African Journal Article on Demand and Supply of Education Influencing Employment in Nigeria

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AFRICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION
AND DEVELOPMENTAL STUDIES
(AJEDS)
AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR
MULTI-DISCIPLINARY STUDIES
September, 2010
EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
PROF. B.S. OKEKE
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT
FACULTY OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF
PORT HARCOURT, NIGERIA

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AFRICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION
AND
DEVELOPMENTAL STUDIES (AJEDS)
VOL. 7, NO.1 September, 2010
ISSN: 07945-760

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AFRICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION AND
DEVELOPMENTAL STUDIES (AJEDS)
EDITORIAL BOARD
• Professor B.S. Okeke - Editor-in-Chief
University of Port Harcourt
• Dr. Nath. M. Abraham - Editor
• Professor (Mrs.) Maureen N. Koko - Associate Editor
Rivers State University of Science
and Technology, Nkpolu, Port Harcourt
• Dr. Musa O. Anavberokhai
Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma - Associate Editor
• Dr. David Aboho
Benue State University, Makurdi - Associate Editor
• Dr. (Mrs.) Grace K. Etuk
University of Uyo - Associate Editor
• Dr. (Mrs.) Jessica Ezekiel-Hart
Rivers State College of Education,
Port Harcourt. - Associate Editor

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CONSULTING EDITORS
Professor S.P.T. Gbamanja - University of Sierra Leone,
Freetown, Sierra Leone.
Professor (Mrs.) C.C. Nwagwu - Institute of Education, University
of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria.
Professor Kayode Ajayi - Olabisi Onabanjo University,
Ago-Iwoye, Ogun State, Nigeria.
Dr. Martin Fabunmi - Department of Educational
Management, Faculty of Education,
University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.
Professor Wey Amaewhule - Rivers State University of Science
And Technology, Nkpolu,
Port Harcourt, Nigeria.
William Mhuri Masocha - Applied Scholastic, Zimbabwe.
Professor Abimbola Olakanmi - University of Ilorin, Ilorin,
Nigeria.
Dr.(Mrs.) Patricia B. - English Section, Department of
Mireku-Gyimah Mining Engineering
University of Mines and
Technology (UMAT), Tarkwa,
Ghana.
Dr. Bernard Moswela - Faculty of Education, University
of Botswana.
African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies . Vol 7., No 1, September, 2010

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EDITORIAL/NOTES FOR CONTRIBUTORS
African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies (AJEDS) is
making steady progress in its avowed responsibility of publishing and
disseminating scholarly research reports. This is Volume 7, Number 1 of
the journal, and it contains 17 articles.
Being a multi-disciplinary outlet, the journal invites scholarly articles on
current issues of educational concern and those from other disciplines.
• The article should not be more than 15 A-4 pages, references and
appendices inclusive.
• Each article must be typed with double line spacing on one side of
paper only, using font 14.
• Article must have an abstract of not more than 200 words.
• Three (3) copies of article should be submitted for peer review with
non-refundable assessment fee as shall be decided by the Board.
• Citations and references must conform to current American
Psychological Association (APA) style.
• Each submission should be accompanied with one (1) self addressed
and stamped large (bag) envelope as well as an official self
addressed/stamped envelope for return of assessed paper(s), and
acceptance letter respectively.
• Cover page of each article should have name(s) of author(s), title of
article, institutional affiliation, e-mail address as well as telephone
numbers of contributors.
All correspondence should be directed to:
Dr. Nath. M. Abraham – Editor
African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies (AJEDS),
C/o Department of Educational Management,
Faculty of Education,
University of Port Harcourt,
Port Harcourt, Nigeria

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LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
Fasasi, Y.A. Department of Educational Management, University of
Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria.
Etejere, P.A.O. Department of Educational Management, University
of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria.
Benwari, N.N. Department of Curriculum & Instruction, Faculty of
Education, Niger Delta University, Wilberforce Island,
Bayelsa State, Nigeria.
Leigha, A.M. Department of Educational Foundations, Faculty of
Education, Niger Delta University, Wilberforce island,
Bayelsa State, Nigeria.
Nbina, J.B. Department of curriculum Studies & Educational
Technology Faculty of Education, University of Port
Harcourt, Nigeria.
Eimuhi, J.O. Department of Educational Foundations &
Management, Faculty of Education Ambrose Alli
University, Ekpoma, Edo State, Nigeria.
Oyebamiji, M.A. Department of Adult & Non-Formal Education, Faculty
of Education, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria.
Abanum, B.K. Department of Adult & Non-Formal Education, Faculty
of Education, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria.
Ekechukwu, R. Department of Educational Psychology, Guidance &
Counselling, Faculty of Education, University of Port
Harcourt, Nigeria.
Oyeoku, E. K. Department of Educational Foundations, University of
Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria.
African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies . Vol.7., No 1, September, 2010

vii
Paloma, F.G. Department of Human, Philosophical & Educational
Sciences, University of Salemo, Italy.
Nicodemo Maria. Department of Science of Formation, University of
Salemo, Italy.
Sgambelluri R. Department of Human Philosophical & Educational
science, University of Salemo, Italy.
Ambretti, A. Department of Human Philosophical & Educational
Sciences, University of Salemo,Italy.
Di Tore S. Department of Human, Philosophical & Educational
Sibilio Maurizio Department of Human, Philosophical & Educational
Nwankwo, O.C. Department of Educational Psychology, Guidance &
Counselling , University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria.
Onuorah, M.N. Air force Secondary School, Port Harcourt, Nigeria.
Nwanekezi, A.U. Faculty of Education , University of Port Harcourt,
Nigeria.
Nzokurum, J.C. Faculty of Education, University of Port Harcourt
Nigeria.
Abidoye, A.S. Department of Adult Education, University of Ibadan,
Ibadan, Nigeria.
Nbina, J.B. Department of Curriculum Studies & Educational
Technology, Faculty of Education, University of Port
Harcourt, Nigeria.
Babajide, E.O. College of Human Resource Management, Ogun State,
University of Ago-Iwoye, Ogun State, Nigeria.

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Olaosebikan, B.T. Department of Physical & Health Education, Faculty of
Education, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri, Nigeria.
Orunaboka, T.T. Department of Human Kinetics & Health Education,
Faculty of Education, University of Port Harcourt,
Nigeria.
Onyido, J.A. Department of Educational Foundations, Faculty of
Education , University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria.
Ogeh, O. M. Department of Educational Foundations Faculty of
Education, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria.
Odu, K.O. Department of Technical & Business Education,
Abraka, Delta state, Nigeria.
Nwile, B. C. Department of Educational Management, University of
Port Harcourt, Nigeria.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Editorial Board iii
Consulting Editors iv
Editorial/Notes for Contributors v
List of Contributors vi
Table of Contents ix
INFLUENCE OF DEMAND AND SUPPLY OF EDUCATION ON
EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES IN NIGERIA
Dr. Y.A. Fasasi & Dr. (Mrs.) P.A.O. Etejere 1
EXAMINATION MALPRACTICE IN SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS
IN BAYELSA STATE, NIGERIA: CAUSES, EFFECTS AND REMEDIES
Dr. (Mrs) N.N. Benwari & Angela M. Leigha (Mrs) 5
EFFECTS OF SELF-REGULATION AS A CURRICULUM DELIVERY
STRATEGY ON STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT IN CHEMISTRY
Jacobson Barineka Nbina Ph.D. 15
FORMAL AND NON-FORMAL EDUCATION: A POTENT TOOL FOR
ENTREPRENEURSHIP AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN EDO
STATE OF NIGERIA
Eimuhi, Justina O.(Ph.D.) 22
COMMUNITY EDUCATION AS A TOOL FOR IMPROVED SOCIO-
ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES AMONG WOMEN IN SOME SELECTED
RURAL COMMUNITIES OF RIVERS STATE.
Oyebamiji, M.A.(Ph.D.) & Abanum, B.K. 30
AGE AND RANK DIFFERENTIALS AS CORRELATES OF BURNOUT
AMONG POLICEMEN IN RIVERS STATE: IMPLICATIONS FOR
COUNSELLING
DR. (Mrs) Rosemary Ekechukwu 36
DOCUMENTATION OF THE CONTRIBUTUIONS OF AGE-GRADES TO
SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN OHAFIA EDUCATION ZONE OF ABIA
STATE
Oyeoku, Eke Kalu 42
African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies . Vol.7., No 1, September, 2010

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DIVERGENT DIDACTICS IN THE AGE OF COMPLEXITY THE
CATEGORICAL ARCHITECTURE OF KNOWLEDGE’S OVERCOMING
Gomez Paloma F., Nicodemo M. , Sgambelluri R., Ambretti A.,Di Tore S.& Sibilio M. 50
WOMEN AND POVERTY:THE NIGER-DELTA EXPERIENCE AND
IMPLICATIONS FOR INFRASTRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT.
Prof. Nwankwo, O.C. & Onuorah, Maria N. (Mrs) 62
SCIENCE TEACHING IN NIGERIAN PRIMARY SCHOOLS: THE WAY
FORWARD
Dr. (Mrs) A.U. Nwanekezi & Dr. (Mrs.) J.C. Nzokurum 68
ADULT AND NON-FORMAL EDUCATION AS TOOL FOR ACHIEVING
SUSTAINABLE NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA
Abidoye A. Sarumi, Ph.D. 74
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GENDER AND THE ACQUISITION OF
SCIENCE PROCESS SKILLS: IMPLICATIONS FOR GENDER
BALANCING IN NIGERIA.
Nbina, Jacobson Barineka (Ph.D). 84
IMPACT OF WORKPLACE LEARNING ON ORGANIZATIONAL
COMMITMENT AMONG INDUSTRIAL WORKERS IN SOUTH WEST
NIGERIA
Babajide, Elsie Omolara (Ph.D.) 88
AN ASSESSMENT OF THE LEVEL OF COMPETENCE ACQUIRED BY
GRADUATES OF THE UNDERGRADUATE PHYSICAL EDUCATION
PROGRAMME OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA NSUKKA
Olaosebikan, Benjamin Tunji Ph.D. & Orunaboka, Tamunobelema Tammy Ph.D. 96
SOCIO-ECONOMIC BACKGROUND AND EDUCATIONAL
ACHIEVEMENT – AN APPRAISAL
Dr. (Mrs) Josephine A. Onyido & Ogeh, Obitor M. 106
HUMAN CAPITAL DEVELOPMENT IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
EDUCATION: CHALLENGES AND NEW RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE
TEACHER
ODU, Kennedy Oji (Ph.D) 112
CHALLENGES AND PROSPECTS OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING IN
NIGERIA
Nwile, Befii Charles 123

