in 13 Anglophone
and 8 Francophone sub-Saharan African countries. Their sample consists of 40,000 sixth and
17,000 fifth graders in the Anglophone and Francophone countries, respectively. Performance is
13. 12
measured by student results on the PASEC and SAQMEC standardized tests. The former is
administered mainly in Francophone western and central African countries while the latter is given
in Anglophone countries in East Africa. PASEC is administered by CONFEMEN, the educational
branch of the Francophonie while SAQMEC is an international non-profit developmental
organization of 15 ministries of education in southern and eastern Africa that decided to work
together to share experiences and expertise in developing the capacities of education planners
to apply scientific methods to monitor and evaluate the conditions of schooling and the quality of
education. It is crucial to mention that the causal relationship they show holds true only in
Anglophone countries and is nonexistent in the Francophone countries. Their paper accounts for
teacher training and education in Francophone countries in terms of duration without taking quality
into consideration. This reveals that in those countries, length of training does not lead to an actual
increase in the knowledge of the teachers (Wechtler, Michaelowa and Fehrler 2007).
Studies coming out of developing countries outside of Africa use stronger econometric
approaches, but reveal varying effects of teacher training on both educators and students. In
Russia, Grimes and Millea (2011) examine the Council for Economic Education's (CEE) training
program on teacher and student outcomes in St. Petersburg, Nizhiniy Novgorod and Novosibirsk.
CEE is a US-based organization that focuses on the economic and financial education of students
from kindergarten through high school. The organization's teacher training program for economics
teachers has been implemented in various countries in the former Soviet Union. For their
evaluation, Grimes and Millea use a sample composed of 260 economics teachers who applied
for training, out of which 75 received the training. Teacher performance was measured using
scores on the Test of Economic Literacy (TEL) administered by the CEE. Treatment group
teachers were tested before and after training. They find that receiving training caused an
increase in teachers' understanding of economics measured by performance in the TEL (Millea
2011). In China on the other hand, Zhang, Fang, Pang, Yi and Rozelle find no significant
relationship between short-term, in-service teacher training and teacher and student test scores
14. 13
in English when examining 123 teachers, 8,387 students and a total of 70 schools randomly
selected in Beijing (Yue, et al. 2012). In Pakistan, a 2011 study measuring job satisfaction of
motivation and health issues of secondary school teachers find that training had a negative impact
on teacher satisfaction. It is, however, noteworthy that in this study, the training program
measured was received by prospective teachers at the end of their education, prior to the
beginning of their career. The focus of the program is therefore more pedagogical than
motivational (Malik, et al. 2011). A 1995 paper used Jamaican data collected in 1990 to examine
the performance of primary school students in reading (English) and mathematics. More than 40
school and teacher characteristics were examined, including pedagogical processes and
management structure. Most variables had statistically insignificant effects. The school variables
with significantly positive impacts were the administration of eye examinations (reading only),
teacher training within the past 3 years (mathematics), routine academic testing of students
(reading and mathematics), and the use of textbooks in class (reading). However, of these
variables, teacher training had the smallest impact. A school in which all teachers were trained is
estimated to have mathematics scores 0.7 standard deviations higher than an otherwise identical
school with untrained teachers (Glewwe, et al. 1995).
In Singapore, teachers receive pre-service training in information and communication
technology (ICT) with the goal of integrating it into their teaching method. A 2013 study evaluates
the effect of this program on technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK). More
precisely, the paper seeks to evaluate how the program affects teachers’ integration of ICT into
their lesson activities, that is, their knowledge of ICT integration. This is measured using a scaled
index that captures the level of ICT integration in teaching. Using surveys collected from a sample
of 869 graduating teachers who had all taken the compulsory ICT course, the results suggest that
specific aspects of the training course such as practical examples and hands-on ICT integration
assignments were most influential in increasing teachers’ TPACK. Other factors such as training
course delivery or environment did not significantly affect the level of ICT incorporation (Koh, Woo
15. 14
and Lim 2013).
In the United States, a 2012 study looking at the role of in-service training for teachers on
parental involvement in schools located in immigrant communities along the country's southern
border finds that training improved faculty-parent relations. More specifically, the study found the
consistent, positive relationship between professional development (measured by access to in-
service training programs) and parent involvement policies across the various immigrant
destinations (Marschall et al, 2012). In another paper, Sass and Harris equally look at the impact
of in-service training; however, their effort focuses on student achievement and teacher
productivity rather than parent-teacher relations. Although they find that experience (measured
by informal on-the-job training) increases teacher productivity, they find no significant relationship
between formal training and performance apart from middle school mathematics. It should be
noted that teacher productivity in this case is measured by student achievement. Specifically, the
authors create a model that looks at the role of different variables including teacher training on
student performance (Harris and Sass 2011). In a similar study, Clotfelter, Ladd and Vidgor also
look at the effects of teacher credential on statewide test scores across multiple subjects in North
Carolina. In this study, training is measured by the scores achieved by teachers in their assigned
subject. Their results suggest that taking such a test is associated with higher performance at the
student level, particularly in mathematics and algebra (Clotfelter, Ladd and Vigdor 2010).
Other studies from the United States measure teacher training as holding a graduate
degree and other certifications. Betts, Zau and Rice, for instance, measure teachers' levels of
training in terms of professional and academic experience. They find that in most subjects, these
variables are not significantly related to test scores, but they did find that for teachers, having the
Bilingual, Cross-cultural, Language and Academic Development (BCLAD) credential decreased
students' reading scores by 7.1 percent. They are, however, unable to establish whether this
effect is due to certification or the class (Betts, Zau and Rice 2003). Also measuring teacher
training in terms of experience, Nye, Konstantopoulos and Hedges find that there are limited
16. 15
effects of teacher experience or education on student achievement. In their study that investigates
the role of teachers' race on student performance in the Tennessee STAR program, they use a
model that assumes the relationship between experience and performance at the student level to
be nonlinear. That is, they assume that teachers become more skilled after the first few years of
the career. They find experience to significantly improve student performance for second grade
reading and third grade mathematics (Nye, Konstantopoulos and Hedges 2004).
III. Methodology
4. Program Evaluated
The focus of this impact evaluation is on public schools located in Lagos, Nigeria’s largest
city. The evaluation is mostly concentrated on state-owned public schools because of the vast
differences with private schools. One private missionary school is nonetheless also examined.
However, such schools are targeted towards the poor and charge very low fees. The population
they serve is therefore similar to that of the public schools.
The program evaluated is a teacher training program carried out by QAARDAN. For six years
the organization has been actively involved with organizing teacher training workshops with the
ultimate goal of assisting school administrators and teachers in developing themselves
professionally. The training also seeks to ignite a sense of leadership in teachers by motivating
them to play a central role in their students’ development. A number of institutions across the
country have been beneficiaries of such training programs. QAARDAN has trained individuals
occupying a variety of positions, ranging from administrative to teaching, within schools. The
issues tackled in the training include; Teacher Effectiveness and Professionalism, Curriculum
Design and Delivery, Customer Service Excellence, and Effective Communication – The Art,
Science and Practice of Communication in Education.
