Students' Perception of Teachers Impacts Academic Achievement

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AFRICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION
AND DEVELOPMENTAL STUDIES
(AJEDS)
(Domiciled in the Faculty of Education University of Port Harcourt)
AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR
MULTI-DISCIPLINARY STUDIES
June, 2012
EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
PROF. B.S. OKEKE
FACULTY OF EDUCATION,
UNIVERSITY OF PORT HARCOURT, NIGERIA

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AFRICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION
AND
DEVELOPMENTAL STUDIES (AJEDS)
VOL. 9, NO.1 June, 2012
ISSN: 07945-760

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AFRICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION AND
DEVELOPMENTAL STUDIES (AJEDS)
EDITORIAL BOARD
• Professor B.S. Okeke - Editor-in-Chief
University of Port Harcourt
• Dr. Nath. M. Abraham - Editor
University of Port Harcourt
• Professor (Mrs.) Maureen N. Koko - Associate Editor
Rivers State University of Science
and Technology, Nkpolu, Port Harcourt
• Professor Musa O. Anavberokhai
Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma - Associate Editor
• Dr. David Aboho
Benue State University, Makurdi - Associate Editor
• Prof. (Mrs.) Grace K. Etuk
University of Uyo - Associate Editor
• Dr. (Mrs.) Jessica Ezekiel-Hart
Rivers State College of Education,
Port Harcourt. - Associate Editor

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CONSULTING EDITORS
Professor S.P.T. Gbamanja - University of Sierra Leone,
Freetown, Sierra Leone.
Professor (Mrs.) C.C. Nwagwu - Institute of Education, University
of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria.
Professor Kayode Ajayi - Olabisi Onabanjo University,
Ago-Iwoye, Ogun State, Nigeria.
Professor. Martin Fabunmi - Department of Educational
Management, Faculty of Education,
University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.
Professor Wey Amaewhule - Rivers State University of Science
And Technology, Nkpolu,
Port Harcourt, Nigeria.
William Mhuri Masocha - Applied Scholastic, Zimbabwe.
Professor Abimbola Olakanmi - University of Ilorin, Ilorin,
Nigeria.
Dr.(Mrs.) Patricia B. - English Section, Department of
Mireku-Gyimah Mining Engineering
University of Mines and
Technology (UMAT), Tarkwa,
Ghana.
Dr. Bernard Moswela - Faculty of Education, University
of Botswana.
African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies . Vol 9., No 1, June, 2012

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EDITORIAL/NOTES FOR CONTRIBUTORS
African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies (AJEDS) is
making steady progress in its avowed responsibility of publishing and
disseminating scholarly research reports. This is Volume 9, Number 1 of
the journal, and it contains 9 articles.
Being a multi-disciplinary outlet, the journal invites scholarly articles on
current issues of educational concern and those from other disciplines.
• The article should not be more than 15 A-4 pages, references and
appendices inclusive.
• Each article must be typed with double line spacing on one side of
paper only, using font 12.
• Article must have an abstract of not more than 200 words.
• Three (3) copies of article should be submitted for peer review with
non-refundable assessment fee as shall be decided by the Board.
• Citations and references must conform to current American
Psychological Association (APA) style.
• Each submission should be accompanied with one (1) self addressed
and stamped large (bag) envelope as well as an official self
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acceptance letter respectively.
• Cover page of each article should have name(s) of author(s), title of
article, institutional affiliation, e-mail address as well as telephone
numbers of contributors.
All correspondence should be directed to:
Dr. Nath. M. Abraham – Editor
African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies (AJEDS),
Faculty of Education,
University of Port Harcourt,
Port Harcourt, Nigeria

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LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
Nwaigwe,Bright Imo State University, Aba Sandwich Study Centre.
Gbenegbara Amos. Department of Human Kinetics & Health Education,
University of Port Harcourt.
Ifeanyichukwu Elendu Department of Human Kinetics & Health Education,
University of Port Harcourt.
Akande, Joshua. Department of Continuing Education, Faculty of
Education, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife,
Nigeria.
Simeon, Fayomi Department of Continuing Education, Faculty of
Nigeria.
Babalola, C.A. Department of Continuing Education, Faculty of
Nigeria.
Nzokurum, Joy Department of Educational Management, Faculty of
Education, University of Port Harcourt.
Nwankwo, Beatrice Ngozi Department of Curriculum Studies & Educational
Technology, Faculty of Education, University of Port
Harcourt. Rivers State.
Abdulkareem, A.Y. Department of Educational Management, University of
Illorin. Nigeria.
Ogundele, M.O. National Teachers Institute Federal Polytechnic Offa,
Kwara State, Nigeria.
Etejere, P.A.O Department of Educational Management, University of
Illorin, Nigeria.
African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies . Vol.9., No 1, June, 2012

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Ubong Samuel Department of Human Kinetics & Health Education,
University of Port Harcourt, Rivers.
Josephine Ebere Department of Educational Foundations and
Management, Ignatus Ajuru University of Education,
Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria.
Bright Okanezi Department of Educational Foundations, University of
Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Editorial Board iii
Consulting Editors iv
Editorial/Notes for Contributors v
List of Contributors vi
Table of Contents viii
Students’ perception of their teachers and the academic achievement
orientation of secondary school students in Abia State, Nigeria
Nwaigwe,Bright A. Ph.D. 1
Socio-psychological strategies for motivation of athletes for optimal sports
performance
Gbenegbara, Amos D. & Ifeanyichukwu, Elendu C. 8
Community Education and the learning needs of women in rural areas in
Nigeria
Akande, Joshua O.Ph.D., Simeon Fayomi Ph.D. & Babalola C.A. 16
University education and human resources development: Implications for
national development
Nzokurum, Joy Ph.D., Awah, Okorie & Inengim, Sunday 22
Attitude of primary school teachers towards the use of Creative Teaching
Methods (CTM) in the teaching of Social Studies in Port Harcourt City Local
Government Area of Rivers State
Nwankwo, Beatrice Ngozi 29
Teachers’ job satisfaction and quality assurance of private secondary schools
in kwara state.
Abdulkareem, A.Y. Ph.D. , Ogundele, M.O. Ph.D. & Etejere, P.A. Ph.D. 36
Role of physical and health education in the actualization of millennium
development goals in nigeria: challenges and way forward
Ifeanyichukwu C. Elendu Ph.D. & Ubong Samuel 42
Reforms in the universal basic education programme in Nigeria: the challenges ahead
Josephine Ebere & Bright Okanezi 50
African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies . Vol.9, No 1, June, 2012