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INFLUENCE OF DEMAND AND SUPPLY OF EDUCATION
ON EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES IN NIGERIA
DR. Y.A. FASASI
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT, UNIVERSITY OF ILORIN, ILORIN,
NIGERIA.
E- mail address: adefasas@ yahoo.com
DR. (MRS.) P.A.O. ETEJERE
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT, UNIVERSITY OF ILORIN, ILORIN,
NIGERIA.
E-mail address: pat_6etejere@yahoo.com
Abstract
This paper focuses on demand and supply of education and their influence on employment opportunities in
Nigeria. An attempt by an individual to acquire knowledge and skills is usually based on the prospects
presently enjoyed by specialists in a field, parental control or the background at a lower level of education.
These seem to be poor determinants of future employment opportunities. Also, quality of teachers, facilities
and other inputs in education are likely to influence the quality of education to be supplied by the
educational institutions and consequently, the employment opportunities. The bases for demanding and the
strategies for supplying education seem to be having certain problems which may not make employment
after graduation feasible. Educators and administrators are to identify trends in demand and supply and
enlighten parents and students. The government should provide qualitative education which would enhance
employment opportunities of graduates.
Introduction
In Nigeria, the Government and citizens have adopted education as an instrument for achieving the
country’s developmental objectives. Thus, educational institutions are established at primary, secondary
and tertiary levels in order to provide opportunities for knowledge and skill acquisition in different aspects
of life. The institutions are also expected to assist in the development of mental, physical and social
abilities so that the school leavers will be able to live a meaningful life and contribute positively to the
development of the society (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004).
Moreover, the Government has embarked on series of educational programmes which are intended to
provide adequate opportunities for all citizens. These have encouraged a large number of school age
children to enroll in schools and subsequently graduate to higher levels or to the world of work.
The expectation is that after attending and completing an education level, graduates who are willing should
be able to secure jobs and be able to sustain themselves economically. In fact, the introduction of a 9- year
basic education is meant, among others, to provide more opportunities for primary school pupils to acquire
necessary skills for additional three years of junior secondary education (Federal Government of Nigeria,
2006).
However, experience of school graduates concerning gainful employment leaves much to be desired. Many
look hopelessly and helplessly towards the government which can not satisfy all of them. Many also look
onto private organizations which can only absorb a very few number of graduates. Those who wish to stand
on their own could not achieve this objective as a result of poor knowledge-base and lack of capital. This
situation has turned many graduate jobless. The prevailing situation in the society is that many able and
willing graduates do not get jobs, at all, many get jobs that are irrelevant to their specialization while many
others get jobs with poor salaries (Babalola, 2007).
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Therefore, education system at all levels should be re-examined in order to find out what has gone wrong
and why. In this regard, this paper examines the citizens’ demand for and the government’s supply of
education vis a vis their relevance to the needs of labour market in particular and the society in general.
Relationship between Education and Employment
Education is the development of an individual, physically, socially, mentally, morally and economically, so
that an individual will be able to live well and contribute to the progress of the society. Its import lies in the
fact that availability of natural resources in a country would only indicate that there are potentials for
wealth and prosperity. The potentials remain dormant until there are human beings who have been trained
for identification, extraction and utilization of natural resources. When these personnel are engaged in
productive activities, they become agents for further development of human and material resources. The
extent to which individuals are trained would determine the caliber of workforce available to the nation.
Work refers to a vocation, through which an individual is able to contribute to public welfare and he is
entitled in the community. Ogunbameru (2004) categorized work into three: economic activity
(employment), unpaid to share in the goods available, domestic and leisure activity and voluntary
community service. This categorization implies that employment is a type of work embarked upon as an
economic venture. People, therefore, seek employment in order to earn a living and to contribute to the
well-being of the society.
Moreover, part of the aims of education is to provide knowledge, ability and necessary training to work
productively in the society. An employed individual is expected to utilize his knowledge and skills, and to
continue to acquire more of these in order to improve productivity. It is probably in realization of these, that
the government has designed the nation’s education system in a manner that could ensure acquisition of
necessary skills and competencies. For example, one of the objectives of education at the secondary school
level is ‘’to provide trained manpower in the applied science, technology and commerce at sub-professional
grades’’ (FRN, 2004 : 18). Furthermore, science, vocational and technical education are designed to
develop knowledge and skills in science, technology, agricultural, industry, commerce and other relevant
fields. Tertiary education is designed to contribute to national development through relevant high level
manpower training. This is to show that Nigeria has an educational policy designed for national
development through the development of its human resources. The educated manpower are to be employed
in different sectors where they will contribute to the development of the nation. The realization of this
laudable goal depends on the positive relationship among demand for education, its supply and the needs of
the society as expressed at the labour market.
Demand for Education and its influence on Employment
Demand for education refers to the desire to pursue a particular field of study. This is informed by a
number of factors.
Decision to acquire a particular skill could be based on the prospects presently enjoyed by specialists in the
field, in terms of salaries and enhanced status. However, demand for education in this manner may not have
positive influence on employment. An individual concerned may spend up to five years to get qualified.
Within this period, events such as economic depression and technological development could have
occurred and neutralized the need for a particular skill.
Demand for education may be initiated by parent or guardian of a student when they desire a particular
profession. This does not take the need of the society into consideration. Also the interest and ability of the
student may affect performance and consequently the future job prospects.
An individual desire for higher education may warrant an application for any course of study without
minding the needs of the society. Also, an institution of learning may offer any course to an applicant in
order to satisfy his admission needs. These could have negative consequences on employment prospect in
future.
Educational background at primary and secondary levels could pave way for or block the chances of further
educational opportunities and consequently job prospects. For example, a student with weak background in
Influence of demand and supply of education on employment opportunities in Nigeria.: Fasasi, Y.A. & Etejere, P.A.O.

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science will not be able to offer science-based courses and consequently he will be denied of any job
opportunities in this field.
Supply of Education and its Consequence on Employment
Quality and quantity of education given in primary, secondary and tertiary levels could determine the extent
of employability of graduates from the institutions. In a tracer study conducted by Ayeni and Oladipo
(2007) on training and employment of technical college graduates in Oyo State, out of 900 graduates from
the 4 technical colleges, 441 (49%) got employment, while 459 (51%) were unemployed. Instances such as
this are common in feature of graduates from different institutions and could be due to many factors.
For example, teachers’ quality would determine the quality of education supplied by an institution. In a
study carried out by Okebukola (2005), teachers who were specialists in their fields stated that they had
difficulty in teaching some topics in their subjects. Many of the teachers were found to be poor in
knowledge of subject-matter, communication skills and entrepreneurial skills. These teachers are not likely
to assist their learners in acquisition of sound knowledge and skills.
Also, availability of educational facilities such as teaching and learning materials would determine the
quality of education to be supplied to the learners. Incidentally, many schools do not have the facilities in
adequate quality and quantity. In fact, there is a wide variation in facilities available in schools located in
rural and urban centres. The quality of education to be supplied from these schools leaves much to be
desired. This will reflect in the graduates from the schools who may not be able to fit into available jobs.
Moreover, the curriculum spells out the content of an education programme. It determines the quality and
quantity of knowledge to be acquired. Therefore, it is a vital aspect of the education system which is to be
supplied. If it is irrelevant, inadequate and not comprehensive, the knowledge and skills to be supplied will
be deficient and the graduates of the institutions will be disadvantaged in terms of employment
opportunities.
Funding and financing also constitute important inputs in that they determine the quality of education to be
supplied to the society. If an institution is starved of fund, it will not be able to meet its current and capital
expenditure, and the school programmes will suffer. On the other hand, there is need for prudent financial
management if an educational institution will be able to attain high quality.
Conclusion and Recommendations
The discussion so far leads to the conclusion that each of the bases for demanding education is not likely to
enhance a student’s chance for employment after graduation. It can also be concluded that quality inputs
into education is important as a strategy for supply of knowledge and skills in education if graduates are to
be gainfully employed.
The following recommendations are therefore worth of note:
(i) Educators and administrators should study the trends in demand and supply of education
and advise the stakeholders especially parents and students. This is because students’ use of
present employment prospect to determine future, and parents’ insistence on a particular
course of study could be counterproductive at the labour market.
(ii) Demand for any type of education should be based on developmental needs and the plans
prepared to achieve the needs. In this regard, the government, the parents and other
stakeholders should have a common forum for decision making.
(iii) There is need for qualitative education in all aspects. All inputs should be of high quality.
Processing of the inputs should also be of high quality. The government should ensure these
through its quality control agents.

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References
Ayeni, A.O. & Oladipo, S.A. (2007). Training and employment of technical college graduates. Journal of
Applied Research in Education, 5 (1): 116-123.
Babalola, J.B. (2007). Reinventing Nigerian higher education for youth employment in a competitive
global economy. A distinguished lecture delivered at the University of Calabar, Department of
Educational Administration and Planning, University of Calabar.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National Policy on Education. (4th Edition). Lagos: NERDC.
Federal Government of Nigeria (2006). 40 Frequently asked questions on Universal Basic Education.
Abuja: Universal Basic Education Commission.
Ogunbameru, O.A. (2004). Organizational dynamics. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited.
Okebukola, P. (2005). Quality assurance in teacher education: The role of faculty of education in Nigerian
universities. A Paper Delivered at the Annual Conference of Committee of Deans of Nigerian
Universities at Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin.
Influence of demand and supply of education on employment opportunities in Nigeria.: Fasasi, Y.A. & Etejere, P.A.O.