Our evaluation looks at the schools in which teachers were trained. Therefore, it is
17. 16
centered on the pedagogical and motivational issues examined in the program. These include
Teacher Effectiveness and Professionalism, Curriculum Delivery and Communication. It should
be noted that QAARDAN’S training is offered free of charge to public school teachers; however,
the number of teachers to whom they can offer this service is very limited. Additionally, the model
under which QAARDAN works is a trainer of trainers, which entails trained teachers sharing their
knowledge with others. Therefore, an expected effect after training ends is sharing the knowledge
acquired with one’s colleagues. This aspect of the training fits with the integral approach that we
use in our evaluation. We observe the effects that the training and its components might have on
academic and pedagogical outcomes at the student and teacher levels but we also investigate
how this program affects the lives of its participants outside the academic setting. Particularly, we
look at the effects of the programs on the participants’ family lives, their relationship with their
communities and their civic engagement. These three components make up what we refer to as
a person’s quality of life and we expect the program to have an effect on each one of them.
Additionally, the knowledge transfer aspect of the training allows us to investigate the role of social
capital and networks in development programs such as this one. The direct and indirect effects of
such connections on quality of life are well-explored and documented by the likes of Sen and
Stiglitz. Given the social character of human beings and interactions, people with more social
connections constitute an essential aspect of human life and development. Furthermore, such
connections create better communal lives in that they increase individuals’ ability to rely on one
another and increase trust within the community (Stiglitz, Sen and Fitoussi 2009).
The training received by the public school teachers is designed to produce better results
in students by implementing multiple changes at the teacher level. A specific focus is placed on
ameliorating student teacher-relations, parent-teacher relations, teachers’ class formats and
professionalism. The norm in Nigerian public schools is for teachers to have an authoritarian
relationship with their students. Corporal punishment is still very wildly used. This creates fear in
the students and is detrimental to the learning process. The training is meant to create a
18. 17
mentorship between the teacher and student, a relationship in which the teacher becomes a role
model and a source of advice. This component is also intended to show teachers that their roles
in their students’ life extend beyond the classroom.
The training also seeks to improve parent-teacher relations. The assumption behind this
component of the program is that better cooperation between parents and teachers means a
better environment for the student to study at home and, therefore, better performance.
The professionalism aspect of the training is related to the practical and ethical aspects of
teaching ranging from punctuality to attire. This component aims to communicate that students
are responsive to teachers who appear to take their work seriously. It also strives to instill a sense
of pride in the teaching profession.
Pedagogically, the program encourages teachers to break away from traditional teaching
techniques and to be more attentive to the individual characteristics and needs of their students.
This implies switching from the archaic methods such as rote memorization and moving towards
more interactive techniques such as debates or role playing. It also teaches educators to be more
attentive to the different learning needs of their students and consequently adapting their
teaching.
5. Population Served
According to the Nigerian Bureau of Statistics, there were about 256,972 public
secondary school students in Lagos as of 2010 (National Bureau of Statistics, 2014). Most of
these students come from very modest socioeconomic backgrounds. As in most of sub-Saharan
Africa, the family is at the center of the community and is one of the main sources of social capital.
Contrary to expectations, there is a slightly higher number of females enrolled in public primary
schools in Lagos than males (female to male public school enrollment is 1.05). This trend is
equally noticeable in junior and senior secondary schools (National Bureau of Statistics, 2014).
Such information has more impact when one considers the fact that the male-female ratio of the
19. 18
entire population is 1.01.
The percentage of individuals whose highest level of education is primary school was
about 29.60 percent in Lagos for 2012 (National Bureau of Statistics, 2014). This number rises to
about 38.20 percent when moving from the primary to the secondary education level and is about
13.30 percent at the tertiary level. Thus, less than half of the population finishes secondary or
tertiary education.
The government reports a national per capita poverty rate of 40.30 percent in 2010 while
the share of household income held by the poorest 40 percent was 16 percent between 2007 and
2011.
These numbers illustrate the difficulties faced by QAARDAN in providing free training for
public school instructors. As of 2007, QAARDAN has trained a total of 15,000 teachers in Lagos.
Out of these, 2,500 were directly trained and are expected to, in turn, extend their training to 5
other teachers in their respective schools, thus reaching an additional 12,500 teachers.
6. Evaluation Structures and Components
We use an integral approach to evaluate the effects of the program on the individuals
involved. Therefore, we investigate the effects that the training and its components might have on
academic and pedagogical outcomes at the student and teacher levels, but we also investigate
how this program affects the lives of its participants outside the academic setting. Particularly, we
look at the effects of the programs on the participants’ family lives, their relationship with their
communities and their civic engagement. These three components make up a person’s quality of
life and we expect the program to have an effect on each of them. The integral approach takes
into consideration all aspects of the human person that could potentially be affected by a program
such as QAARDAN’s. It acknowledges the connections between different components of the
human experience such as the link between education and family dynamics. Following this
approach therefore prompts us to investigate the spillover effects of QAARDAN’s program on the
20. 19
entirety of the participants’ lives.
In our evaluation we look at all teachers (some received direct training, while others would
indirectly receive knowledge from them), their students and their parents. In order to measure the
impact of the teacher training program, three main areas have been identified namely training,
content delivery, discipline, motivation and quality of life.1
The first component of the evaluation is training. This element seeks to judge how the
training was provided in terms of content and context. Some of the variables observed here
include whether the teacher fulfilled all of the requirements of the training such as attending all
sessions. It also seeks to observe whether the teachers shared the information acquired with their
peers and if they received support from their school in implementing their training. This part of the
evaluation equally investigates the teachers’ perception of the effectiveness and importance of
the training. We are interested in observing the specific means through which the teachers
estimate the helpfulness of their training on their students, as well as the sort of support they
received from their schools’ administration in implementing their training.
The second component examines the effects of the program on the pedagogical aspects
of teaching. Particularly, we look at teaching styles and content delivery as this is one of the main
aspects of QAARDAN’s training. The program emphasizes the importance of abandoning rigid
teaching styles, such as rote memorization through repetition, and moving towards a more
proactive and participative approach.
Discipline is the third component of our evaluation. QAARDAN trains teachers to move
away from punitive disciplinary measures such as corporal punishment towards more nurturing
methods. This aspect of training and of the evaluation is quite relevant in light of the widespread
use of physical punishment in the schools included in this study.
The fourth part of our evaluation is teacher motivation. The training is meant to produce a
1
See Appendix B for Survey Questionnaire
21. 20
sense of mentorship in teachers and push them to become models in their students’ lives.
QAARDAN expects teachers to become motivated by the purely altruistic aspects of the teaching
profession. Therefore rather than being motivated by financial stability or influence, the training is
supposed to create teachers whose main satisfaction comes from knowing they make a positive
difference in their students’ lives.