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The National open University system of Nigeria: Problems & Prospects
Josephine Ebere & Bright Okanezi 60

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STUDENTS’ PERCEPTION OF THEIR TEACHERS AND THE
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT ORIENTATION OF
SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN ABIA STATE,
NIGERIA
NWAIGWE, BRIGHT AZUKA (Ph.D)
IMO STATE UNIVERSITY
ABA SANDWICH STUDY CENTER
Tel: 08034954622 Email: brisons08@yahoo.com
Abstract
This study examines the students’ perception of their teachers and the academic achievement orientation. Data
was collected by the use of “Students Survey Questionnaire (SSQ)”which was administered to 1000 students in
Abia State. The data were analyzed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) which determined the
existence of the influence, while Fisher’s Least Significant Difference (LSD) multiple comparison analysis
determined the direction of the influence. The result revealed that students with high levels of perception of their
teachers gained more in academic achievement orientation than those with moderate and low levels. The study
concludes that students with high level of perception are superior in academic achievement orientation than
those with either low or moderate levels. Therefore, the study recommends among others that teachers should be
proud to exhibit positive perception of their profession since such portrays them as worthy people in the society
to be emulated.
Keywords: Students’ perception; Teachers; Academic achievement orientation; Secondary school students;
Abia State.
Background to the Study
The concept ‘achievement orientation’ is referred to as a learned behaviour pattern of an individual directs
towards success. It also means a desire for success in order to improve oneself and / or to create a healthy life. It
implies that with this learned life tendency, one could be stimulated to meet a standard of excellence and
develop interest to pursue future activities (Duda, 2003; Ames, 1993).
Many secondary school students in Nigeria especially in Abia State have not been able to develop or learn this
proper achievement drive and as such are not adequately equipped to carry out their academic activities with
ease. For example, they lack the determination to accomplish difficult task, organize objects orderly, taking
initiative and doing more than asked and pursuing issues until results are achieved as well as looking for
activities to fix themselves with. This is a very serious matter. Rather than doing what they are expected, they
prefer to feel smart and intelligent in the face of difficult situations. Instead of viewing the situations as
opportunity to improve understanding, they shun and avoid such activities. Furthermore, they have difficult
sticking tasks and often do not finish task if they are eventually exposed to it.
Dweek and Sorich (1999) observed that students with above observed traits believe that activities are tougher
than they really are, a belief and notion that foster anxiety, stress, depression, inferiority complex, helplessness
and a narrow vision of how to solve a problem. Consequently, such mental and psychological thoughts
powerfully influence the level of interest and accomplishment that one ultimately achieved since learning has
been affected. Indeed, such students are not moved to compete for improvement but they are concerned with
gaining greater achievements without studying hard. This attitude explains why some students have been lured
into examination malpractices and other sorts of cheating. Question is why such disparity in achievement
orientation among students of the same age, mental level and family background?
African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies. Vol. 9., No. 1, June, 2012

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Schultz (1981) revealed that differences in achievement orientation can be detected in children as early as
5years of age and that the differences depended on the attitude of parents toward their children of different birth
positions. For example, parents who set high standard and train their children for responsibility, independence
and initiative, produce children with high achievement orientations. Again, authoritative parents have or
produce children with high achievement orientation unlike their counterparts who are less authoritarian. Moreso,
pleasant, joking and anxiety relieving parents usually have high achievement orientation children unlike their
counterparts who are low in these virtues. Furthermore, people can be taught to aspire and desire high towards
achievement. The teaching begins at home and later extends to school. Perception of parents towards their
children can determine the extent to which children desire to pursue and achieve goals. But if a child perceives
himself as being humiliated, strictly controlled by the parents, he would see himself as being unwanted and such
situation leads to the development of inferiority feelings and helplessness tendency. He may be “amotivated” i.e.
one who lacks impetus to perform. The most disturbing issue in the minds of people is that even when the above
observations have been adequately controlled, majority of our students would still lack proper and positive
academic achievement orientation. However, this observation requires empirical investigation, hence the present
study.
Perception and achievement orientation
The “perception concept” means the unique private views children have of parents, teachers, events or stimuli in
the environment external to them (Isangedighi, 2007). Perception mainly reveals internalized or purposive
interpretation and evaluation of what is. For example, in our homes, schools and other public places, children
can perceive significant people around them differentially. Comb (1974) has observed that the individual
interpretation of people, situation at any moment is a function of the individual’s experience at that point in
time. It means that the individual personal past experiences are
largely utilized in the interpretations of events and understanding of other people. It is the way we perceive
others that determines the role we expect of them and our disposition to relate to them.
Purkey (1970) pointed out that perceptual development is a process of experience, which is remarkably plastic,
changeable and possess infinite capacity for growth and actualization. As a general rule, any behaviour of
significant people be it the parents, friends, teachers, etc which a child has internalized that would cause the
young school child to think ill of himself, to feel inadequate, incapable, unworthy, unwanted, unloved, unable is
crippling to the child’s self and desire repertoire.
Infact, in the school for example, teachers constitute the major group of people with whom a child interacts.
Teachers play a key role in character moulding and socialization of students. He is the agent who impacts
knowledge and modifies unwanted and anti-social behaviours of children. He in most cases makes decisions for
his students and plays crucial roles in their adjustments so as to enhance motivation and productive work.
Therefore, if teacher-students’ relationship and interaction is cordial, then the view the child holds of them and
the school environment in general may be positive.
Asagwara cited in Agbakwuru (2000) observed that teachers who are happy that the academic knowledge and
experience they have acquired is vital to their lives and show such in their relationship with their students
produce students who are highly motivated to achieve the same academic excellence. The reverse becomes the
case with teachers who feel that they have made serious mistake of their lives by accepting teaching as a
profession. The psychological underpin of the observed situation is that students are motivated by what
motivates their teachers. Students always try to copy in and internalize a great deal of their teachers’
orientations, values, aspirations and expectancies. The emotional attachments students developed as a results of
their interactions with their teachers make them want to become like their teachers or otherwise.
Empirical studies have shown relationships between children perception of others, learning environments and
changes in their achievement aspirations and orientations. Coast (1992) conducted a study on secondary school
environments which attempted to compare different types of learning environmental variables–facilities, daily
tasks, teachers competence, teachers–students’ relationship, classroom control and achievement orientation of
Students Perception of Their Teachers & The Academic Achievement Orientation of Secondary School students in Abia State