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EXAMINATION MALPRACTICE IN SENIOR
SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN BAYELSA STATE, NIGERIA:
CAUSES, EFFECTS AND REMEDIES
Dr. (Mrs.) N.N. Benwari
Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Faculty of Education, Niger Delta University, Wilberforce
Island, Bayelsa State, Nigeria
Phone: 08037078830 Email: nenabenwari@yahoo.com
Angela M. Leigha (Mrs.)
Department of Educational Foundations, Faculty of Education, Niger Delta University, Wilberforce Island,
Bayelsa State, Nigeria
Phone: 08063320606. Email: angyleigha@yahoo.com
Abstract
This study investigated the causes, effects and remedies of examination malpractice in secondary schools in
Bayelsa state. Fifty (50) schools were randomly selected with twenty-five (25) each from rural and urban
areas. Being an already existing issue, a descriptive survey design was used. A total of 150 teachers at five
(5) teachers per school constituted the sample. A modified four-point Likert scale questionnaire titled:
Causes, Effects and Remedies of Examination Malpractice (CEREM) was constructed and used to elicit
relevant information. Four research questions were posed to guide the study. The mean and standard
deviation statistics were used in analyzing the data collected. The findings revealed that the factors causing
examination malpractice were mutually exclusive ranging from societal value system, economic factors,
and psychological factors to academic factors. Examination malpractice affects the school system, students
and their parents, the government and, indeed, the entire society. Besides the remedies, the study
recommended government should increase funding, provide appropriate facilities as well as ensure regular
and continuous supervision and inspection of schools.
Key words: Examination malpractice, causes, effects, remedies, secondary schools, Bayelsa state.
Introduction
In Nigeria, efforts made to administer examinations that meet standards of reliability, validity, objectivity,
and usability have become a major challenge due to examination malpractice or cheating (Asuka, 1997). A
record (statistics of examination irregularities and malpractices in WAEC May/June exams from 1993 to
2002) has it that Bayelsa state rank fourth in examination malpractice in Nigeria with an Examination
Malpractice Index (EMI) of 26.60. Also, the Examination Ethics Project Memo to Secondary Education
Reference Committee (JCC, 2004) notes that in 2002 alone, the EMI for Bayelsa state stood at 20.59 still
ranking 4th
Examination malpractice could be viewed from different perspectives. To the Sociologist, examination
malpractice is any deviant act that is perpetrated by a student, candidate or person (aiding a candidate)
before, during and after an examination to be declared successful (Asuka, 1994). The moralist sees it as a
bad practice applied in an examination in order to make the examinee earn an unmerited grade (Asuru,
2004). Legally, examination malpractice is an illegal act by the examinee or examiner or his agent/s before,
during or after the examination with the intent to make the examinee have an undue advantage or earn an
unmerited grade (Asuru, 1997; Asuru, 2004; Ezekiel-Hart, 2006; Ezeh & Abanobi (2004) in Egwunyenga
out of 36 states of the federation. This situation is yet to improve over the years.

6 www.ajeds.com
& Oghuvbu, 2008; Onoja (2004) in Egwunyenga & Oghuvbu, 2008; Oparta, 2003, in Egwunyenga &
Oghuvbu, 2008). It is a fraud (Ganagana, 2005).
Types of examination malpractice
Asuru (2004) classifies committal of examination malpractice into three different stages or types, viz: pre-
examination stage, during-examination stage and the Post-examination stage.
(A) Pre-Examination Malpractice
(B) During Examination Malpractice; further subdivided into:
(i) Special Centers
(ii) Double Entry
(iii) Impersonation/Mercenary
(iv) Body Writing or Tattoo
(v) Invitation to Treat
(vi) Bullets/Missiles/Microchips/Super Prints/Prototype/Arms and Ammunition
(vii) Consulting Materials Outside the Examination Hall
(viii) Getting External Assistance
(ix) Necking/Giraffing/Dubbing/Alliance/Ecomog
(x) Electronic/Computer Method
(xi) Obasanjo Messenger or GSM Connection
(xii) Naira Chip
(C) Post-Examination Malpractice; also subdivided into:
(i) Rewriting of the Paper after the examination
(ii) Back for Bed
(i) Cash and Carry (Sorting/Finding)
(ii) Collective Settlement
(iii) Altering of Scores
(iv) Source Syndicate
(v) Hit Men
(vi) Certificate Racketeering
(D) Project, Thesis and Assignment Contractors.
Quite a number of laws, including Act No. 27, 1973; Act No. 20, 1984 as amended by Act No 22, 1986 and
Act No 33, 1999, which repealed and amended sections of the 1986 Act, have been passed to eradicate
examination malpractice in schools to no avail (Asuru, 2004). The percentage of those who commit
examination malpractice grew from 1% in 1985 to over 13% of the candidates in 1994 (Oluyeba, 1993, in
Egbezor & Agabi, 2005).
So what are the causes of examination malpractice in schools?
Examination satisfies quite a number of objectives and involves many personalities. Abuse or malpractice
may equally gravitate around those objectives or purposes especially where they are considered critical to
survival of a person or system. Examination malpractice, Asuru (2004) believes, is caused by the following
factors: societal value system, economic factors, overemphasis on paper qualification, faulty admission
system, perceived difficulty of some subjects or courses, constant closure of schools due to strike, parental
factor and community school involvement. To Ganagana (2005), the cause is psychological, while Onoja
(2004) blames the issue on students’ laziness and unpreparedness for examination.
Examination malpractice in senior secondary schools in Bayelsa State, Nigeria: Causes, Effects and Remedies:
Benwari, N.N. & Leigha, A.M.

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Others (Azu, 1999; Enole, 2001; Ezeh, 2002; Agabi & Egbezor, 2005) point to lack of interest on schooling
among the youth; negligence of responsibility by parents, poor funding of education, poor state of facilities,
high cost of education, poverty as well as corruption in the society. Unwholesome societal value placed on
easy wealth, unbridled greed or rush for financial or material gains, absence of conducive environment for
teaching and learning as well as improper reward system.
Yet others (Asuka, 1999; Amaele, 2000; Okeke, 2004; Lauwerys, 1962 in Okeke, 2004; Ebong & Asodike,
2005, Leigha & Asuka, 2008) identified poor pedagogy, Poor teacher self-image, salaries and poor
conditions of service, over-congested classes. Government attitude, logistics and supervisory problems,
need to maintain good school image and craze for degree.
What are the effects of examination malpractice?
The effects of examination malpractice “are damaging and total because they impact on the entire gamut of
the society and also, spans over generations. It “wrecks unquantifiable damage on the society”, produces
“educational misfits” and graduates who “parade excellent school certificate and degree results that cannot
be defended” (Asuru, 2004:50). Public school certificates are now regarded as “meal tickets” (Asuka,
1999:167). Examination malpractice has other effects:
(i) At the student level: examination malpractice inculcates negative habit and attitude to
learning among students; they may develop phobia towards reading; reduces hard work,
creativity and ingenuity among students;
(ii) At the level of the educational system: it results in poor public perception of the educational
system; low regard for public school grades;
(iii) There is parents’ strong dislike for public schools; wastage of Government (i.e. public) funds
which represents poor investment; and that it produces unemployment (Leigha & Asuka,
2008).
Asuru (2004) notes that examination malpractice:
(i) Is a dangerous orientation for leaders of tomorrow;
(ii) plants seeds of fraud and corruption into the fragile minds of the youth;
(iii) leads to education without character training;
(iv) produces certificates not backed by skills and knowledge;
(v) produces poor quality labour force;
(vi) causes fatal professional errors that results in loss of lives, failed businesses, failed contracts,
failed buildings, etc;
(vii) causes inability of children to identify their talents and realize their destinies;
(viii) Causes huge economic losses: purchasing extra forms and in re-taking cancelled
examinations.
Remedies of examination malpractice
Since examination malpractice is caused, solution could be trapped within the causes (Leigha, 2003). Asuru
(2004) and Leigha & Asuka (2008) opine a careful dissection of the activities of the different groups
connected with the administration of examinations for its solution. These groups include students and their
parents, the government and stakeholders.
Purpose of the Study
This study was carried out to:
1. Assess the state of teaching and learning.
2. Assist in raising the quality of education through reliable examination administration.

8 www.ajeds.com
3. Contribute effective strategies towards the resolution of problems and issues arising from
implementation of policies and guideline for examination administration.
Research Questions
The following research questions guided this study.
1. To what extent do factors such as anxiety among students, poor quality teaching manpower and
student poverty cause examination malpractice in secondary schools in Bayelsa state?
2. What are other causes of examination malpractice in secondary schools in Bayelsa state?
3. To what extent are the quality and standard of education delivered in the state affected by the
existence of examination malpractice in the secondary school system in Bayelsa state?
4. How can the problem of examination malpractice in secondary schools in Bayelsa state be solved?
Design
Due to its descriptive nature, this study employed the survey research design.
Sample
Using the stratified random sampling technique, one hundred and fifty (150) teachers were selected from
fifty (50) secondary schools in eight (8) local government areas of Bayelsa State for this study. The
respondents were selected in the following order: 80 urban and 70 rural teachers, 60 graduate and 90 non-
graduate teachers, 85 old (i.e. 50 years and above) and 65 young (i.e. below 50 years) teachers.
Instrumentation
A questionnaire titled: Causes, Effects and Remedies of Examination Malpractice (CEREM) was
constructed by the researcher. The 50-item questionnaire had two sections (i.e. A and B). Section A
elicited demographic data of respondents such as sex, location, local government area, class, subject taught
etc, while section B was designed on a modified four-point Likert scale i.e. from strongly agree (4) to
strongly disagree (1) found out the extent to which certain factors cause, affect and remedy examination
malpractice.
Validity and Reliability of the Instrument
Four research experts assisted in subjecting the questionnaire to construct validity. Some question items
were deleted while some others were restructured. A reliability coefficient of 0.80 was obtained through a
test-re-test method from a pilot study administered in a neutral location after an interval of two weeks.
Procedure
The questionnaires were administered to target respondents personally by the researchers hence retrieval
rate was a hundred percent.