Our use of the integral approach gives us the opportunity to add a fifth layer to the
evaluation. We seek to observe the effects of the program at the interpersonal and civic levels.
Hence, we include outcomes such as community involvement, relationships with peers and family,
and political and civic engagement at the student, teacher and parent levels.
7. Sample Size
The population of interest is low-income students attending public secondary schools in
Lagos. We identified 12 such schools in which teachers received QAARDAN’s training, which will
be part of the treatment group. The control group consists of schools that have requested training
but are still on QAARDAN’s waiting list. All teachers in control and treatment schools were invited
to participate in the survey collection, which means data was collected for the entire 1,119 person
population of teachers. Using proportionate sampling, we requested a sample consisting of 980
students and 980 corresponding parents. Each teacher was matched with their corresponding
students in order to more precisely track the effects of the training.
Table 1 provides a summary of the students required for the treatment and control groups.
These numbers where obtained by using the proportion of treatment and control groups to the
total population; for students, the numbers are 58 percent and 42 percent, respectively. For
teachers, the proportion treated in the entire population is 51 percent and the proportion of
controls is 49 percent.
Table 1: Sample Asked
22. 21
Teachers (all) 1,119
Students (half boys and half girls please. For Treatment schools,
please have more students coming from teachers who received
the QAARDAN training)
980
Parents (of those students taking the survey) 980
As mentioned, the QAARDAN training is offered to public schools free of charge and
expected to be shared by the teachers directly participating in the training, which are few per
school. Therefore, within the treatment schools, there is a group of directly-trained teachers and
a group of indirectly-trained teachers.
8. Experiments Sample
In addition to tracking the effects of the programs on teachers and students, we are
interested in how the current program could improve. For this, field-framed experiments were
designed. The goal of these experiments was to identify teachers and students' willingness and
ability to change behavior regarding certain issues when presented with a series of scenarios.
The issues addressed were class participation or interaction and discipline. These subjects were
chosen during the exploratory phases of the evaluation after conducting preliminary interviews
with various teachers, school administrators and students and from an initial review of survey
data. Since our goal was to investigate areas in which the training might be lacking and could
improve, the sample for the experiments consisted solely of teachers and students from treatment
schools. Because we did not provide any sort of monetary incentive, participation in the
experiments was fully voluntary. Although this might create some sort of selection bias, it also
assures that the participants’ responses and behavior are free of any external influence.
We used framed experiments in order to observe any change in behavior. The
experiments took place in the treated schools to allow for the participants to be in a familiar
23. 22
environment. First, we collected information on a specific topic in order to assess the participants’
current behavior; this served as pre-experiment data. We then exposed the subjects to a series
of scenarios and recorded their responses. The scenarios were realistic and were based on issues
that we observed in the early stages of data collection. In these scenarios the participants had to
choose from a set of responses ranging from passive to proactive. Following this exercise, we
collected the same information from the pre-experiment portion. We therefore ended with pre and
post data corresponding to the participants’ behavior before and after being exposed to the
scenarios.
Because of the prevalence of aggressive punishment, we created an experiment centered
on disciplinary issues. Both teachers and students were invited to participate in order for us to
compare their behaviors and attitudes regarding punishment. The pre and post information was
based on the disciplinary techniques used by teachers and the approach students would want to
be used. The scenario was a realistic situation in which a student misbehaves and the possible
reaction a teacher could have. The teachers assume the role of students and vice versa. This role
reversal was aimed at getting the two groups of participants to better understand and
communicate with one another.
IV. Survey Results
9. Comparability
Before proceeding to evaluate the program, it is crucial to ensure that the treatment and
control groups are in fact comparable. This allows us to check for any differences that would effect
one group’s receptiveness to the program and therefore bias our estimates. In order to check for
such discrepancies, T-tests were run to compare the demographic characteristics of these groups.
As shown in Table 2, education level is the only variable for which there is a statistically
significant difference between the treatment and control groups and is measured by highest
degree received. This means that for the remaining variables, there are no other observable
24. 23
differences between the two groups.
10. Training
As previously mentioned, teachers from the treatment group received training either
directly from QAARDAN or indirectly through information that was shared by trained teachers.
This approach was used due to financial constraints since the organization is unable to directly
train every teacher in the schools they work with. It was therefore crucial to distinguish between
directly and indirectly-trained teachers and measure the extent to which teachers were sharing
the knowledge received with their peers.
Table 2: Treatment Group Comparability
Variable Treatment Control Significance
Gender
(Male=1, Female=2)
1.68 1.67 0.72
Marital Status
(From Single to Married)
1.88 1.87 0.96
Age
(From lowest to Highest)
41.91 44.52 0.12
Number of Children
(From none to more than 8)
3.05 3.13 0.45
Ethnic Group
(From Igbo to other)
2.16 2.06 0.21
First Language
(From Igbo to other)
2.41 2.30 0.21
Education Level
(From Primary to doctoral)
6.86 6.86 0.01
Number of Jobs
(One or More than 2)
1.06 1.09 0.10
Years of Education
(Low to High)
17.01 17.09 0.73
Access to Electricity
(Yes= 1. No=2)
1.05 1.07 0.52
Commute Time
(Low to high in minutes)
89.12 79.15 0.67
Household Population 5.96 5.49 0.12
Figure 1 below shows that out of the respondents to our survey, a total of 18 teachers, or 2
percent, were directly trained. Out of these, 13 were junior secondary teachers and five were in
senior secondary schools. Meanwhile, as shown in Figure 2, a total of 48 teachers received
indirect training. Out of those, 34 were senior secondary teachers and 14 were junior school
25. 24
teachers.
As explained, trained teachers are encouraged to share the skills they acquire from the
training with a minimum of five teachers. As shown in Figure 3, seven teachers, five junior
secondary teachers and two senior secondary teachers that received direct training from
QAARDAN, stated they had shared the knowledge and skills acquired with their fellow teachers.
Figure 1: QAARDAN's Direct Training
Figure 2: QAARDAN's Indirect Training
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Junior
Senior
Total
Direct Training
Total No Yes
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Junior
Senior
Total
Indirect Training
Total No Yes
26. 25
Figure 3: Shared QAARDAN Training
Figure 4 illustrates the different modes through which teachers shared their training. We
see that 10 percent of teachers shared training through notes or informal exchanges with their
peers. A lower proportion of teachers (7 percent) spread the information by sharing training
reading material.
Figure 4: Sharing Mode
Regarding the implementation of training received, information was gathered with support
from the school administration. Figure 5 indicates that out of a total of the 11 teachers who stated
0 2 4 6 8 10
Shared
Didn't Share
Total
Junior Senior
27. 26
receiving training directly from QAARDAN teachers, 54 percent also stated they had met with
other teachers and the director to implement what they have learned from the training.