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students. A stepwise multiple regression analysis was employed to determine inter-correlation of the various
independent variables and the components of achievement orientations – academic, social and religion. Results
showed that students’ perception of their teachers’ competence, teachers – students’ relationship were found to
have related highly with academic and social achievement orientations than the facilities, daily tasks and
classroom control.
In a similar study, Ames (1978) carried out a study on the relationship between athletes’ perception of their
instructors, rating efforts and sports achievement orientation. The findings showed that athletes’ perception of
their instructors related favourably to task sports achievement orientation. However, there was non-significant
relationship between rating efforts and tasks sports orientation.
Keeve (1972) in his own study on the relationship between parenting styles, perceived teachers abilities,
perceived teachers love of their job, disciplinary manners, perceived competence level of teachers and students
desire for success. The students questioned ranged in age 9 – 16 years and were selected from public and private
schools in Deleware urban and suburban regions. Results showed that students perceived teachers’ abilities and
perceived teachers love of their job had high significant relationship with students’ desire for success. To
determine which of the two variables predicts the students’ achievement orientation more, the multiple
regression analysis using enter option was applied. The result showed that student academic achievement
orientation was mostly predicted by the students’ positive perception of their teachers’ love of their job. The
results revealed that students’ performance and grades were also influenced by student perception of teacher
control, parenting style and self-regulations.
Statement of the problem
Producing quality teachers and giving them opportunity to teach in our institutions especially in the primary and
secondary schools is a big asset to the students and the nation in general. It helps in both human and national
development.
Unfortunately, quality teachers otherwise called “born teachers” most time are not easily found in our schools
nowadays. The reason for this is that such people would not tolerate the kind of condition and treatment giving
to teachers. For example, their salaries are not easily paid as and at when due, poor deplorable condition of
schools, lack of moral and material incentives, to mention only but a few. Those who manage to be there and
remain are there because there is no alternative. Whenever they cannot influence or adjust to the situations they
become disillusioned, disappointed and start to dislike the profession.
Infact, students as good observers of events notice negative behaviours of their teachers towards their job. The
agonies of their teachers begin to filter down to the self-structure of the children. In this situation teaching –
learning is adversely affected. Motivation becomes poor and students desire to engage in, pursue success and
excellence vigorously becomes weak (Philips, 1984; Harter, 1981). Based on the above observation, there is
need to conduct this study aimed at determining how students’ perception of their teachers influence their
academic achievement orientation.
Objectives of the Study
The specific objectives of the study were to:
i. Determine the differences in the academic achievement orientation of students with different levels
of perception of their teachers.
ii. Find out the direction of the influence of the perception with regards to the academic achievement
orientation.
Research questions
The following research questions were posed to guide the study:
1. Does students’ perception of their teachers, influence their academic achievement orientation?
2. Is there any direction of influence within the three levels of students’ perception of the teachers?

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Hypotheses
These hypotheses were statistically tested:
1. Students with low, moderate and high levels of perception of their teachers do not differ
significantly with regards to their academic achievement orientation.
2. There is no significant direction in the academic achievement orientation among the three levels of
perception.
Methodology
Ex-post facto research design has been accepted as the best design to evaluate the influence of students’
perception of their teachers on their academic achievement orientation. The design permits the examination of
the pre-existing classification of the levels of students’ perception of their teachers in retrospect for its possible
influence on the academic achievement orientation.
In order to investigate into and determine the degree of influence of students’ perception of the teachers on
academic achievement orientation of students quantitative method was adopted. The sample of the study was
1000 students of secondary schools two (SS2) from 50 secondary schools in Aba Education Zone of Abia State.
The sample was drawn by using stratified sampling technique through which male, female, urban and rural
students were selected. Thus, the schools were further divided into uni-sex and co-educational schools. From
each selected school, 20 students were selected randomly and thus the researcher had (10 males, 10 females) by
50 and the total sample was 1000 students.
The researcher used a self-designed questionnaire named “Students Survey Questionnaire (SSQ)” to collect
data. This questionnaire was a 3-part, 26-item instrument. Part one sought for personal information of students.
Part two was a 4-point Likert scale that assessed information on students’ academic achievement orientation
while part three was a 2-point Semantic Differential Scale that measured students’ perception of their teachers.
A team of experts in the Department of Educational Foundations, Guidance and Counselling, University of
Calabar established content and face validity of the instrument. Reliability of the two parts of the instrument was
determined through test re-test reliability using Pearson Product Moment Correlation that yielded reliability
coefficients of 0.71 and 0.81 for academic achievement orientation and students perception of their teachers
respectively. These high reliability coefficients attested the fact that the instrument was reliable.
After the instrument was found to be valid and reliable, data were collected and analyzed by using One-way
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and Fisher’s Least Significant Difference (LSD) multiple comparison analysis.
Analysis and Findings
Analysis was made using scores from students’ perception of their teachers and academic achievement
orientation instrument. The scores were used to categorize the students into those with low, moderate and high
perception subjects. Those who scored below the average were classified as low perception subjects. Those who
scored about the average were classified as moderate perception subjects, while those who scored above average
were classified as high perception subjects. Then, one-way analysis of variance was used to compare low,
moderate and high perception subjects with regards to their academic achievement orientation. The Fisher’s
(LSD) multiple comparison analysis was conducted in order to determine the direction of the influence among
the various levels of perception. The mean and difference between mean scores were used to answer the
research questions. Tables given below illustrated the data.
Results
Research questions 1: Does students’ perception of their teachers influence their academic achievement
orientation?