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Data Analysis
The arithmetic mean, standard deviation and rank order statistics were used to analyze the data collected.
Results
Table 1: Mean and Standard deviation of teachers’ response on factors that cause examination
malpractice in secondary schools
S/n Item Mean Std.
dev.
Rank
1. Poor reading habits of students. 3.0 0.01 6th
2. Anxiety of students on school examinations 3.25 0.01 5th
3. Poor quality teaching manpower. 3.40 0.02 4th
4. Lack of relevant instructional facilities. 3.50 0.02 3rd
5. Student laziness 3.50 0.02 3rd
6. Overemphasis on paper qualification 3.60 0.021 1st
7. Student lack of money to purchase relevant textbooks. 3.55 0.02 2nd
Table 1 shows that the calculated mean statistics value for: overemphasis on paper qualification in the
society, student inability to procure relevant textbooks to study and prepare effectively for examinations,
students’ Laziness or indolence, lack of qualified teaching manpower, great anxiety among students and
poor reading habits all have mean score above 3.0. Therefore, these factors are major causes of examination
malpractice in Bayelsa state secondary schools
Table 2: Mean and Standard deviation of teachers’ response on other causes of examination
malpractice in secondary schools
S/n Item Mean Std.
dev.
Rank
1. Constant closure of schools due to strike. 3.50 0.02 5th
2. Student unpreparedness for examinations. 3.70 0.03 1st
3. Scramble for high grades. 3.25 0.01 6th
4. Poor teacher remuneration. 3.60 0.03 3rd
5. High student-teacher ratio i.e. over-congested classrooms. 3.55 0.02 4th
6. Poor funding of schools by authorities. 3.65 0.03 2nd
7. Parents’ greed. 3.25 0.01 6th
Table 2 shows other factors that cause examination malpractice in Bayelsa state secondary schools.
These are unpreparedness for examinations, poor school funding, poor remuneration of teachers especially
in rural and outlying areas, over congestion of classrooms, constant closure of schools due to strike,
parents’ greed and scramble for grades among students. With calculated mean values above 3.0, that these
factors cause examination malpractice in Bayelsa state secondary schools is accepted.

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Table 3: Mean and Standard deviation of teachers’ response on effects of examination malpractice on
education delivered in the state
S/n Item Mean Std.
dev.
Rank
1. Poor investment of funds and represent wastage in education. 3.70 0.09 6th
2. Produces negative habits and attitudes among youths. 3.72 0.09 5th
3. Reduces reading habits among students. 3.77 0.10 1st
4. Leads to graduate unemployment. 3.72 0.09 5th
5. Produces poor labour skills. 3.72 0.09 5th
6. Produces education without training. 3.73 0.10 4th
7. Inability of children to develop talents and ingenuity. 3.60 0.07 8th
8. Plants seed of fraud and corruption among youth. 3.75 0.12 3rd
9. A dangerous orientation among youth. 3.65 0.10 7th
10. Produces certificate without skills. 3.76 0.13 2nd
From table 3, there is calculated mean value of above 3.0 for these factors: reduces reading habits, produces
certificates without skills in the society, plants seeds of fraud and corruption among youth, produces
education without training and produces poor labour skills that leads to graduates without employable skills
syndrome.
Others include negative habits and attitudes among youth, represents poor investment and wastage in
education, dangerous orientation among youth and lack of ingenuity among students. Therefore, these
factors are considered as effects of examination malpractice on the education system and society
.

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Table 4: Mean and Standard deviation of teachers’ response on solutions to examination malpractice
in secondary schools
S/n Item Mean Std.
dev.
Rank
1. Provide relevant facilities in schools. 3.72 0.12 7th
2. Re-prioritize our national values. 3.67 0.08 9th
3. Supply quality teaching manpower in schools. 3.70 0.10 8th
4. Provide scholarships, bursaries, etc, to indigent students. 3.74 0.14 5th
5. Give more homework to occupy students. 3.73 0.10 6th
6. Adopt principle of leadership by example. 3.43 0.06 17th
7. Place less emphasis on paper qualification. 3.78 0.15 1st
8. Adequately compensate hardworking teachers. 3.70 0.08 8th
9. Conduct public campaign and enlightenment. 3.56 0.03 13th
10. Implement reading and study periods in the learning time-table. 3.60 0.07 12th
11. Provide effective guidance and counseling services in schools. 3.65 0.06 11th
12. Use certified I.D. cards for examinations. 3.55 0.03 14th
13. Implement and regularly pay the TSS salary structure to teachers. 3.70 0.12 8th
14. Implement good working conditions for teachers. 3.50 0.02 16th
15. Emphasize skill training in schools. 3.74 0.13 4th
16. Implement appropriate surveillance in schools. 3.65 0.06 10th
17. Disallow private candidates sitting regular school examinations. 3.75 0.12 3rd
18. Regularly supervise and inspect schools. 3.66 0.06 9th
19. Organize seminars, conferences and workshops to update teachers
and students knowledge on examination ethics and standards.
3.55 0.03 15th
20. Implement all penal decrees on erring students and their teacher
collaborators.
3.76 0.15 2nd
Table 4 clearly isolate several remedies to the issue of examination malpractice in secondary schools
in Bayelsa state, if genuinely implemented. However, these solutions would be treated as recommendations
in this study.
Discussion of Findings
The result of this study discovered that several factors cause examination malpractice in Bayelsa state
secondary schools. This finding confirms the studies of Asuru (2004); Ebong and Asodike (2005) and the
theoretical position of Ganagana (2005); Onoja (2004); Azu 1999; Enole (2001); Ezeh (2002); Agabi and
Egbezor (2005), and Asuka (1999) among others, that the causes of examination malpractice in schools are
mutually exclusive and all-embracing (societal value system, economic factors and academic factors).
Also, the study discovered that examination malpractice has multifarious effects on the whole gamut of
society, at the student level, examination officials as well as the parents and guardians. This finding is
congruous with those of Asuka, (1999), Asuru, (2004) and Ezekiel-Hart (2006). It is also consistent with
Ebong’s (2004) finding that examination malpractice wastes government funds; represents poor investment
that produces youth with unemployable skills.
Finally, this study discovered that examination malpractice contain solutions within its causes, especially
with the teacher. The finding also confirms the assertions of Enaowho and Eferakeya (1989), Okeke
(2004), Asuru (2004) and Ezekiel-Hart (2006) that the solution to examination malpractice lies with the
Nigerian teacher who is, currently, poorly paid and treated (Amaele, 2000), and ridiculed by the
government, parents and his own students.

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It is imperative that psychological and institutional factors be considered in examination malpractice
investigation. This is because management is different from administration. Provision of examination
materials is a managerial function which may be performed by one or few persons. But running
examinations with the provided materials is an administrative activity that involves the attitude, character,
behaviour and functions of many persons. Optimal success depends on resolute and resilient human actions
and decisions which require commitment and honesty (Leigha, 2007; Asuru, 2004; and Ezekiel-Hart,
2006).
Thus, even where management; political will, attitude towards education matters, etc, is right, Bayelsa state
secondary school system might still suffer “quality degradation” (Okongwu, 1986:193); produce a
miserable (26.9%) learning achievement (Falayajo, Makoju, Okebukola, Onuogha, & Olubodun, 1997) and
become “very unsuitable to the welfare of society” (Aniagolu, 1998:62). The notion that proper
examination conduct is directly proportional to quality of education delivered in schools as maintained
everywhere is relative and subject to human and system efficiency.
Recommendations
Based on the findings, it is recommended as follows:
1. Government authorities should endeavour to provide necessary facilities to equip schools in the
state, particularly at the rural areas.
2. Since good quality education is now free and compulsory, governing authorities should invest
more funds in building schools with enough classrooms to accommodate the increasing demand.
3. To this end, the UNESCO demand for allocation 26% annual budget to education should be
implemented to effectively cater for school needs as they arise. This would avoid wastage and
promote returns on social investment.
4. To avoid politicization; ensure professionalism and accountability, officials of the Post-Primary
Schools Board (PPSB) should be used to administer public examinations.
5. There is need to establish a facility database through committed supervision and inspection of
schools, at least once in every two years. This provides for effective facility management for
quality delivery rather than resort to damage control measures.
6. Since no educational system can rise above the quality of its teaching manpower there is need, not
only to recruit and deploy teachers to control damage in the system but also establish a database to
feed the system as the need arises, thus avoid teacher shortage syndrome.
7. Finally, in order to curb examination offences such as corruption, bribery, fraud, etc, government
should implement appropriate legislation to prosecute and punish offenders.

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References
Agabi, O.G. & Egbezor, D.E. (2005). School and Society: The contemporary Challenges. In O.G.
Agabi, A.K. Okorosaye-Orubite, J. Ezekiel-Hart & D.E. Egbebor (EDS) School & Society.
Port Harcourt: DavidStones Publishers.
Aniagolu, A.N (1998). Lecture commentary in Oputa and Utomi, Restoring the integrity of the university.
Hill point Lecture series. Enugu: New Generation Books.
Amaele, S. (2000). Moral Values in Nigerian Education-issues, problems and prospects. Ibadan:
Bounty press.
Asuka, T.T. (1997). Sociology of Nigerian Education. Port Harcourt: Oneness Books.
Asuru, V.A. (1996). Examination malpractice: Nature, causes and solutions. In G.A. Badmus &
O. Peter (Eds) Challenges of Managing Educational Assessment in Nigeria. JAMB,
NABTEB & NBEM.
Asuru, V.A. (1997). Examination Malpractice: trends, Causes, Effects & Solutions. Port
Harcourt: S. I. J. publishers.
Asuru, V.A. (2004). Examination Malpractice-Agenda for a change. Port Harcourt: Owas
haven enterprises.
Ebong, J.M. & Asodike, J.D. (2005). Problems and challenges for quality delivery of pre-
primary (Nursery) education in the Universal Basic Education (UBE) programme in
Rivers state. African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies (AJEDS). 1&2(1).
116-122.
Enaowho, J.O. & Eferakeya, O.A. (1989). Educational Administration. Ibadan: Paperback publishers
limited.
Enole, S.V. (2001). Problems of education in poor countries. Journal of Research in
Education. 8(1). 101-106.
Egwunyenga, E.J. & Oghuvbu, E.P. (2008). Problems of examination malfeasance in Nigerian
Universities: Emergent issues and management options. Trends in Educational Studies
(TRES). 3(1). 196-202.
Exam Ethics Project (2004). Memo to Secondary Education Reference Committee of the 2004 Joint
Consultative Committee (JCC) on Education, on Implementation of Mandates of 50th
NCE on
Eradicating Examination Malpractice.
Ezekiel-Hart, J. (2006). Examination malpractice and the quality of student enrolment in tertiary
institutions. In: J.M. Ebong & J. Ezekiel-Hart (eds) Contemporary Issues in Education.
Port Harcourt: EagleLithograph press.
Ezeh, G.C. & Abaobi, C.K. (2004). Curbing Examination malpractice in Nigeria for quality
education and national development. Nigerian Journal of Functional Education. 3(1).
22-31
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Ezeh, G.C. (2005). Examination malpractice: A threat to functional secondary education in
Nigeria. Paper presented at the National Annual Conference of school of education,
Federal College of Education (Technical) May, 24-27.