Figure 5: Training and Meetings with Other Teachers
The specific nature and frequencies of these meetings are illustrated in Figure 6. We see
that the majority of teachers, 58 percent, shared the information with their peers during a formal
school meeting. About 38 percent of teachers shared the information through several informal
conversations with their colleagues while 23 percent of teachers did it in one session. A minor
percentage of teachers who shared the information verbally also did it by providing their
colleagues with reading material.
0 2 4 6 8 10
Shared
Didn't Share
Total
Junior Senior
28. 27
Figure 6: Types of Verbal Sharing
11. QAARDAN Training: Evaluation
In addition to implementation and administrative support, information was also collected
on trained teachers’ evaluation of the difference the training might have made in their respective
schools. Figure 7 shows that out of the 11 teachers who were directly trained, five performed a
personal evaluation of how their teaching might have changed as a result of training.
Figure 7: Evaluate QAARDAN's Suggestion on Teaching Improvement
Using Ordinary Least Squares and Tobit Regression models, teachers, students and
parents’ regressions were run separately based on the objectives of this evaluation. The teachers’
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Received
Didn't Receive
Total
Evaluate Didn't Evaluate
Teachers
meeting at
school
Reading
material
29. 28
regressions were based on the following components: delivery of content, discipline, motivation,
personal dignity, social responsibility, and civic responsibility. Only significant variables are
included in this report.
12. Delivery of Content
In QAARDAN’s training program, strong emphasis is placed on encouraging teachers to
allow students in the classroom to interact and exchange their points of view with teachers and
classmates. The goal is to create a more interactive classroom and environments where teachers
are more receptive to the various ways in which their students reason and learn. QAARDAN trains
teachers to break away from the method of memorization through repetition or rote learning which
is still widely used in Nigeria’s public schools. The expected outcome is a teaching environment
that allows for the participation and success of students across learning styles and types of
intelligence. To assess the results of training in this area, information was gathered on how often
teachers used visual aids, case studies, relevant experiments, role play techniques and
encouraged group work. Data was also gathered on the use of the rote memorization technique.
The results presented in Table 3 show that teachers in the control group are less likely to
use interactive techniques. This means that the program is successful in increasing class
interaction at the teacher level. The program has a positive and significant effect on all of the
content delivery variables that indicate class interactions. We also observe that control group
teachers are more likely to use the rote memorization method. Female teachers in the control
group, on the other hand, are less likely to use this method. Overall, these results are encouraging
as they show that the training positively and significantly affects the way teachers interact with
students. The results also suggest a difference in approach between male and female teachers.
Classroom infrastructure has an effect on interaction that is contrary to what we expected.
When looking at the aggregation of components of classroom infrastructure, we find that the
higher the quality of infrastructure, the more likely teachers are to encourage students to relate
30. 29
what they learn to the outside world. However, when looking at the quality of classroom lighting
only, we find that better quality increases the use of the rote memorization method.
Access to teaching resources has significant effects on teachers’ use of classroom
interaction. Teachers whose schools provide teaching resources are more likely to be interactive.
However, these results are significantly for the Tobit regression model only. Interestingly, teachers
who have to find classroom teaching resources on the internet are less likely to encourage
classroom interaction.
Teacher-principal relations appear to have dual effects on teaching styles. The results of
the ordinary least square model suggest that teachers whose performance is evaluated by their
principals are more likely to use role playing or role reversal. On the other hand, the Tobit model
suggests the opposite results. Encouragingly, the probability of using role reversal is also
increased by the number of times teachers meet with principals during an academic year. This
implies that principals have a positive effect on teaching methods to a certain extent; it remains
unclear whether their role as performance evaluators enhances the quality of classroom
dynamics.
Issues related to professionalism and dedication have significant but contradictory effects
on teaching styles. The results show that the more formal teachers dress, the more probable they
are to use role reversal. On the other hand, teachers who keep track of attendance are more likely
to encourage students to relate what they learn to the outside world.
None of the demographic characteristics of teachers have an effect on their use of
classroom interaction except for education level and access to electricity. We observe that the
more educated a teacher is (measured in highest degree obtained), the more likely they are to
allow for an interactive classroom atmosphere. On the other hand, teachers who do not have
access to electricity in their homes are less interactive.
31. 30
Table 3: Content Delivery
Allow
students to
exchange
points of
views and
interact with
one another
(Less used to
more used)
Use examples
and
experiments
(Less used to
more used)
Role playing
(Less used to
more used)
Encourage
students to
relate what
they learn to
outside world
(Less used to
more used)
Rote
memorization
(Less used to more
used)
(1) (2) (1) (2) (1) (2) (1) (2) (1) (2)
Treatment
(Treatment=1,
Control =0)
30*
(0.14)
0.45**
(0.15)
0.36**
(0.11)
0.63***
(0.15)
-0.32*
(0.17)
-0.07*
(0.16)
-- -- 1.04*
(0.56)
0.08*
(0.38)
Treatment*Number
of Students
0.00**
(0.00)
0.00*
(0.00)
Treatment*Gender
(Male=1, Female=0)
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -0.81*
(0.31)
-0.35
(0.23)
Teaching Outcomes_
Interpersonal
Relationship
(Most to Least
Important)
0.60*
(0.08)
0.31***
(0.04)
Class Room
infrastructure –
lighting
(Bad to Good)
-- -- -0.12*
(0.07)
0.13
(0.12)
-- -- -- -- 0.22*
(0.10)
0.28**
(0.09)
Visual Aids available
(Yes=1, No=0)
0.73***
(0.18)
0.81***
(0.13)
Performance
Evaluation - Principal
(Yes=1, No=0)
-- -- -- -- -0.52*
(0.30)
0.45***
(0.08)
-- -- -- --
Class material
obtained on internet
(Yes=1, No=0)
-0.40*
(0.21)
-0.49**
(0.08)
-0.57*
(0.17)
-0.57**
(0.09)
-- -- -- -- -- --
Meetings with
principal – frequency
(Low to High)
0.20*
(0.08)
0.40*
(0.07)
0.24*
(0.10)
0.41***
(0.07)
-- -- 0.24*
(0.10)
0.53***
(0.07)
-- --
Class Material
provided by school
(Yes=1, No=0)
-0.36*
(0.20)
.61***
(0.09)
-- -- -0.76*
(0.21)
0.48***
(0.09)
-0.20
(0.27)
0.57
(0.14)
Class Attire
(Casual- Traditional)
-- -- -- -- 1.18*
(0.49)
0.68***
(0.18)
-- -- -- --
Keeps track of
attendance
(Yes=1, No=0)
-0.65*
(0.37)
0.39***
(0.10)
Index of
Infrastructure Quality
(Bad to Good)
0.07*
(0.03)
0.04*
(0.03)
Parental cooperation
(Yes=1, No=0)
-- -- -- -- -- -- -0.44*
(0.22)
.40**
(0.13)
-- --
32. 31
Allow
students to
exchange
points of
views and
interact with
one another
(Less used to
more used)
Use examples
and
experiments
(Less used to
more used)
Role playing
(Less used to
more used)
Encourage
students to
relate what
they learn to
outside world
(Less used to
more used)
Rote
memorization
(Less used to more
used)
(1) (2) (1) (2) (1) (2) (1) (2) (1) (2)
Motivation - Better
interpersonal
relationship
(Yes=1, No=0)
-- -- -- -- -- -- 0.55***
(0.10)
0.31***
(0.04)
-- --
Education
(Low to high)
0.13*
(0.07)
0.12*
(0.04)
0.17
(0.08)
0.12**
(0.04)
0.06
(0.15)
0.06
(0.15)
0.19
(0.10)
0.19
(0.10)
0.08*
(0.05)
-0.05
(0.05)
Electricity Access
(Yes= 1, No=0)
-0.58*
(0.32)
-0.15*
(0.15)
-0.26*
(0.13)
-0.27*
(0.15)
-0.99**
(0.38)
0.07
(0.11)
-- -- -- --
Note: Robust standard errors are in parentheses, Column 1 shows Ordinary Least Squares
Regression, Column 2 shows Tobit Regression, Column 3 shows Probit Regression. Significance
levels: ***at 1%, ** at 5%, * at 10%
13. Discipline
QAARDAN proposes a different approach to discipline in its teacher training. The current
norm in the public school system is to make an example out of misbehaving students by publicly
reprimanding them either verbally or physically. We find that a large number of sampled teachers
(32 percent) correct students by physically punishing them either by using a cane or through other
forms of corporal punishment such as having them kneel or stand in a classroom corner.