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Table 1: Means and standard deviation scores of students of low, moderate and high perception of their teachers
with regards to their academic achievement orientation.
Group N X SD
Low 310 13.79 3.31
Moderate 308 14.31 2.29
High 382 14.53 2.75
Total 1000 14.23 2.96
The data in Table 2 above showed that the scores of the three groups (low, moderate, high) were 13.79, 14.31
and 14.53 respectively. The scores differ significantly. Students of high perception of their teachers scored
highest, followed by those of moderate, followed by those of low.
Research questions 2: Is there any direction of influence within the three levels of students’ perception of their
teachers with regards to their academic achievement orientation.
Table 2: Difference between group means of students of low, moderate and high perception of their teachers
with regards to their academic achievement orientation.
Level of Perception Low (N=310) Moderate (N=308) High (N=382)
Low -0.51
Moderate -0.22
High -0.74
The computation of Table 2 above revealed that differences in the direction of influence among the three levels
of students’ perception of their teachers with regards to their academic achievement orientation existed. The
difference between group means differ significantly, since there is a disparity in the scores
Hypotheses
Hypothesis 1: Students with low, moderate and high level of perception of their teachers do not differ
significantly with regards to their academic achievement orientation
Table 3: Summary of one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the influence of students’ perception of their
teachers on academic achievement orientation.
Group N X SD
Low 310 13.79 3.31
Moderate 308 14.31 2.29
High 382 14.53 2.75
Total 1000 14.23 2.96
Source of Variation SS DF MS F SIG
Between groups 96.374 2 48.187
Within groups 8645.265 996 8.6714 5.557*
Total 8741.639 999
*P<0.05; DF: 2 & 997; Critical Value: 3.00; F-Value: 5.557
In the Table 3, the results of the data analysis showed that students’ level of perception of their teachers
influence their academic achievement orientation since the F-value of 5.557 is greater than the critical value of

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3.00. This means that students with low, moderate and high levels of perception of their teachers differ
significantly with regards to their academic achievement orientation.
Hypotheses 2: There is no significant direction in the academic achievement orientation among the three levels
of perception.
Table 4: Fisher’s (LSD) multiple comparison analysis on the direction of influence of students’ perception of
their teachers on their academic achievement orientation.
Level of Perception Low (N=310) Moderate (N=308) High (N=382)
Low 13.79a
-0.52b
0.74
Moderate -2.19
b
*c
14.31 -0.22
High -3.28*
b
c
-0.97*c
MSW = 8.671
14.53
*P<0.05; DF = 998; Critical t = Value = 1.96
a: group means are placed along the diagonal
b: difference between group means are placed above the diagonal
c: Fisher’s t-value are placed below the diagonal
* Significant at 0.05 level of significance, with critical value 1.96
In table 4, the results showed that the Fisher’s t-value of -3.25 regardless of the negative value was higher than
the critical t-value of 1.96 at 0.05 level of significance with 998 degree of freedom. This indicates that when
the level of students’ perception of their teachers was high (mean 14.53), the students’ academic achievement
orientation was better than when the level was either moderate (mean 14.31) or low (mean 13.79). The
difference between the group means also revealed the same result. This means that students with high levels of
perception of their teachers were better of in their academic achievement orientation than their counterparts with
either moderate or low levels.
Discussion
Results indicated that students’ perception of their teachers influenced their academic achievement orientation in
favour of students with high levels of perception. The finding has matched the results of Coast (1992) when he
observed that students’ perception of their teachers’ competence and teachers-students relationship influenced
their academic achievement orientation and how they discerned their competence and motivation.
Confirming the results of the present study too, (Ames, 1978; Keeve, 1992) reported that athlete perception of
their instructors, perceived instructor’s abilities, perceived instructors love of their job influenced athletes’ task
sports achievement orientation and the manner athletes desire for success. In order to determine the direction of
influence, Keeve reported further that, athletes’ positive and / or high perception of their instructor’s love of
their profession predicted athletes’ sports achievement orientation.
This finding agreed with the present finding that revealed that students with high levels of perception of their
teachers were better of in their academic achievement orientation. Agbakwuru (2000) observed that, teachers
who are happy of their academic knowledge they have acquired, how vital it is to their lives and show such to
their students produce students who are highly motivated to achieve excellence in life. Indeed, students’ positive
perception of their teachers and learning environment arouse their curiosity, motivation and morale to learn
(Philips, 1984; Harter, 1981).
Conclusion
Based on the findings of this study, the conclusion is that students who have developed high level of perception
of their teachers are better of in academic achievement orientation than their counterparts with either moderate
or low levels. Looking at the above findings, it is therefore important to state that teachers can now predict their
students’ academic achievement orientation based on how they are loved by their students and also how they
perceived them.

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Recommendations
From the results of the study, the following recommendations emerged:
i. Teachers should see teaching as a noble profession and try to instill such into the minds of their
students. Such would help students develop positive self-evaluation of themselves and others.
ii. Teacher-students’ interaction should be cordial to achieve effective teaching and learning that will lead
to the achievement of educational objectives.
iii. School environments should be academically achievement practice-oriented as to enable students
exhibit their various talents and initiatives.
iv. Teachers should not condemn their vocation openly before their students. Such condemnation would
make students perceive them as inferior and unworthy people in the society. This will help to enhance
the status of the teachers.
References
Agbakwuru, C. (2000). Teachers personality traits/characteristics and learning effectiveness of pupils. Journal
of Psychological Perspective. 2(2),22-28.
Ames, C. (1978). Children achievement attributions and self-reinforcement: Effects of self-concept and
competitive reward structure. Journal of Educational Psychology. 84(5), 261-271.
Ames, C. (1978). Classrooms goals, structure and students’ motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology.
84(5), 26-271.
Coasts, W. D. (1992). Students’ perception of teachers. A factor analytical study. Journal of Educational
Research. 65(3) , 357-364
Comb, T. (1974). The personal approach to good teaching. Journal of Educational Leadership. 5(4), 26-48
Duda, J. L.(2003). Achievement orientation behaviour in an organizational setting. Journal of Educational and
Social Psychology. 84(4), 290-229
Dweck, C., & Sorich, L.A (1999). Mastery oriented thinking. In C.R Synder (Ed.), Coping the psychology of
what works (pp.232-251). New York: Oxford University.
Harter, S. (1981). A new self-report scale of intrinsic versus extrinsic orientation in the classroom: Motivational
and informational components. Journal of Development Psychology. 17(5) , 300-312
Isangedighi, A. J. (2007). Child Psychology: Development and Education. Calabar: Eti-Nwa Associates
Keeves, J. P. (1972). Educational environment and student achievement. Melbourne: ACER
Philips, D. (1984). The illusion of incompetence among academically competent children. Journal of Child
Development. 55(3), 200-216.
Purkey, W. W. (1970). Self-Concept and school achievement. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey; Prentice Hall.
Shultz, D. (1981). Theories of personality. California: Brooks / Cole