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Falayajo, W., Makoju, G.A., Okebukola, P., Onugha, D.C., & Olubodun, J.O. (1997). Assessment of
learning achievement of primary four pupils in Nigeria (National Report). Lagos: Scamps
production.
Ganagana, T.E. (2005). Eradication of examination malpractice in Rivers state primary schools.
African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies (AJEDS). 1&2(1). Pp. 152-156.
Leigha, M.B. (2003). Examination Malpractice: A nut to crack. The Argus. June 17-19. Vol 2. p. 5.
Leigha, M.B. (2007). The Concept of Finance Elasticity and Quality Education. Uniport.
(Unpublished Seminar).
Leigha, M.B. & Asuka, T.T. (2008). Eradicating examination malpractice in public secondary
schools: The teacher imperative. Journal of Educational Issues.
Okeke, B.S. (2004). Teaching in Nigeria: The Bureaucracy and Professionalism. Port
Harcourt: Mercury Int’l publishing Nig.
Okongwu, C.S. (1986). The Nigerian Economy: Anatomy of a traumatized Economy with
some proposals for stabilization. Enugu: Fourth dimension.
Onoja, P.E. (2004). Examination malpractice: Its causes, effects and solution. Nigerian Journal
of Unity and development. 3(1). 56-63.
Opata, D.U. (2003). Examination malpractice in Nigeria: Speaking frankly to our children and us.
Nsukka: Great AP Express Publishers Ltd.

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EFFECTS OF SELF-REGULATION AS A CURRICULUM
DELIVERY STRATEGY ON STUDENTS’
ACHIEVEMENT IN CHEMISTRY
Jacobson Barineka Nbina Ph.D.
Department of Curriculum Studies and Educational Technology
Faculty of Education
Email: drnbinajacobson@yahoo.com
Abstract
This study was designed to investigate the efficacy of self-regulation in facilitating curriculum delivery
vis-à-vis students’ achievement in chemistry. Two research questions and three null hypotheses guided
the study. The design of the study was a pretest-post-test non-equivalent control group design. Two
hundred and eighty four (284) Senior Secondary III Chemistry students’ from four single-sexed
secondary schools in Port Harcourt Education Zone of Rivers State, Nigeria participated in the study.
Design of Teacher-Learner involvement in facilitating curriculum delivery through self-regulation is
given. Mean and standard deviation were used to answer the research questions while Analysis of
Covariance (ANCOVA) was used to test the null hypotheses at (p < 0.05). The result showed that
transferring ownership of learning and involving students in critical thinking effect enhance positive
learning and facilitates curriculum delivery outcomes as students taught through self-regulation
achieved better than those taught by traditional methods. However, gender did not have significant
impact on students’ achievement.
Introduction
The essence of designing curriculum in science education is to promote positive learning outcomes and
to give teachers the “road-map” to effective delivery. However, all too often the attention of curriculum
planners tend to focus on desired educational change while neglecting the ‘how’ of achieving intended
outcomes of the curriculum. According to Waugh & Godfrey (1995) bringing a new curriculum into
practice involves three distinct steps – initiation, implementation and routinisation. While affecting the
curriculum plan in science classroom, the teacher is expected to put into practice curriculum ideas in
such a way as to transfer ‘executive control’ of the learning process to the learner. Self-regulation is
very significant in the learning process. Self regulation refers to students’ ability to understand and
control their learning (Schraw & Brooks, 2002). It involves the actual thinking or internal mental
activity of the learner. Through self-regulation, the learner constructs a new model of understanding
and refinement of conceptual understanding. Zimmerman (1990) regards self-regulation strategies as
strongly associated with superior academic functioning and planning; it is essential for success in
college math and science classes. Thus, the integration on self-regulation skills into science classroom
is necessary because without self-regulatory skills students are at a greater risk of dropping out or
failing because they attribute their learning problems to lack of ability (Graham, 1991). The integration
of self-regulation in the plan of activities or design of any curriculum enhances successful delivery and
sound knowledge base.
The profile of implementation in any curriculum should include (a) classroom integration (what the
teacher does and what the learners do); (b)use and nature of science practical work; (c)incorporation of
science in society; (d) assessment practices (Rogan & Aldous, 2005:317). A curriculum plan that
incorporates self-regulation succinctly depicts not only the active involvement of the learner but also
the teacher’s ability to give ownership of learning process to the learner.
Self-regulation emphasizes quality of learning rather than rote memorization of content which learners
regurgitate in tests and examination. While teaching in depth for understanding, the teacher encourages
learners to be “strategy users” and “self-regulated learners”. Curriculum delivery shifts from

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knowledge transmission by teachers to focusing on the learners as being incharge of their own learning
outcomes.
Traditional approaches however, emphasizes content coverage. Role dominance of the teacher in the
traditional teaching methods results in rote learning. The implication is that students are not deeply
involved in the learning process; they do not engage in critical thinking and meaningful group work
and their inability to write scientific report based on understanding culminates in failure. Research has
shown that much emphasis is placed on examination to the neglect of laboratory practical work
(Okafor, 2000). Adeyegbe (1993) noted that 75% of the period allotted to practical lessons in Nigerian
schools is used to cover theoretical aspects of the curriculum content. Recent research (Ugwu, 2007)
confirmed that one of the difficulties militating against inculcating chemistry practical skills/process
skills in students is “insufficient time allotted to chemistry practicals”.
This was explained by Chief Examiner’s yearly reports of students’ weaknesses in quantitative
chemical analysis as follows:
Failure to understand the principles and procedure of volumetric analysis,
May/June General Certificate O’ Level. Chief Examiners’ Reports, 1987:120.
Deficient observational skills (May/June SSCE Chief Examiner’s Reports
1993:81).
Inadequate understanding of the mole concept. Inability to determine mole
ratios from stoichiometric equations, failure to understand chemical arithmetic,
omission of units of measurement, (SSCE May/June, Chief Examiners’ Reports
1996:100).
Poor knowledge of laboratory procedures, handling of reagents and storage of
chemicals/reagents; shallow knowledge of theory of indicators; inability to
interpret the chemicals of equations; poor mathematical skills; inappropriate
use of chemical terminology; poor knowledge of significant figures, units of
measurement and the mole concept.( Chief Examiners’ Reports Nov/Dec
2002:147).
The choice of limiting this paper to quantitative chemical analysis of aspects of chemistry stems from
the fact that achievement in qualitative chemical analysis requires direct and inverse proportional
reasoning patterns which are subsumed in self-regulation. Sound knowledge-base of the mole concept
for example will lead to understanding of stoichiometry. According to Anamuah – Mensah, Erickson &
Gaskell (1987) quantitative chemical analysis include balancing of equation, calculation from
equations, mole ratio and inherent structural relations. In quantitative chemical analysis
learners/students should be able to predict results, identify procedures, set up conditions for
experiment, make measurements, provide observational data, and evaluate procedures using tables.
Through self-regulation, students are expected to develop dexterity with practical procedures/process
skills and problem solving not only in quantitative chemical analysis but also in other science
subjects/topics in chemistry.
A recent research by Udoh (2008) showed that chemistry classes were still teacher dominated. In his
study he found that experienced and inexperienced teachers in Ikot Ekpene Local Govenrment Area of
Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria, talked in chemistry class for 63.3% and 61.4 respectively most of the time.
He further showed that male and female chemistry teachers spent 64.7% and 59.5% in the class
lecturing. Thus, the study revealed that the teaching of chemistry is still far from adequate. This
supports much earlier researches, by Adeyegbe (1993), Ezekannagha and Ifeakor (2000) who opined
that there is need to actively engage students in hands-on experience during chemistry classes. Since
studies done so far have not answered the problem of teacher dominated chemistry classroom, it is
Effects of self-regulation as a curriculum delivery strategy on students’ achievement in chemistry.: Nbina, J.B.

17 www.ajeds.com
pertinent to examine the extent to which self-regulation will address the issue of effective curriculum
delivery as against traditional teaching methods.
The following research questions were proffered to be answered in the course of this study:
1. What is the mean achievement scores of students taught chemistry by self-regulation and
those taught by traditional methods?
2. What is the effect of gender on mean achievement scores of students in chemistry?
The following null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance:
Ho1
Ho
: The mean achievement scores of students taught chemistry through self-regulation would not
differ significantly from those taught with traditional method.
2
Ho
: There is no significant effect of gender on students’ mean achievement in chemistry.
3: There is no significant interaction effect of self-regulation process and gender on student’s
cognitive achievement in chemistry.
Method
The study is a quasi-experimental pretest-post test control group design.
The population comprised Senior Secondary Students Class III (SSS III) offering chemistry in Port
Harcourt Education Zone, Rivers State. Port Harcourt Education Zone has 68 coeducational schools,
but in this study single-sex schools were used since school-type is not considered an important variable.
The sample study comprised two male-only and two female-only school out of which a total of 284
SSS III chemistry students were drawn. The total number of single-sexed schools in the zone is nine (9)
male-only and five (5) female-only schools out of which purposive sampling was used to draw four
schools that have at least two streams offering chemistry. Eight intact classroom groups were thus
randomly assigned to treatment and control groups. The treatment group which was exposed to self-
regulation comprised 148 subjects (71 boys and 77 girls). The control group which was exposed to
traditional method comprised 148 subjects (71 male and 77 female).
Simple random sampling was used to select the responses of 71 females for treatment and control
groups respectively (equal replication in a 2 x 2 ANCOVA to allow for estimation of experimental
error). The total sample for the study for which data was complete was 142 male and 142 female for
treatment and control groups respectively.
Quantitative Chemical Analysis Achievement Test (QCAAT) was used to collect data. The QCAAT
was designed to :
(a) test students’ knowledge of practical activities in volumetric analysis.
(b) calculation of number of moles of a base involved in a neutralization reaction with a dilute
acid of unknown concentration.
(c) concentration of hydrogen chloride acid in g/dm3
and moles/dm3
The instructional procedure was as follows.
.
A is a solution of hydrogen chloride acid. B is a 0.1M solution of sodium trioxocarbonate (IV). Titrate
solution A against solution B using screened methyl orange as indicator. Record your titration results.
From your results calculate;
i. the number of moles of sodium trioxocarbonate (IV) involved in the complete reaction
ii. the concentration of solution A g/dm3
and moles/dm3
.