QAARDAN trains teachers to move away from such techniques and encourages a private non-
aggressive dialogue between teachers and misbehaving students. The goal is to build a
relationship between teachers and students that is rooted in trust and mentorship, not in fear. It
is also meant to improve the classroom atmosphere and therefore enhance academic
performance at the student level.
Data was collected on the various ways teachers discipline students in the classroom. The
methods range from having a private conversation with the student to corporal punishment with
33. 32
the use of the cane.
As shown in Table 3, being in the treatment group decreases teachers’ use of corporal
punishment in the form caning and making students kneel. Additionally, the results show that
male teachers in the treatment group are less likely to verbally reprimand students publicly. These
findings imply that the training is effective in creating a change in the way teachers respond to
disciplinary issues. They show that QAARDAN is successful in moving teachers away from
authoritarianism in their relationship with students. The findings also reveal differences in the
ways male and female teachers approach such problems.
We consider corporal punishment with the use of the cane and kneeling to be the worst
and most detrimental ways teachers use to deal with disciplinary matters. In addition to seeing
that teachers in the treatment group use fewer of these techniques, our results show that other
factors such as parental cooperation and teacher-principal relations affect the use of these
techniques. We find that the more teachers meet with their principals in an academic year, the
more they use the cane. In fact, it appears that is the principal has a strong influence influence
since we also see that teachers who discuss disciplinary issues with their principals use more
corporal punishment. The same question arises with regards to relationships with parents as we
find that teachers who find parents to be cooperative make more use of corporal punishment.
These results suggest that corporal punishment in Nigerian public schools is not strictly a teacher-
level pedagogical issue; cultural and societal dynamics at the family level might also be at play.
These dynamics will be addressed in later parts of this paper.
In addition to principal and parental relations, other factors such as teaching styles and
school infrastructure also affect the use of corporal punishment. With regards to teaching styles,
our model reveals that teachers who use role playing as a pedagogical approach are less likely
to make their students kneel. We also find that teachers who do not allow students to collaborate
make more use of physical punishment kneeling.
34. 33
Following corporal punishment, the next form of disciplinary approach we look at is public
reprimand. Even though we consider this technique to be equally unsuitable for a positive
classroom environment, it is far less negative than corporal punishment. In a context of high
prevalence of physical punishment, it is an improvement. The results show that motivational
issues and teacher involvement are the factors that most affect the use of this method. Teachers
who do believe they should be involved in their students’ personal lives and who are motivated
by students’ performance tend to publicly scold those who misbehave. As with the use of corporal
punishment, the more teachers meet with principals, the more they verbally reprimand their
students publicly. These results suggest that teachers believe a public display of authority is the
best way to assert their role in the classroom environment.
At the other end of the spectrum of disciplinary actions is verbal reprimand in private,
which we consider to be the best approach. The results show that teachers who find students’
performance to be a valuable teaching outcome chose to privately reprimand their students. We
equally find that the more teachers use rote memorization, the more they speak to misbehaving
students privately. However, it should be noted that school infrastructure also plays a role;
teachers whose class resources are provided for by their schools are more likely to use private
reprimand. This implies that teachers who do not feel supported by their schools are more prone
to using aggressive forms of punishment rather than dialogue.
37. 36
14. Motivation
Creating a mentoring relationship between teachers and students is one of the major goals
of QAARDAN’s training. Through this approach, the training is meant to motivate educators
through the realization that their profession plays a fundamental role on the outcome of their
students’ lives. This aspect of training appeals into teachers’ sense of altruism to move them to
find professional satisfaction in nurturing a positive relationship with their pupils. We collected
information on the types of relationships teachers have with their students and in teachers’
professional satisfaction.
The results presented in Table 5 show that training has no effect on job satisfaction;
however, we see that control group teachers are less likely to act as mentors to their students.
Additionally, treatment group teachers in higher income brackets are less likely to identify as
mentors. The more teachers find students involved in criminal activities such as gangs, the more
they self-identity as mentors. Finally, the more teachers collaborate with peers to help students,
the more they categorize themselves as mentors.
Regarding professional satisfaction, living conditions and household characteristics are
relevant. Unmarried teachers are less satisfied. Additionally, the more children they have, the
more satisfied teachers are. A lack of access to electricity in both the classroom and at home also
decreases teachers’ professional satisfaction. Education level shows conflicting effects on
satisfaction levels depending on the model used. When using the Tobit and ordinary least square
models, we find that the higher the level of education, the less teachers are satisfied. The probit
model, on the other hand, indicates the opposite.