8
SOCIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL STRATEGIES FOR
MOTIVATION OF ATHLETES FOR OPTIMAL SPORTS
PERFORMANCE
GBENEGBARA AMOS DEEMUA. (M.Ed)
DEPARTMENT OF HUMAN KINETICS AND HEALTH EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF PORT HARCOURT
E-mail:gbene45emua@yahoo.com
&
IFEANYICHUKWU CHRISTIAN ELENDU (Ph.D.)
DEPARTMENT OF HUMAN KINETICS AND HEALTH EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF PORT HARCOURT
E-mail:elelifey2k@yahoo.com
Abstract
The need to motivate athletes in the Nigeria sports scene is becoming a common phenomenon. Majority of
Nigerian star athletes are over the years not attaining excellence in sports due to the level of motivation
they received. The dwindling performance of these sports men and women is gradually affecting their
participation and performance in sports in Nigeria. A lot of reasons were attributed for the low level of
performance. Among them are; low monetary reward, poor preparation, spectators’ influence, lack of
adequate insurance policies, poor recognition of athletes and knowing each performer as well. The paper
highlighted some ways of checkmating the ugly incident which has adversely affected the country’s
participation and involvement in both local and international sports competitions. The reasons for athletes’
involvement in sports were also highlighted.
Keywords: Motivation, Athlete, Sports, Socio-Psychological, Strategies.
Introduction
‘Sport’ has become household word by sports enthusiasts. It is preached by sports instructors and
administrators with the philosophy catch them young through sports programmes with properly and
adequately co-ordinated sporting activities. Awosika (2000) submitted that, sports have always been a ready
tool for youths, adults and senior citizens alike towards national goals that include national supremacy and
prestige, patriotism and support for the government. Sports men and women have achieved enviable status
through the attainment of excellence in sports.
Individual’s behaviour and performances in sports have always been associated with the various levels of
motivation or encouragements he has received before, during and after any sporting activity. Ogundele (1999)
posited that “from time immemorial, motivation has played a significant role in the attainment of excellence
in sports to the extent that this particular aspect of sports psychology, has been dorminant in the minds of
coaches, physical educators, sports administrators and sports men and women”. For instance, the low level of
performance by the ‘Super Eagles’ internationally could be attributed to the level of motivation they received.
Although Nigerian track and field athletes over the years have achieved glory at the international levels, after

9
which they were adequately compensated, the rewards and incentives were billed either in appreciation for a
successful outing or anticipation of good performance and to encourage them to do better in the subsequent
competitions.
In order to ensure optimum performance among track and field athletes, coaches need to understand
motivational strategies that can be adopted and how different categories of people are motivated, as well as
their reaction to varying motivational techniques. Participation in sports could be encouraged through the
level of motivation within the environment. The term “motivation” originally was derived from Latin word
“Movere” which means ‘to move’. An analysis of major definitions indicates that motivation is primarily
concerned with what energizes human behaviour, what directs or channels such behaviour, and how this
behaviour is maintained or sustained (Ahiauzu, 1994).
Lawler (2001) referred to motivation as those phenomena which stimulate actions towards particular
objectives where previously there was no movement towards such goals. He also defined motivation as a
process of arousing, maintaining, sustaining interest in doing a particular task. He asserted that an
organization secures the services of its employees by the incentives it offers them. According to him, material
inducement such as salaries, bonuses, fringe benefits, affect human performance in sports.
Motivation implies that there is a concrete objective to be achieved, to which commitment is sought from
willing participants as a matter of deliberate policy, and within the context of a rationally designed
organization. Along with other essential requirements for successful sport participation, athletes are spurred
to excel in sports if the ingredients of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are available. According to Ikulayo
(1990), intrinsic motivation originates from within the individual, due to inner compulsion. The actors take
part for pure enjoyment and satisfaction derived from participation in the activity itself. Biddle and Mutrie
(2001), defined intrinsic motivation as the urge to do something for its own sake even in the absence of
external rewards. This often involves fun, enjoyment and satisfaction, obtained form recreational activities
and hobbies.
Extrinsic motivation on the other hand is said to be primarily determined by external forces, such as adult and
peers approved material rewards, level of competition and emphasis on winning (Clews & Gross, 1995).
According to Ikulayo (1990), when an individual participates in an activity to obtain anything tangible or
intangible for successful execution of skills, motivation is said to be extrinsic. Extrinsic motivation according
to Biddle and Mutrie (2001) refers to motivation controlled by rewards, pressure or other external factors.
This suggests that if these rewards or external pressure were removed, motivation will decline in absence of
any intrinsic interest.
Strategies for Motivation of Athletes for Optimal Performance
The following are strategies for motivating athletes:
Socio-Psychological Strategies for Motivation of Athletes for Optimal Sports Performance

10
Identifying each performer
Before any motivational strategy can be used for optimum participation, the coach should understand how
different categories of athletes are motivated and their possible reaction to the method adopted. The reaction
to the motivational strategies adopted will have influence on their sustained interest on the task at hand and on
their subsequent performance.
It is pertinent for coaches to know their athletes, their personality traits and how they react to coaching
approaches. The coach must be competent and have control of the sporting environment, build trust and
confidence in the athletes and have good working relationship with the athletes. He should be able to identify
them by their first names, socialize effectively with them and show genuine concern for each of them at all
times. Trudel, Dionne and Bernard (1992) are of the view, based on their study, that coaches have strong
influence on their athletes, both negatively and positively.
Monetary Rewards
In Nigeria, the most emphasized motivation strategy is monetary reward. This has dragged most Nigerian
youths into seeking for greener pastures in developed countries like America, England, Italy and Spain to
mention but a few. Monetary reward has been used to motivate athletes and players in Nigeria and as such
should be least emphasized since there are other forms of motivating, sustaining the players on to the game
that can be sought. From findings, financial activities are uppermost in the minds of sports men and women
all over the world. In recent times, the Nigerian National Team (Super Eagles) has held the country to ransom
inquiring for what to be paid before playing. It is obvious that sports men and women in Nigeria are
influenced by the attractiveness of rewards and incentives from the developed countries of the world.
Ikulayo (1990) argued that it has been difficult for sports men and women to sustain and maintain
performance excellence achievement due to the fact that Nigeria has not been able to produce what Ziegter
called ‘Inner Athletes’ who have been groomed to perform their best under stress.
Omolabi (1987) asserts that:
Unlike the athletes of yester years who participated in sports for the
fun of it, majority of the athletes today participate with the hope of
getting some reward after winning. The sports men of yester years
intrinsically motivated to participate in any sport by the desire to
achieve and excel. To such athlete it was not a matter of the kind of
monetary reward that would follow but the satisfaction of being a
champion (P.54).
A majority of psychologists cited by Ubom (2001) postulated that any employment or physical activity done
in Nigeria or elsewhere that does not motivate or create enough incentives for its workers are likely to face
negative attitude that may end up in low performance. He (Ubon, 2001) maintained that the behaviour of
sportsmen, be it positive or negative or indifference, must be viewed as consequences of the motivation of the
individual in question.
As early as 1942, psychologists recognized the value of incentive in re-enforcing behaviour. The larger the
amount of reward the more attractive the re-enforcer will be as an incentive for participation in sports. The