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Equation for the reaction is:
Na2CO3 + 2HCl → 2NaCl + H2O + CO2
(Na = 23, C = 12, O = 16, H = 1, Cl = 35.5)
What effect would each of the error described below have on the concentration of hydrogen chloride
acid if;
 The burette is not rinsed with the hydrogen chloride acid solution
 The pipette is not rinsed with the sodium trioxocarbonate (IV) solution
 The last drop in the pipette is blown out
 The conical flask contains some distilled water before the addition of Na2CO3
 The burette is leaking
 The funnel is not removed after filling the burette with acid solution
The control group was taught by the traditional methods of lecture, discussion and teacher
demonstration. Before the beginning of each session, salt samples were weighed and solutions were
standardized by the instructor or laboratory assistants. The students observed teacher’s demonstrations
and listened to the teacher as he explained the concepts at each stage and demonstrated the procedures
involved. At each stage students followed the teachers’ instruction as they (the students) carried out the
practical activities. They also followed the step-by-step or algorithmic methods in solving problems as
they were taught by the teacher. Equations for reactions and formula for calculations were written out
for the students.
The treatment group was taught using an organized, sequenced and well-designed lesson plan that ran
through five stages: the first stage students were gingered by thought provoking questions to elicit their
previous knowledge on proportional relations. The second phase challenged students to explore the
materials and apparatus for their use, placed on the bench table. Using a series of structured written out
questions, they observed and identified the practical materials and the links in the set of laid down
apparatus and specimen materials. They investigated the concept under study. They were given
minimal guidance by the teacher. In the phase of explanation, teacher organized students in groups of
four, and encouraged them to discuss their findings, and write down their own mental constructions.
The next phase may require the teacher to elaborate, refine and introduce new ideas. At the end of the
lesson, the teacher gave assessment to appraise students’ knowledge base and understanding.
The research questions were answered using mean and standard deviation. The design is a 2 (method:
self-regulation and traditional method) x 2 (Gender: male and female ANCOVA).

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Results
The results obtained are presented in tabular form as follows:
Table 1: Means and Standard Deviation of the Students’ in Post-Treatment QCAAT (By
Treatment by Gender)
GENDER
MALE FEMALE OVERALL
Treatment x 49.39 51.40 50.39
S 14.16 13.60 13.98
N 71 71 142
Control x 30.00 26.01 29.32
S 12.14 9.97 11.91
N 71 71 142
Overall x 40.61 38.21 35.36
S 14.72 17.79 16.41
N 142 142 284
Research question 1
What is the mean achievement scores of secondary school students taught chemistry by self-regulation
and those taught by traditional method?
It can be seen from Table 1, that the mean achievement score for the treatment group is 50.39
as against 29.32 for the control group. This seems to suggest that the experimental group performed
better than the control group, the latter having a lesser mean score.
Ho1: The mean achievement score of students taught chemistry through self-regulation would not
differ significantly from those taught with traditional method (p<0.05).
Table 2: Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) of Students’ achievement scores (by
treatment, by gender)
Source of variation Sum of
squares
Degree of
freedom (d.f)
Mean
square
Significance Decision at
0.05 level
Covariate
(pre-treatment)
30,975.78 1 30,975.78 .000
MaineEffects 61,952.71 3 20,650.91 .000 S
Teaching method 28,284.84 1 28,284.84 .000 S
Gender 126.73 1 126.73 .145 NS
2-WayiInteraction 568.64 1 568.64 .730 NS
Teaching method X
Gender
568.64 1 568.64 .100 NS
Explained 62,512.35 4 15,630.34 .110 NS
Residual 16,545.36 279 56.30
Total 79,066.72 283 279.39
S = Significant at 0.05 level; NS = Not significant at 0.05 level
Ho2
Table 2 reveals that the observed difference between the mean scores of the experimental and control
groups is significant at 0.05 level. This is because teaching method as a main effect is shown in that
table to be significant at 0.00 level, thus at 0.05 which is much higher than 0.00 teaching is significant.
In other words the hypothesis of no significance between the mean scores of the experimental group
and control group is rejected at 0.05 level.
: There is no significant effect of gender on students’ mean achievement in chemistry.

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Research question 2
What is the effect of gender on mean achievement scores of secondary school students in chemistry?
Table 1 shows that the overall achievement score of male students is 40.61 while the overall
mean score of female students is 38.21. The difference appears to indicate that male students scored
higher than the female students in the Quantitative Chemical Analysis Test.
Ho2
Table 2 shows that gender as a main effect has no significance on students’ mean achievement in
chemistry. This is because the table shows that gender as a main effect is not significant at that level. In
other words, the observed difference between the mean achievement scores of the male students and
female students as noted in the Table is not a real difference but attributed to error. Therefore, the null
hypothesis of no significance difference between the mean scores of male and female is not rejected at
0.05 level.
: There is no significant (p<0.05) effect of gender on students’ mean achievement in chemistry.
Ho3:
Table 2 shows that the interaction effect of method of teaching and students’ gender is not significant at
0.05 level. This is because the interaction effect of teaching method and gender on the students’
achievement is shown to be significant at 0.11 level. As that level is higher than 0.05, the interaction
effect is not significant at this level. Consequently, the null hypothesis of no significant interaction
effect is not rejected. This simply means that there is no significant combined effect of teaching method
and students’ gender on their achievement in chemistry.
There is no significant (p<.05) interaction effect of self-regulation process and gender on
students’ cognitive achievement in chemistry.
Discussion
Evidence from the findings of this study shows that self-regulation has significant effect on students’
achievement in chemistry. The experimental group produced higher mean achievement scores than the
control group taught the same aspect of chemistry (quantitative chemical analysis) using the traditional
method.
The findings of this study agree with Zimmerman’s (1990) opinion that self-regulation strategies are
strongly associated with superior academic functioning. This is not surprising because the students
were involved in the learning process and they were able to give their own mental construct for proper
understanding of the topic. Consequently, self-regulation not only enhanced the achievement of the
students but also facilitated the delivery by the teacher who invariably found fulfillment from the
students’ achievement. In addition, since the students had the ownership of learning, the teacher’s role
was minimal, hence delivery was made easier.
There is no significant difference in achievement between male and female in the experimental groups.
The absence of interaction between teaching method and gender with respect to achievement also
implies that both boys and girls duly benefited from the process.
Implications and Recommendations
Self-regulation process favours both boys and girls. Teachers should employ it effectively in
classrooms to develop creative abilities and critical thinking in both boys and girls. Hence, to maximize
students’ achievement in chemistry classrooms, lessons should be activity-oriented to enable students
engage in indepth thinking. This will impact equally positively on females and males and thus
encourage gender equity in science achievement. It is important that teachers have sound conceptual
knowledge of chemistry content if they should be able to give students opportunity to have ‘executive

21 www.ajeds.com
control’ of the classroom interaction. Curriculum designers should take cognizance of the fact that
students’ metacognition is an indispensable factor in any learning process. Consequently, curriculum
planners and policy makers should emphasize/encourage content delivery to promote self-regulation.
References
Adeyegbe, S. O. (1993). The senior secondary school science curriculum and candidates’ performance:
An appraisal of the first cycle of operation. Journal of Science Teacher Association of Nigeria,
21 (1 & 2), 3 – 12.
Anamuah-Mensha, J., Erickson, G. & Gaskel, J. (1987). Development and validation of a path-analysis
model of students’ performance in chemistry. Journal of research in Science teaching, 24 (8),
728 – 738.
Ezekannagha, G. N. & Ifeakor, A. C. (2000), Enriching STM for national development: the need for
improvisation in teaching and learning of chemistry in Nigerian dsecondary schools. In Akale
M. A. (2000) 41st
Annual Conference Processing of STAN.
Graham, S. (1991). A review of attribution theory in achievement contexts. Education Psychology
Review, 3, 5 – 39.
Okafor, P. N. (2000). Laboratory resources and utilization as correlates of chemistry students’ learning
outcomes, 41st
Annual Conference Proceedings of Science Teachers Association of Nigeria
(STAN) 169-173.
Rogan, J. & Aldous, C. (2005). Relationship between the constructs of a theory of curriculum
implementation. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 42, (3), 313 – 316.
Schraw, G. & Brooks, D. W. (2002). Helping students self-regulate in math and science courses:
Improving the will and the skill file://A:self-RegulationinCollegeScienceTeaching.htm.
Udoh, A. O. (2008), An analysis of classroom interaction of senior secondary school chemistry
teachers in Ikot Ekpene Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. Journal of
Science Teachers Association of Nigeria, 43 (1 & 2), 16 -22.
Ugwu, A. (2007). Towards inculcation of chemistry practical skills in students: Teachers’ difficulties in
Uchenna Nzewi, Proceedings of the 50th
Anniversary of STAN Conference – STAN Education
for Sustainable Development, 106-109.
Waugh, R. & Godfrey, J. (1995). Understanding teacher’s receptivity to system-wide educational
charge. Journal of Education Administration, 33, 38-54.
West African Examination Council Senior Certificate Examination, May/June 1987, 1993, 1996, 2002.
Chief Examiners’ Reports, Nigeria.
Zimmerman, B. J. (1990). Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: An overview.
Educational Psychologist, 25, 3 – 17.