38. 37
Table 5: Motivation and Job Satisfaction
Mentorship
(Yes=1, No=0)
Satisfaction
(Yes=1, No=0)
(1) (2) (3) (1) (2) (3)
Treatment or Control
(Treatment= 1, Control= 0)
0.04
(0.05)
0.10
(0.03)
0.53***
(0.15)
0.01
(0.04)
0.03
(0.04)
-0.09
(0.28)
Treatment * Gender
(Male = 1, Female = 0)
-0.01
(0.02)
-- -0.20
(0.12)
Treatment* Income
(Low income to high
income)
-0.01
(0.01)
-- -0.13***
(0.04)
-- -- --
Discipline – Verbally
Reprimand Privately
(Yes=1, No=0)
0.02
(0.03)
0.04*
(0.02)
-0.13*
(0.06)
-- -- --
Sit good students with bad
ones
(Yes=1, No=0)
0.01
(0.03)
0.00
(0.02)
-0.16*
(0.07)
-- -- --
Cooperates with other
teachers to help students
(Never to Many Times)
0.04
(0.01)
0.00
(0.01)
0.10***
(0.03)
-- -- --
Found students involved in
gangs
(Never to Many times)
0.01
(0.02)
0.02
(0.02)
-0.05*
(0.03)
-- -- --
Continuous access to
electricity in class
(Yes=1, No=0)
-- -- -- 0.09***
(0.02)
-0.07*
(0.03)
0.14
(0.21)
Time spent preparing for
lectures
(Low to High)
-- -- -- 0.00**
(0.00)
0.00**
(0.00)
0.00
(0.00)
Work with parents on
disciplinary issues
(Yes=1, No=0)
-- -- -- 0.02
(0.04)
-0.02
(0.05)
-0.03
(0.32)
Married
(Yes=1, No=0)
-- -- -- 0.12**
(0.04)
0.23***
(0.04)
-0.04
(0.40)
Number of Children
(0 to More than 8)
-- -- -- 0.03**
(0.01)
0.05***
(0.01)
0.14*
(0.07)
Community Safety
(Yes =1, No=0)
-- -- -- 0.30***
(0.05)
0.05***
(0.01)
0.46
(0.36)
Gender
(Male= 1, Female=0)
-0.01
(0.03)
-0.01
(0.03)
0.12*
(0.03)
Education
(Low to High)
0.01
(0.01)
0.02
(0.01)
0.05
(0.03)
0.04***
(0.01)
0.10***
(0.01)
-0.30***
(0.07)
Electricity at home
(Yes=1, No=0)
-0.03
(0.06)
-0.05
(0.03)
-0.01
(0.12)
0.18**
(0.06)
0.16***
(0.04)
0.01
(0.37)
Religion
(Catholic= 1, Other = 0)
0.11
(0.04)
0.02
(0.04)
0.19*
(0.12)
Religion
(Non-Catholic Christian=1,
Other=0)
0.08
(0.03)
0.15***
(0.03)
0.03
(0.19)
Note: Robust standard errors are in parentheses, Column 1 shows Ordinary Least Squares Regression,
Column 2 shows Tobit Regression, Column 3 shows Probit Regression. Significance levels: ***at 1%, ** at
5%, * at 10%
39. 38
15. Quality of Life
To measure quality of life, we created three indices using information collected from
respondents pertaining to their family and community life, social involvement and civic
engagement. There is an index of personal dignity, social responsibility and civic responsibility.
These indices and their components are not explicitly stated by QAARDAN as being part of their
training goals. However, because of our use of the integral approach, we consider these elements
in order to measure the full impact of the program on the lives of people affected.
The personal dignity index was composed of factors relating to respondents’ family lives.
Elements ranging from weekly time spent with spouse and children to the frequency of family
dinners were included in the index with the use of principal component analysis.2
The results
presented in Table 6 show that being in the treatment group does not significantly affect teachers’
personal dignity or civic responsibility. However, for social responsibility, we find positive gains
following training only when using the ordinary least squares.
Living conditions and community characteristics are also relevant. Teachers who have
access to electricity in their homes and those who face more violence in their communities have
higher personal dignity. This could be interpreted as a proxy for income levels. This might signify
that higher income translates into a higher quality of family life. Additionally, we find that teachers
who face more adversity have higher personal dignity: teachers whose students face more
bullying have a higher index.
For civic responsibility, the results are more in line with what would be expected. The index
is comprised of variables that capture the role of teachers as citizens. It includes elements such
as participation in community activities. The results indicate that teachers who are actively
involved in helping their students have higher civic responsibility. For instance, the more teachers
have helped students make a decision on a serious matter and the more teachers collaborate
2
See Appendix A for Component of Indices
40. 39
with parents to resolve their children’s problems, the higher their civic responsibility. Family life
also has an impact as the more teachers eat dinner with their families, the higher their civil
engagement.
Student-teacher relations are also crucial when it comes to social responsibility. Teachers
who encourage their students to ask for help and those who urge their students to develop their
talents have higher social responsibility. Additionally, teachers who do not have to pay for their
own classroom resources show higher social involvement. This implies that being in better
schools affects teachers' engagement and community life.
Table 6: Quality of Life
Personal Dignity Civic Responsibility Social Responsibility
(1) (2) (1) (2) (1) (2)
Treatment
(Treatment=1, Control=0)
0.06
(0.14)
-1.56
(0.72)
0.38
(0.25)
0.89
(.59)
0.62*
(0.30)
-1.35*
(0.54)
Treatment*Income
(Income Low to High)
0.03
(0.05)
0.08
(.012)
Treatment*Mentor 0.93
(0.53)
Disciplinary issues (Fighting)
(Yes=1, No=0)
0.08
(0.13)
0.25
(.30)
Discipline – Verbal Reprimand
Privately
(Yes=1, No=0)
0.17
(0.19)
0.60**
(0.21)
Reward system
(Yes=1, No=0)
0.35
(0.35)
1.03*
(0.55)
-0.05
(0.28)
0.47
(0.71)
Late Coming frequency
(Low to high)
0.25
(0.16)
0.82*
(.37)
Teaching Method (Allowing
them to exchange point of
views and interact with one
another )
(Less to more used)
0.03
(0.05)
0.10
(0.11)
Sit good student with bad
ones
(Yes=1, No=0)
0.49*
(0.20)
1.23**
(0.26)
Class material paid for by
teacher
(Yes=1, No=0)
0.77***
(0.20)
1.27***
(.26)
Meetings With Principal
Frequency
(Low to high)
0.55***
(0.10)
1.04***
(0.17)
Meeting with principal -
Academic performance of
students in a specific subject
(Yes=1, No=0)
0.13
(0.37)
0.80
(0.65)
Help students to take a
decision on a serious problem
(Never to Many times)
0.30***
(0.09)
0.87***
(0.90)
0.12
(0.13)
1.87
(0.21)
41. 40
Personal Dignity Civic Responsibility Social Responsibility
(1) (2) (1) (2) (1) (2)
Show your students how to
defend themselves and how to
ask for help
(Never to Many Times)
1.16***
(0.12)
2.09***
(0.29)
Encourage your students to
practice activities to develop
their talents (art, music, sports
(Never to Many Times)
0.42**
(0.14)
1.07***
(0.24)
Class infrastructure _Teachers
Desk
(Bad to Good)
-0.09
(0.10)
-0.10
(0.23)
Class infrastructure _Lighting
(Bad to Good)
0.10
(0.10)
0.27*
(0.15)
Know name of all students
(Yes=1, No=0)
0.17
(0.15)
0.49
(0.36)
Work with parents to help
students to overcome a
problem
(Never to Many times)
0.34***
(0.08)
0.22***
(0.20)
Bullying – Frequency
(Never to many times)
0.69***
(0.09)
1.64***
(0.15)
Community Violence
(Never to Many times)
0.63***
(0.10)
1.17***
(0.15)
Eat meals with family
(Yes=1, No=0)
-0.25
(0.27)
2.65***
(0.42)
Family meals frequency
(Low to high)
0.25**
(0.09)
0.61**
(0.22)
Gender
(Male=1, Female=0)
-0.30
(0.20)
-0.34
(0.31)
-0.15
(0.16)
-0.33
(0.39)
-0.37
(0.22)
-1.00
(0.41)
Education
(Low to high)
0.31*
(0.05)
0.01
(0.07)
0.01
(0.12)
Age
(Low to high)
-0.01
(0.00)
-0.01
(0.01)
Electricity
(Yes=1, No=0)
0.70***
(0.71)
1.14*
(0.51)
0.16
(0.31)
0.50
(0.71)
Religion
(Non-Catholic Christian =1)
-0.24
(0.20)
-0.29
(0.32)
-0.30
(0.19)
-0.49
(0.46)
0.14
(0.28)
0.22
(0.36)
Note: Robust standard errors are in parentheses, Column 1 shows Ordinary Least Squares Regression, Column
2 shows Tobit Regression, Column 3 shows Probit Regression. Significance levels: ***at 1%, ** at 5%, * at 10%
Based on the results coming from teachers, we see significant and encouraging effects of
the program on topics such as content delivery and discipline. We observe that trained teachers
are more likely to be interactive in the teaching styles and less aggressive in their disciplinary
approach. The results also highlight additional factors that contribute to teachers’ motivation and
quality of life. For instance, we notice the effect that teacher-principal relationships have on
classroom dynamics, as well as the importance of school and classroom infrastructure.