11
rewards and incentive theory is of the view that what ever they do, they will tend to repeat the action with
more enthusiasm. The incentive theory puts it that with adequate motivation action is more likely to be
repeated.
Consequent upon the above, Ajayi and Okopi (1999) stated that players’ value pattern should be determined
before incentives are given out. This will help to identify the appropriateness of the incentives. They de-
emphasize monetary reward, while encouraging post performance employment opportunities, shares in firms
and industries as well as scholarship awards that have futuristic effects as better motivational strategies for
optimum performance.
Early Preparation of Athletes
In Nigeria, many club sides adopted different pre-tournament preparation factors considered as having a crop
of highly skilled players, a good coach, having good remunerations and other welfare packages, good
facilities and equipment, good camping and training programmes. According to Boye, Money and Eboh
(2006), coaches are at the centre of sports in building talents in athletes. It is obvious from the above assertion
that qualified and certificated coaches play vital roles in modeling and improving sports talents. Track and
field athletes are expected to be in camp for a couple of months so that they can blend together.
Cox (1995) stated that teachers and coaches of sports teams and groups should utilize motivational techniques
calculated to enhance self-talk and instructional drilling to get the best out of athletes. Good camping and
training programmes with already stimulating facilities enable coaches to use their wealth of experience to
improve on already existing talents and encourage the athletes to build self confidence while in training.
Peretomode (2002) asserted that motivation and satisfaction, work hand in hand in any performance-related
task. Athletes who are intrinsically and extrinsically motivated standout to put in their best than those who are
poorly motivated. Clews and Gross (1995), outlined among others, aspects of social infrastructure as a
counter balance to personal sources of motivation. Fadoju (2000) stressed this point in a study on
‘motivational strategies used in sports for University of Ibadan athletes’ and concluded that provision of
training materials, good and adequate facilities, provision of qualified coaches and helping athletes to set high
but attainable goals are motivational strategies for optimum performance.
It is a truth universally acknowledged that the level of preparedness of an individual towards a task does
determine, to a great extent, the level of confidence one will exhibit in performing a task. Similarly, sports
competitions generally elicit a significant degree of anxiety in the players when the preparation and
motivation are not enough. Through interactions with coaches and athletes of Rivers State contingent for the
National Sports festivals held in Kaduna 2009, they complained that they were not early to camp for them to
train well for the competition.
Delta State adopting different pre-tournament preparations for the 16th
edition of the National Sports Festival
in Kaduna was a step in the right direction. Delta state contingents were scattered abroad early enough to be

12
trained in both track and field events. And the resultant effect was that the state came out first on the medals
table with 103 Gold, 68 Silver and 68 bronze.
Therefore, it is the opinion of the researchers that if Rivers State had prepared their athletes early enough they
would not have fallen to 9th
position on the medals table, with 16 Gold, 31 Silver, and 41 bronze.
Rivers State pre-tournament preparation during the 17th
National sports festival took a different dimension.
Having learned from the past mistakes, the Rivers State government adopted a measure to camp their athletes
for a couple of months with good training programmes, coaches having good remunerations, good facilities
of equipment and other welfare packages for the athletes. The resultant effect was that Rivers State came out
1st
position on the medals table with 135 gold, 29 silver and 85 bronze.
Spectators’/Supporters’ Influence on Athletes Performance
Influence of the spectators can serve as a motivational strategy for optimum performance since an
enthusiastic audience, giving spontaneous applause after every successful execution of brilliant skill can give
rise to an excited feeling in the athlete. The researchers interviewed some of the Rivers state contingents to
the 16th
edition of the National sports festival held in Kaduna 2009, on what effect, if any, spectators had on
their performance. The answers were almost as many and varied as the number of respondents. Some were of
the view that a large crowd increased their anxiety to the point where they performed well. Others said that
the crowd had no influence whatsoever on them, that it is necessary for them to concentrate completely on the
game or contest and shut out the stimuli from the crowd or individual spectators. The more intricate the game,
the more it is necessary to do this.
It seems reasonable to suppose, and this corroborated with the opinions of experienced coaches that athletes
of the anxious type can be easily over-stimulated by spectators and their enthusiasm, particularly if there are
close friends, sweethearts, parents and classmates in the stands. It is also true that athletes who tend to be
phlegmatic and have a high anxiety threshold will visually perform better when the noise and enthusiasm of
the crowd is above normal, and when individuals are present who the performer hopes to impress.
Provision of adequate Insurance Policies
The provision of adequate insurance policies is one serious problem confronting Nigerian athletes, hence,
athletes are likely to have negative attitude that may mar their performance. Eboh (1994) stated that
deprivation induces an internal aversive state which is called drive, and that such drive increases vigor of all
behaviours. Based on this assertion, it is observed that individuals will be more purposeful and aggressive
with better welfare scheme.
The government, clubs owners, sports administrators and athlete trainers should ensure that each athlete is
covered by adequate insurance policy. The insurance policy undertaken protects the athletes against risk that
may occur during participation in sporting events. It is conceptualized that with good insurance policy, the
problem of low performance will be checkmated, considering the effect of motivation on sports participation.