22 www.ajeds.com
FORMAL AND NON-FORMAL EDUCATION : A POTENT
TOOL FOR ENTREPRENEURSHIP AND SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT IN
EDO STATE OF NIGERIA
JUSTINA O. EIMUHI, (Ph.D.)
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS & MANAGEMENT
FACULTY OF EDUCATION
AMBROSE ALLI UNIVERSITY, EKPOMA,
EDO STATE, NIGERIA.
Tel: +2348056430890 E-mail: justina4rich@yahoo.com.
Abstract
This article posits that formal and non-formal education are very potent tools for entrepreneurship and sustainable
development of Edo State, which has remained underdeveloped for long. The ideas and concepts of entrepreneurship
and sustainable development were discussed. The article concludes that formal and non-formal education should be
given the deserved place of prominence in order to create room for entrepreneurship and sustainable development.
Keywords: Formal, Non-Formal Education, Entrepreneurship, Sustainable Development, Potent, Tool.
Introduction
It has been argued that high rates of education are essential for countries to be able to achieve high levels of
entrepreneurship and sustainable development, Hanushek and Woessmann (2008). Education in the largest sense is
any act or experience that has a formative effect on the mind, character or physical ability of an individual. In its
technical sense, education is the process by which society deliberately transmits its accumulated knowledge, skills
and values from one generation to another. Etymologically, the word education is derived from educare (Latin)
“bring up”, which is related to educere “bring out”, “bring forth what is within”, “bring out potent” and ducere, “to
lead” (www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=educate). A right to education has been created and recognized by
some jurisdictions; since 1952, Article 2 of the First Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights obliges
all signatory parties to guarantee the right to education. At world level, the United Nations’ International Convention
on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966 guarantees this right under its Article 13 (Wikipaedia, the free
enclopaedia).
A formal education program is the process of training and developing people in knowledge, skills, mind, and
character and a structured and certified programme
(http.//www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/referencematerials/glossaryofliterarcyterms/whatisformaleducation.htm).
The systems of formal education includes: pre-school education, primary education, secondary education, higher
education, adult education, alternative education and indigenous education. On the other hand, non-formal education
became part of the international discourse on education policy in the late 1960s and early 1970s. It can be seen as
related to the concepts of recurrent and lifelong learning. Tight (1966) suggests that whereas the latter concepts have
to do with the extension of education and learning throughout life, non-formal education is about ‘acknowledging
the importance of education, learning and training, which takes place outside recognized educational institutions’.
Fordham (1993) suggests that in the 1970s, four characteristics came to be associated with non-formal education:
relevance to the needs of disadvantaged groups; concern with specific categories of persons; a focus on clearly
defined purposes; flexibility in organization and methods. Formal education is linked with schools and training
institutions, non-formal with community groups and other organizations.

23 www.ajeds.com
Generally, formal and non-formal education equips individuals with the wisdom, skills and knowledge required for
entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship is the act of being an entrepreneur, which is a French word meaning “one who
undertakes innovations, finance and business acumen in an effort to transform innovations into economic goods”.
This may result in new organizations or may be part of revitalizing mature organizations in response to a perceived
opportunity. The most obvious form of entrepreneurship is that of starting new businesses (referred to as Start-up
Company); however, in recent years, the term has been extended to include social land political forms of
entrepreneurial activity. When entrepreneurship is describing activities within a firm or large organization it is
referred to as intra-preneurship and may include corporate venturing, when large entities spin-off organizations;
Shane (2003). In the contemporary world, entrepreneurship has become a condition sine qua no for sustainable
development. Sustainable development is a pattern of resource use that aims to meet human needs while preserving
the environment so that these needs can be met not only in the present, but also for future generations. The term was
used by the Brundtland Commission which coined what has become the most often-quoted definition of sustainable
development as development that “meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs”; United Nations Organisation (1987). Sustainable development ties together
concern for the carrying capacity of natural systems with social challenges facing humanity. As early as the 1970s,
“sustainability” was employed to describe an economy “in equilibrium with basic ecological support systems”;
Stivers (1976). The field of sustainable development can be conceptually broken into three constituent parts:
environmental sustainability, economic sustainability, socio-political sustainability; Daly (1973).
Statement of the Problem
Entrepreneurship, which is one of the factors that can guarantee sustainable development, has not been given the
right in Edo State of Nigeria for too long. The economy of most Asian countries is controlled by Small and Medium
Scale Enterprises (SMEs
), while 67% of the American economy is propelled by SMEE
(NIM-NYSC Strategic
Training Programme, SMPE 104). For the Asian countries to be where they are today, they realized the need to
develop their human-capital, and therefore, invested heavily on the development of their manpower needs.
In Nigeria, especially Edo State, the need for entrepreneurial skill acquisition has not been appreciated by the
government and other stakeholders, hence the state has remained perpetually underdeveloped since its creation in
August 1991 despite its being one of the oil producing states of the country. In the state, government is the sole
employer of labour with only a few private sector organizations assisting to absolve our teeming unemployed
youths. Regrettably, the Civil Service Commission Report for 2006 puts the number of persons employed by the
state government at 2,190 out of a population of 3,218,322 provided by the National Population Commission in
2006; (NPC, 2006).
Edo State government alone cannot guarantee sustainable development of the state. Therefore, the need to encourage
entrepreneurial skills and knowledge acquisition through systematic learning and practice cannot be over-
emphasized.
Objectives of the Study
The objectives of this paper are:
1. To justify the importance of formal and non-formal education as a tool for entrepreneurship;
2. To highlight the role of entrepreneurship in sustainable development;
3. To draw the attention of government and other stakeholders to the need for entrepreneurial skills
development;
Formal and Non-formal Education: a potent tool for entrepreneurship and sustainable development in Edo state of Nigeria.
:Eimuhi, J.O.

24 www.ajeds.com
4. To recommend to government and other stakeholders that formal and non-formal education be given the
right place in the scheme of things in Edo State.
Significance of the Study
This study is particularly very important because it is geared towards the justification of the formal and non-formal
education as potent tool for entrepreneurship and sustainable development of Edo State which has remained
underdeveloped for too long. Unemployment has become endemic, pervasive and a cracker worm in Edo State.
Consequently, a study of this nature that is aimed at justifying the need for the creation of opportunities for
enterprises to grow and strive is germane.
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
The Idea of Formal Education
Formal education is a concept referring to the process in which students can learn something through:
1. Instruction, which refers to the facilitating of learning towards identified objectives, delivered either by an
instructor or other forms;
2. Teaching, that refers to the actions of a real live instructor designed to impart learning to the student;
3. Learning, which refers to learning with a view towards preparing learners with specific knowledge, skills, or
abilities that can be applied immediately upon completion. These involves the following stages:
i. Primary education: Primary (or elementary) education consist of the first 5 – 7 years of formal, structured
education. In general, main education consists of six or eight years of schooling starting at the age of five or
six, although this varies between, and sometimes within countries. Globally, around 70% of primary-age
children are enrolled in primary education, and this proportion is rising; UNESCO (2008). Under the
Education for All programs drive by UNESCO, most countries have committed to achieving universal
enrolment in primary education by 2015, and in many countries, it is compulsory for children to receive
primary education.
ii. Secondary education: In most contemporary educational systems of the world, secondary education
comprises the formal education that occurs during adolescence. It is characterized by transition from the
typically compulsory comprehensive primary education for minors, to the optional, selective tertiary, “post-
secondary”, or “higher” education (e.g. university, vocational school for adults). Depending on the system,
schools for this period, or part of it, may be called secondary or high schools, gymnasiums, lyceums,
middle schools, colleges, or vocational schools. The exact meaning of any of these terms varies from one
system to another. The exact boundary between primary and secondary education also varies from country
to country and even within them, but it generally around the seventh to the tenth year of schooling,
secondary education occurs mainly during the teenage years in the United States and Canada, primary and
secondary education together are sometimes refereed as K-12 education, and in New Zealand year 1 – 13 is
used. The purpose of secondary education can be to give common knowledge, to prepare for higher
education or to train directly in a profession. The emergence of secondary education in the United States
did not happen until 1910, caused by the rise in the big businesses and technological advances in factories
(for instance, the emergence of electrification), their skilled workers. In order to meet this new job demand,

25 www.ajeds.com
high schools were created and the curriculum focused on practical job skills that would better prepare
students for white collar or skilled blue collar work. This proved to be beneficial for both the employer and
the employee, because this improvement in human capital caused employees to become more efficient,
which lowered costs for the employer, and skilled employees received a higher wage than employees with
just primary educational attainment.
iii. Higher education: Higher education, also called tertiary, third stage, or post secondary education, is the
non-compulsory educational level that follows the completion of a school providing a secondary education,
such as a high school, secondary school. Tertiary education is normally taken to include undergraduate and
postgraduate education, as well as vocational education and training. Colleges and universities are the main
institutions that provide tertiary education. Collectively, these are sometimes known as tertiary institutions.
Tertiary education generally results in the receipt of certificates, diplomas, or academic degrees (Swassing,
Barbe & Milone, 1979).
iv. Adult education: Adult education has become common in many countries. It takes on many forms, ranging
from formal class-based learning to self-directed learning and e-learning. A number of career specific
courses such as veterinary assisting, medical billing and coding, management sciences, social sciences, real
estate license, bookkeeping and many more are now available to students through the internet.
v. Alternative education: also known as non-traditional or educational alternative is a broad term that may be
used to refer to all forms of education outside of traditional education (for all age groups and levels of
education). This may include not only forms of education designed for students with special needs (ranging
from teenage pregnancy to intellectual disability), but also forms of education designed for a general
audience and employing alternative educational philosophies and methods.
vi. Indigenous education: Increasingly, the inclusion of indigenous models of education (methods and
content) as an alternative within the scope of formal and non-formal education systems has come to
represent a significant factor contributing to the success of those members of indigenous communities who
choose to access these systems, both as students/learners and as teachers/instructors. As an educational
method, the inclusion of the indigenous ways of knowing, learning, instructing, teaching and training, has
been viewed by many critical and post-modern scholars as important for ensuring that students/learners and
teachers/instructors (whether indigenous or non-indigenous) are able to benefit from education in a
culturally sensitive manner that draws upon, utilizes, promotes and enhances awareness of indigenous
traditions ( Merriam, Caffarella & Baumgartner, 2007).
The Idea of Non-formal Education
As Fordham (1993) relates in 1967 at an international conference in Williamsburg, USA, ideas were set for what
was to become a widely read analysis of the growing ‘world educational crisis’ (Coombs, 1968). There was concern
about unsuitable curricular; a realization that educational growth and economic growth were not necessarily in step,
and that job did not emerge directly as a result of educational inputs. Many countries were finding it difficult
(politically or economically) to pay for the expansion of formal education. The conclusion was that formal
educational systems had adapted too slowly to the socio-economic changes around them and that they were held
back not only by their own conservatism, but also by the inertia of societies themselves. If we also accept that
Formal and Non-formal Education: a potent tool for entrepreneurship and sustainable development in Edo state of Nigeria.:
Eimuhi, J.O.