These results show that QAARDAN is effective in its pedagogical goals regarding teaching
42. 41
styles and discipline. The effects of the program on motivation and satisfaction are however more
limited. Nonetheless, our analysis allows us to trace the effects of other variables, particularly
demographic ones such as marital status and access to electricity.
V. Experiment Results
After our first exploratory trip to Nigeria, it became apparent that one of the major features
of the public education system in the country is the use of corporal punishment as a method of
discipline. As mentioned earlier, the impact that this approach has on learning outcomes at the
student level is well documented. Additionally, in its training, QAARDAN emphasizes shifting from
physical and public forms of discipline to approaches that cultivate a nurturing relationship
between teachers and students. Therefore, our first experiment was aimed at observing
behavioral changes from teachers and students pertaining to disciplinary issues. Because in our
integral approach we are concerned with spillover effects from classroom dynamics to family and
community life, we equally observe potential change in behavior involving such issues. The
results we hoped for was a shift from strictly aggressive to more proactive methods after being
exposed to the experiment's various scenarios.
Pre-experiment information was collected from teachers on the forms of discipline they
use. At this stage, students also reported the sort of disciplinary method their teachers use. Both
groups were then given a series of realistic scenarios related to disciplinary issues and were
prompted to pick a response to the situation. These alternative responses range from very
proactive to extremely passive.
Following these scenarios, post-experiment information was collected. In order to
investigate changes in behavior, the same questions were asked of teachers and students in the
pre and post phases. T-tests were used to calculate the difference in means between the pre and
post responses.
The numbers in Table 7 show the results of the test for students' responses. These
43. 42
outcomes show some very strong effects of the experiments regarding disciplinary issues at the
student level. Specifically, we see that following the experiments, a statistically significant higher
number of students show preference for being verbally reprimanded in private by their instructors
in case they misbehave. Additionally, the results of the experiments show a decrease in students
that are publicly punished, either verbally or corporally. These results are telling; they show that
at the student level at least, when the defects of public and corporal punishment are exposed,
there is a strong preference for a shift towards less aggressive approaches.
A number of spillover effects are also observable as a result of the experiment. Not only
do we notice a shift in student-teacher relationships to a more nurturing side, we equally see
positive impacts on communal and family dynamics. Students express a willingness to increase
their involvement in volunteerism and sports. We even see an increased communication with
siblings regarding issues such as compassion and forgiveness. This confirms the hypothesis that
classroom dynamics affect family and community life and it highlights the impact that teachers'
approaches might have on their students' behaviors.
Table 7: Student Responses
Table 7: Experiment 1- Students Pre Post P-value
Discipline- Verbal reprimand them in front of their peers
(Yes=1, No=2)
1.30 1.46 0.00
Discipline- Verbally reprimand them in private
(Yes=1, No=2)
1.45 1.28 0.00
Discipline- whipping or other corporal punishment
(Yes=1, No=2)
1.30 1.55 0.00
Discipline- Standing in the corner with no corporal punishment
(Yes=1, No=2)
1.68 1.61 0.10
Discipline- Kneeling with no corporal punishment
(Yes=1, No=2)
1.37 1.46 0.04
Table 7: Experiment 1- Students Pre Post P-value
Discipline- Teacher should do nothing
(Yes=1, No=2)
1.96 1.95 0.42
Give example to your siblings of compassion and forgiveness
(From Never to Often)
3.53 3.7 0.00
Turn in your assignment on time 3.76 3.81 0.16
Help your classmates to take a decision on a serious problem
(From Never to Often)
2.92 3.12 0.01
Help your classmates face a friend who is a bad influence (drugs, gangs)
(From Never to Often)
2.11 2.48 0.00
44. 43
Table 7: Experiment 1- Students Pre Post P-value
Practice how to control your impulses
(From Never to Often)
2.93 3.17 0.00
Work with teachers to overcome a problem
(From Never to Often)
2.76 3.2 0.00
Work with teachers to acquire virtues
(From Never to Often)
2.73 3.01 0.00
Learn from your teachers on how to resist peer pressure
(From Never to Often)
3.11 3.27 0.04
Remind your siblings on the respect owed to parents and elders
(From Never to Often)
3.67 3.63 0.55
Encourage your siblings to care about the needs of others
(From Never to Often)
3.48 3.55 0.28
Felt encouraged to become agents of change in their family or community
(From Never to Often)
3.28 3.31 0.73
Would you seek advice from teacher for a non-school related / personal
problem in the future?
((Yes=1, No=2)
1.30 1.21 0.02
Relationship with your teachers
(Friendly=1, mentorship =2 authoritarian=3)
1.92 1.92 0.94
relationship with your classmates 4.01 1.00 0.00
Table 8 shows the results of the experiments at the teacher level. Following the
experiment, we observe that teachers are more likely to contact a peer in the event of a
disciplinary issue. This shows that the exercise increases teachers' willingness to cooperate with
each other on disciplinary problems. However, this is the only area in which we observe any
significant change in behavior. We do not observe any significant effects on areas such as
corporal or public punishment. These results suggest rigidity at the teacher level on disciplinary
issues and highlight the differences between their approach and students' expressed needs.