13
Proper Recognition for Outstanding Athletes
Government and sports managers should set standards of performance with coaches and other technical crew.
This target or objectives can include winning a medal, gaining a personal best score or developing a skill. A
set standard of performance provides focus, motivation, direction and better result. When athletes achieve or
meet up with set standards, they should be acknowledged and recognized. According to Fuoss and
Troppmann (1981), the need for prestige, status, dominance, attention, importance, appreciation and
recognition are firmly based on human nature and they underlie human motivation.
The guidelines for implementation of the sports development policy for Nigeria, on incentives and awards
scheme (Section 3 of chapter 6) listed incentives and awards that would be given to deserving athletes and
coaches. It states among others that; those who win world and/ or Olympic titles in any sports discipline
qualify for:
a) Recognition by the Head of State of the Federal Republic of Nigeria.
b) Placement of winner’s Busts, coated with GOLD, SILVER or BRONZE, depending on medals won,
with appropriate citations, in the NATIONAL HALL OF FAME, be they alive or dead;
c) Award of NATIONAL HONOUR, with appropriate citations;
d) Lavish publicity in National press;
e) Heroes welcome.
It is the view of the authors that these incentives and rewards scheme are innovative and important as a source
of motivation at amateur sport levels, but little is done to educate and inform athletes on the existence of these
awards and incentives by government and its agencies. If there has been award ceremonies, the approach
adopted has been piece-meal, and may not have included the above categories. On the above premise, the
incentives and awards scheme may be reviewed to actually introduce material incentives as part of honouring
our heroes, although this has been done under the military without documentation- i.e issuing of houses, cars,
scholarship and so on.
Conclusion
Some socio-psychological factors or strategies have been identified to play significant roles in the attainment
of excellence in sports. Sports psychologists, coaches, government, non-governmental organizations,
companies, philanthropists, etc need to understand these strategies that can be adopted to motivate different
categories of athletes for optimal performance. The effectiveness of each strategy depends on how they are
employed. Low monetary reward, poor preparation of athletes before the competition, spectators/supporters
influence, lack of adequate insurance policies, athletes not given proper recognition and inability to know
each athlete well were identified as some socio-psychological factors leading to sports talent drain in Nigeria.

14
Recommendations
Based on the conclusions, the following recommendations were made:
1. Adoption and administration of adequate reward and recognition for good and excellent
performance.
2. Adequate insurance policies should be made available for track and field athletes.
3. Coaches and athletes should be given enough time to prepare, bearing in mind the complexity of the
task and the challenges ahead.
4. Coaches, sport personnel and those involved in sports settings should vary motivational techniques
for track and field athletes.
5. Provision and maintenance of existing facilities and equipment.
Enthusiastic audience should not only give spontaneous applause after every successful execution
of brilliant skills, but even when the athletes perform below expectation.
REFERENCES
Awosika, B. Y. (2000). Predictors of Students’ participation in recreational activities of two Nigeria
Universities. Journal of Nigeria Academy of Sports Administration. 1 (1&2), pp17-19
Adams, J. (2009). Complete sports. Thursday, February 26, 2 (85).
Biddle, S. J. H. & Nutrie, N. (2001). Psychology of physical activity: Determinants, Wellbeing and Interventions.
New York: Routedge.
Clew, G. S. & Gross, J. P. (1995). Individual and social motivation in Australian sport, in Morris & J. Summer
(ed.) Sport Psychology: Theory, Applications and issues. Milton, John Willey and sons.
Cox, R. H. (1995). Sport psychology: concept and applications. Debaque: Brown and bencher publishers.
Eboh, L. O. (1994). Situational motivational factors associated with athletes decision in University sport.
Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Ibadan.
Fadoju, A. O., & Falola, K. O. (2004). Motivational techniques for ensuring optimum performance of university
track and field athletes. NUGA FORUM, pp.25-30.
Ikhioya, O. S. A. (2001). Functional Strategies for effective sports management practices. Lagos Sport and
Leisure consults publishers.
Ikulayo, P. B. (1990). Understanding Sports psychology. Lagos: En/TINPress.
Ikulayo, P. B. (2003). The mind in the body; sports psychology as the corner- stone to sports achievement and
greatness. Lagos: University of Lagos press.
Lawler, E. E. (2001). Motivation in work organization: California: Brooks/Code.
Money, F. O., Boye, E. T. & Eboh, L. O. (2007). Improving sports participation to reduce sports talent drain in
Nigeria. Journal of Kinetics and Health Education Perspective, 1 (2), 1 -12.
Ogundele, B. O. (1999). Motivation: An important psychological construct for achieving success in youth sports.
Nigerian Journal of Emotional Psychology and Sport Ethics, 2, (1), 47-99.

15
Omolabi, O. (1987). The Influence of motivation and self-concept on high level performance of Nigerian elite
athletes. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Human Kinetics and Heath Education, University of Ibadan,
Ibadan
Peretomode, V. F. (2002). Educational Administration – applied concept and theoretical perspective for students
and practitioners. Lagos: Jaja educational research and publishers.
Trudel, P. Dionne, J. P., & Bernard, D. (1996). Systematic observation of youth ice hockey coaches during
games. Journal of Sports behaviour, 19, 50-66.

16
COMMUNITY EDUCATION AND THE LEARNING NEEDS OF
WOMEN IN RURAL AREAS IN NIGERIA
AKANDE, Joshua Olusola, Ph.D; B.C. Simeon –Fayomi, Ph.D & Mrs. C.A. Babalola
Department of Continuing Education Faculty of Education
Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria
jsoakande@yahoo.co.uk
Abstract
The problem of rural development in Nigeria is a multifaceted one. Problems in development can be traced the
situation of rural women. In order to aid them, their learning needs have been viewed as enormous. This paper
argues that if the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are to be actualized, the learning needs of women in the
rural areas are to be x-rayed and met. This paper therefore discusses the relevance of community education with its
built-in problem –solving potential and propensity to engender self-reliance as a tool to effect positive changes in
the lives of women in the rural areas in Nigeria. The paper emphasizes that the promotion of community education
especially in relation to women should be taken into consideration while planning rural development programmes in
Nigeria. It equally suggests the need to utilize community resources for the implementation of community
education programmes in favor of rural women.
Keywords: Community education; Learning needs; Women; Rural areas; Nigeria.
Introduction
According to the Beijing Conference women make up about 50 percent of the world population and constitute two-
thirds of the world workforce (Beijing 1995). Despite this, women only earn one-tenth of the world’s income. This
is so because, for ages, there seems to have been a deliberate attempt to keep women down so that men can have an
edge (Adediran, 2007). For instance, more girls than boys dropout of school for various reasons, thereby making it
nearly impossible for them to earn good income because of their low level of education. Elaborating on illiteracy as
one of the depleting factors to women socio-economic and cultural development, Olateju (2002) highlights that in
the third world including Nigeria, illiteracy rates among women are higher than those of their male counterparts
(National Population Census, 2006).
Apart from the scourge of illiteracy, the Nigerian women spend extremely long periods under the physical and
nutritional stress associated with their total child bearing –mothering role. For example, in a study carried out by
Oladipo and Tseayo (1992), about 60 percent of a sample of urban Yoruba women in the 25-35 age bracket, had
spent more than half of their lives either pregnant or lactating. Based on the above, the overall feature of Nigerian
women’s status is essentially that of marginalization, and rural women have been the worst hit victims of the
menace. Ekong (2003) argues that it may not be an exaggeration to state that the Nigerian rural economy as well as
its urban food security are largely sustained by rural women who are engaged in the areas of land preparation for
farming, planting of crops and vegetables for household consumption, weeding, harvesting, processing of harvested
crops and contribution of cash and labour to community development projects. This corroborates the opinion of
Adeyokun (1981) that over 70 percent of the population is engaged in agricultural production. Similarly, Odejide
(1998) maintained that rural women provide an estimated 60-80 percent of agricultural labour force.
However, a cursory picture of rural women farmers in Nigeria portrays them as peasant, indigent and contemptible
in the society. The reasons for these are not far-fetched. The plights of the Nigerian rural women could be related to
a number of factors. For example, rural women’s limited access to credit facilities, hamper their mass agricultural
production. Rural banks that can help boost women agricultural production are few and widely dispersed. The
financial strength of such banks themselves being weak could not give much loan to the rural women and to
aggravate the matter, the conditions for granting the meager loan are severe. In the submission of the National
Commission for Women (1992), it was stated that, rural women are not considered for loans unless their husbands
guarantee them. Rural women thus have been victims of oppression, discrimination, alienation, humiliation,