26 www.ajeds.com
educational policy making tends to follow rather than lead other social trends, then it followed that change would
have to come not merely from within formal schooling, but from the wider society and from other sectors within it.
It was from this point of departure that planners and economics in the World Bank began to make distinction
between informal, non-formal and formal education (Fordham, 1993).
Non-formal education means any organized educational activity outside the established formal system – whether
operating separately or as an important feature of some broader activity that is intended to serve identifiable learning
clienteles and learning objectives. The range of initiatives and programmes that have adopted the title ‘non-formal’
are many and various. They include literacy and basic education for adults and young people, political and trade
union education, ‘catching-up’ programmes for school drop-outs, pre-school education for young children, political
and trade union education and various kinds of educational work linked with development initiatives including
agricultural extension and training programmes and health education. They also shade over into various examples of
both state and private vocational training programmes. The McGivney and Murrary (1992) collection, Adult
Education in Development gives a good feel of the sorts of initiatives this might include. They look particularly at
health education, literacy, rural development and the role of women in development. However, it can be confusing
to use terms like adult education in the context of southern education – given the age distribution of populations and
the large numbers of young people involved in non-formal programmes.
What is also apparent from the literature is that it was politically useful to use a term like non-formal education. As
Shukla (1985) has argued by the mid 1960s it was becoming clear that an education system based around schooling
could not be sustainable because of the sheer cost to already fragile economies. A search for ‘new’ techniques was
therefore on. Second, within the north it was becoming clear that the school was only one amongst many potential
educative elements. These were essentially ‘western’ concerns. At the same time, a number of socialist countries
initiated large programmes for changing the consciousness, skills and organizations of their populations. They
typically used many of the forms that we now label as non-formal education: special trained educators (maybe for 4
to 5 weeks; not teachers) sent out to local villages to set up and run programmes and recruit further helpers and
group member. The use of mass media such as radio and television, things like news-sheets and comics. Provision
on a mass scale – a whole region or country is targeted; sometimes formal, sometimes informal sanctions against
those who did not participate.
Contrasts between ‘Formal’ and ‘Non-formal’ Programmes
Simkins (1976) analyzed non-formal education programmes in terms of purposes, timing, content delivery systems
and control, and contrasted these with formal educational programmes. The resulting idea-types provide a useful
framework and bring out the extent to which non-formal education initiatives, while emphasizing flexibility,
localness and responsiveness remain located within a curricular form of education (in contrast with those forms
driven by conversation).
Idea-type models of normal and non-formal education
Formal Non-formal
Purposes Long-term and general
Credential-based
Short-term and specific
Non-credential-based
Timing Long cycle/preparatory/full-time Short cycle/recurrent/part-time
Content Standardized/input centred academic
Entry requirements determine clientele
Individualized/output centred practical
Clientele determine entry requirements
Delivery
system
Institution-based, isolated from environment
Rigidly structured, teacher-centred and resource
intensive
Environment-based, community related
Flexible, learner-centred and resource saving
Control External/hierarchical Self-governing/democratic
Adapted by: Fordham, 1993 from Simkins, 1977:12 – 15.

27 www.ajeds.com
The concept of Entrepreneurship
Entrepreneurship is the capacity and willingness to undertake conception, organization, and management of a
productive venture with all attendant risks while seeking profit as a reward. In economics, entrepreneurship is
regarded as a factor of production together with land, labour, natural resources and capital. Entrepreneurial spirit is
characterized by innovation and risk-taking, and an essential component of nation’s ability to succeed in an ever
changing and more competitive global marketplace.21
Furthermore, entrepreneurship is the practice of starting new
organizations or revitalizing mature organizations, particularly new business generally in response to identified
opportunities. Entrepreneurship is often a difficult undertaking, as a vast majority of new businesses fail due to
unfavourable business environment in Nigeria. Entrepreneurial activities are substantially different depending on the
type of organization that is being started. Entrepreneurship ranges in scale from solo projects (even involving the
entrepreneur only on part-time basis) to major undertakings creating many job opportunities. Many high-profile
entrepreneurial venture capital or huge funding in order to raise the needed capital to build the business. Good
enough, many kinds of organizations now exist; to support would be entrepreneurs, including specialized
government agencies some of which have been mentioned above, business incubators, science parks and some non-
governmental organizations (McClelland, 1981).
The concept of Sustainable Development
In 1987, the United Nations released the Brundtland Report, which defines sustainable development as
‘development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs (UCN, 2006). The United Nations 2005 World Summit Outcome Document refers to the
“interdependent and mutually reinforcing pillars” of sustainable development as economic development, social
development, and environment protection (World Summit Outcome Document, 2005).
Economic sustainability: Agenda 21 clearly identified information, integration, and participation as key building
blocks to help countries achieve development that recognizes these interdependent pillars. It emphasizes that in
sustainable development everyone is a user and provider of information. It stresses the need to change from old
sector-centred ways of doing business to new approaches that involve cross-sectorial co-ordination and the
integration of environmental and social concerns into all development processes. Furthermore, Agenda 21
emphasizes that broad public participation in decision making is a fundamental prerequisite for achieving
sustainable development (Allen, 2007).
According to Hasna Vancock, sustainability is a process which tells of a development of all aspects of human life
affecting sustenance. It means resolving the conflict between the various competing goals, and involves the
simultaneous pursuit of economic prosperity, environmental quality and social equity famously known as three
dimensions (triple bottom line) with its resultant vector being technology, hence it is a continually evolving process,
the “journey” (the process of achieving sustainability) is of course vitally important, but only as a means of getting
to the destination (the desired future state). However, the “destination” of sustainability is not a fixed place in the
normal sense that we understand destination. Instead, it is a set of wishful characteristics of a future system.
Conclusion
It is concluded that entrepreneurial skills and knowledge can be acquired through systematic learning and practice.
Therefore, formal and non-formal education is a potent tool for entrepreneurship if well managed. Consequently,
formal and non-formal education should be given the right place in the scheme of things in Edo State in order to
create room for entrepreneurship and by logical extension sustainable development of the state.
Eimuhi, J.O.

28 www.ajeds.com
Recommendations
In view of the foregoing, the following recommendations were offered:
1. Government of Edo State should as a matter of urgency embark on aggressive investment on human capital
development, as this will translate to the proliferation of entrepreneurs and enterprises that can guarantee
employment for the teeming unemployed youths in the state;
2. All the educational institutions in the state should be given face-lift to enable them meet the needs of their
establishment;
3. Conducive environment should be urgently created for small and medium scale enterprises to strive in the
state;
4. Formal and non-formal education should be given the right place in the scheme of things in Edo State in
order to bring sustainable development to the state.
References
Allen, W. (2007). “Learning for Sustainability: Sustainable Development.” Hasna, A.M. (2007). “Dimensions of
sustainability”. Journal of Engineering for Sustainable Development; Energy, Environment and Health,
2(1):47 – 57.
Boulanger, P.M. (2008). “Sustainable Development Indicators: A scientific challenge, A Democrtic Issue”
S.A.P.I.E.N.S., 1(1).
Civil Service Commission Report, 2006.
Coombs, P. (1968). The World Educational Crisis, New York: Oxford University Press.
Daly, H.E. (1973). Towards a Steady State Economy, San Francisco: Freeman; Daly, H.E. (1991). Steady State
Economics (2nd ed), Washington DC: Island Presss.
Fordham, P.E. (1993), “Informal, Non-formal and Formal Education Programmes” in YMCA George College,
ICE301 Lifelong Learning Unit 2, London: YMCA George Williams College.
Hanushek, E.A. & Woessmann, L. (2008), “The Role of Cognitive Skills in Economic Development”, Journal of
Economic Literature 46, No. 3.
http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/referencematerials/glossaryofliteracyterms/whatisformaleducation.htm.
McClelland, D.C. (1981), The Achieving Entrepreneurs and Society, New York: The Free Press.
McGivney, V. and Murray, F. (1991), Adult Education in Development; Methods and Approaches from Changing
Societies, Leicester: NIACE.
Merriam, S.; Caffarella, R. and Baumgartner, L. (2007), Learning in Adult: A Comprehensive Guide, San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.
National Population Commission, 2006.
NIM-NYSC Strategic Training Programme, Study Pack for SMPE 104.

29 www.ajeds.com
Shane, S. (2003), “A General Theory of Entrepreneurship: The Individual Opportunity, Nexus: Edward Elgar.
Simkins, T. (1977), Non-formal Education and Development. Some Critical Issues, Manchester: Department of
Adult and Higher Education, University of Manchester, 77 + iv pages. Helpful survey of thinking and
practice with case studies (the Village Polytechnics, Kenya; mass education campaign in Tanzania; Cuba’s
schools in the countryside).
Stivers, R. (1976), The Sustainable Society: Ethics and Economic Growth. Philadelphia: Westminster Press.
Swassing, R.H.; Barbe, W.B. & Milone, M.N. (1979), The Swassing-Barbe Modality Index: Zaner-Bloser Modality
Kit, Columbus, OH: Zaner-Bloser.
UCN (2006), The Future of Sustainability: Re-thinking Environment and Development in the Twenty-first Century;
Report of the IUCN thinkers meeting, 29 – 31 January, 2006.
http://emsdata.iucn.org/downloads/iucn_future_of_sustanaiblity/pdf
United Nations Organisation (1987), Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development; General
Assembly Resolution 42/187, 11 December, 1987.
Wikipaedia, the free enclopaedia.
www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=educate.
Eimuhi, J.O.

African Journal Article on Demand and Supply of Education Influencing Employment in Nigeria

African Journal Article on Demand and Supply of Education Influencing Employment in Nigeria

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