Table 8: Teacher Responses
Table 8: Experiment 1- Teachers Pre Post P-Value
Whom do you contact when you have disciplinary issues in your / classroom?-The
principal
(Yes=1, No=2)
1.19 1.15 0.32
Whom do you contact when you have disciplinary issues in your / classroom?-The
parents of the student
(Yes=1, No=2)
1.39 1.39 1.00
Whom do you contact when you have disciplinary issues in your / classroom?-Other
teachers
1.39 1.23 0.02
Whom do you contact when you have disciplinary issues in your / classroom?-None, I
discipline the student myself
(Yes=1, No=2)
1.09 1.13 0.32
45. 44
Whom do you contact when you have disciplinary issues in your / classroom?-None,
but I do not discipline the student either
(Yes=1, No=2)
2.00 1.88 0.16
Disciplinary issues Bullying
(Yes=1, No=2)
1.49 1.57 0.18
Disciplinary issues Noise making
(Yes=1, No=2)
1.06 1.07 0.57
Disciplinary issues Late coming
(Yes=1, No=2)
1.13 1.11 0.71
Disciplinary issues Fighting
(Yes=1, No=2)
1.50 1.53 0.33
Disciplinary issues Littering
(Yes=1, No=2)
1.19 1.19 1.00
Discipline - Verbal reprimand them in front of their peers
(Yes=1, No=2)
1.09 1.09 1.00
Discipline- Verbally reprimand them in private
(Yes=1, No=2)
1.41 1.33 0.18
Discipline- Whipping or other corporal punishment
(Yes=1, No=2)
1.70 1.67 0.57
Discipline- Standing in the corner with no corporal punishment
(Yes=1, No=2)
1.26 1.31 0.42
Discipline - Kneeling with no corporal punishment
(Yes=1, No=2)
1.25 1.21 0.42
Reward System - Additional points/credit in class
(Yes=1, No=2)
1.52 1.91 0.57
Reward System - Students is made class head
(Yes=1, No=2)
1.54 1.58 0.57
In Table 9, we observe the effects of the experiments on community and family dynamics
on both teachers and students as a group. The goal of this exercise is to investigate potential
spillover effects of the experiments on the combined sample of teachers and students. The results
confirm the presence of positive externalities related to the experiment. We observe that a
significantly higher number of individuals are likely to increase the amount of time spent with their
families. There is similarly a significant increase in individuals' willingness to discuss issues
related to spousal relationships and compassion within the family.
Table 9: Combined Participant Responses
Table 9 :Experiment 1 - Joint Pre Post P-value
Interact with your peers and other co-workers 3.61 3.64 0.34
Organize activities for parents 3.13 3.25 0.01
Volunteer in your community 3.25 3.25 1.00
46. 45
Give example to your peers of obeying the law 3.16 3.27 0.04
Give example to your peers of compassion and forgiveness 3.58 3.71 0.00
Give example to your children or peers of respect for your spouse 3.53 3.64 0.01
Help friends or peers to take a decision on a serious problem 3.48 3.59 0.01
Help friend or peer to face a friend who is a bad influence (drugs, gangs) 2.68 2.95 0.00
Stop cases of bullying 2.51 2.81 0.00
Encourage your peers to practice activities to develop their talents (art,
music, sports)
3.18 3.36 0.00
Teach your peers how to control their impulses 3.02 3.39 0.00
Work with parents to help students overcome a problem 2.93 3.18 0.00
Work with parents to help students acquire virtues 3.19 3.38 0.00
Work with peers to help a student 3.67 3.68 0.86
Remind your peers on the respect owed to parents and elders 3.61 3.67 0.10
Encourage peers to care about eh needs of others 3.48 3.53 0.30
The results of the experiment highlight the disconnect between teachers and students
surrounding disciplinary issues. We see that students view a private conversation as a more
effective way of resolving such problems, while teachers appear to be set on using the more
aggressive approach. This is troubling in light of the evidence of the ineffectiveness of physical
punishment. Moreover, we see a number of links between these student-teacher dynamics and
students' communal and family lives. Therefore, the ways in which teachers discipline students
are not only detrimental for classroom interaction, they equally affect how students behave in their
social and family lives. This draws attention to the centrality of the teacher in students’ human
development outside of academics and shows the urgent need for better disciplinary approaches.
VI. Future Work
The data collected from both experiments and surveys is extensive and can be used for
more detailed analyses. Due to time constraints, the other elements that could be explored and
analyzed with the data are not shown in this paper. Future work will look at the effects of training
on students and parents in a deeper manner. The dynamics between students and teachers will
be further addressed by matching each student to their different teachers.
47. 46
On the data analysis front, school and teacher-level fixed effects will be added to the
regressions. Although in this paper we control for observable differences between teachers and
schools, adding these fixed effects will allow us to control for unobservable qualities that might
affect program outcomes.
VII. Conclusions and Recommendations
The findings made in this evaluation reveal some important matters related to education
within a development context. The fact that we see positive impacts of the program on teaching
styles and disciplinary issues shows the necessity of this sort of training programs at the teacher
level. It also highlights the effectiveness of QAARDAN’s approach in educating their trainees on
the importance of classroom dynamics. However, the importance of such training programs is still
unrecognized by the government. Aside from the training they receive before starting their
careers, teachers receive very limited or no in-service training from the Ministry of Education and
therefore have to rely on programs like QAARDAN’s. Yet, such programs need to be integrated
into the Ministry’s policy and teachers should be required to go through periodic training seminars.
The state could partner with local civil society groups such as QAARDAN in order to disburse
such training in a more efficient manner. Because of its federal system, education policies vary
form one state to the other in Nigeria. This political aspect facilitates reform since changes can
be effected at the state or local levels rather than just the federal one. The country also has a
large teachers’ union: the Nigerian Union of Teachers. Made up of roughly 500,000 members, the
union has in recent years proven to be highly functional and influential amongst public school
teachers (Common Wealth of Nations 2015). Any policy change regarding teacher training would
greatly benefit from the support of the union as it would make the change easily acceptable in the
teachers’ community.
The conclusions drawn from this project highlight the importance of the integral approach
in economic development. QAARDAN’s program is effective in great part due to its recognition
48. 47
that humans are social beings and as such communicate and share. This truth is what allows for
a handful of directly-trained teachers to share the information they received with their peers. It is
equally why we see the significant effects of the training on treated schools. The integral approach
also recognizes the entirety of the person and the interconnections between each aspect of one’s
life. Using this approach allowed us to observe the effects of training on other family, social and
civic aspects of teachers’ lives. It also allows us to look at how family and sociocultural dynamics
affect teachers in the classroom. Education is central to human development and economic
advancement. With the teacher being one of the most important determinants of the quality of
education received by students, it is important to get a complete picture of what affects the nature
and quality of instruction. Issues such as remuneration and infrastructure might be hard to resolve
since they are a matter of larger government policy, but evaluation through the use of the integral
approach shows that it is possible to effect change by providing teachers with the right moral
incentives.
49. 48
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