17
marginalization and exploitation. It is therefore necessary for womenfolk to be liberated from these banes
considering the unique roles they play in enhancing agricultural productions in rural communities of Nigeria.
Therefore, their learning needs are to be identified in an attempt to harness community resources to meet those
needs.
However, formal education alone may not be adequate to meet the learning needs of the rural women in Nigeria.
The fact remains that rural women’s accessibility to formal education has for a long time been a figment of
imagination. This can be attributed to a number of factors. For instance, formal education is not adequately funded
in Nigeria (Hassan, 2005).
In addition, teachers’ incessant absenteeism in rural schools due to lack of social amenities such as portable water,
good rural roads, electricity, health facilities and communication hamper the effectiveness of formal education in
rural communities. Beyond this, the problem of rural development in Nigeria is enigmatic and multi-faceted which
requires participatory, democratic, awareness–raising initiatives that encourage self-help and facilitate a mixture of
formal, informal and non-formal education.
The objective of this study is to x-ray the learning needs of the rural women in Nigeria. This is with a view to
examining the relevance of community education as a tool with its in-built problem-solving potential and propensity
to meet those learning needs. Also, the paper discusses the need to give community education a prominent
consideration in the planning of rural development programmes in Nigeria. The paper therefore identifies some
community resources that can be utilized to foster community education programmes to effectively satisfy the rural
women leaning needs for the overall socio-economic, cultural and political development of rural communities in
Nigeria.
The Concept of Rural Socio-Economic Development
Rural development essentially means economic and social development in rural areas (Ekong, 2003; Ezimah, 2004).
According to Kumar (1979), the commonwealth secretariat defines rural development as:
The objectives of rural development inferred from the above include:
(a) Improved income distribution
(b) Full and productive employment
(c) Increased Productivity
(d) Improved food self-sufficiency
(e) The provision of basic needs and amenities –food, housing, health as well as the accompanying
infrastructure (physical, institutional, community services).
It is only when these objectives as achieved, that the level and standard of living of the rural population
can be improved. To this end, the relevance and importance of community education is brought to the fore.
The Learning Needs of Rural Women in Nigeria
Needs have been described as demands which demand satisfaction (Denga, 1988). Human needs according to
Maslow (1970) are represented in form of hierarchy. In this wise, the lower order needs must be satisfied first
before the higher order needs. However, no need is so insignificant to be done without. Ezimah (2004) maintains
a comprehensive mode of social transformation which
recognizes that national development must involve all
elements of the population. It is a socio-economics process
which seeks to bring about a more equitable distribution of
resources and incomes within a society. It involves the
integration of the rural poor, the vast majority of the
population of all developing countries, into the national
economy.
Community Education & the Learning Needs of Women in Rural Arears in Nigeria

18
that the drive to satisfy any need of the adults via adult education may be motivated by economic, social or cultural
reasons. It is for this reason that there is need to set up a conducive learning climate that will motivate the adults to
learn as a logical step to satisfy their needs.
The impoverished and contemptible living condition of rural women in Nigeria obviously depicts their learning
needs. According to Ezimah (2004), the learning needs are closely tied in the first instance to the basic survival
needs of the rural dwellers. The learning needs for rural women are multifarious. These include such things as
nutrition, household improvements, literacy and employment. Obviously, governmental and non-governmental
organizations through various programmes such as Better Life for Rural Women Programme, Family Support
Programmes, Agricultural Development Programme (ADP), Directorate of Foods, Roads and Rural Infrastructure
(DFRRI) and National Directorate of Employment (NDE) endeavour to satisfy these needs. Yet without the rural
women own extensive participation and efforts, outside help may prove sterile. This implies that their learning
needs are to be identified and met to improve their living conditions.
The learning needs of rural women which are often determined by their occupations fall into three categories. These
according to Ezimah (2204) include:
1. Farm related activities;
2. Non-farm related activities; and
3. Rural administration.
Category 1: Farm Related Activities
For rural women involved in farm related activities, their learning needs include:
a. Farm planning and management, rational decision making, record keeping, cost computation etc.
b. Skill in farm maintenance and improvement
c. Applications of new inputs, varieties and improved farm practices.
d. Storage, food processing and preservation
e. Knowledge of government services, policies, family improvement in health nutrition, child care, family
planning, home economics.
f. Civic skills and knowledge of local, state and national issues and functions in agriculture.
Category II: Non-farm Related Activities
a. New improved technical skills applicable to particular goods and services quality control.
b. Management skills (business planning, record-keeping, cost accounting, procurement and inventory
control, market analysis and sales methods).
c. Knowledge of government services, regulations, tax guidelines and credit facilities.
Category III: Rural Administration
a. General skills for administration, planning, implementation, information flows, promotional activities.
b. Leadership skills for generating community enthusiasm and collective action.
These learning needs if met and fostered will go a long way in improving the living standard of rural
women in Nigeria.
Potentialities of Community Education in Meeting the Learning Needs of Rural Women
Community education is defined by the Canadian Association for Community Education (1987) as
a process whereby learning is used for individual,
community and global betterment. It is characterized by the
integrated involvement of people of all ages…and the
recognition that people can learn through, with and from
each other to create a better world.

19
Basically, society has continued to change very rapidly. New interests and challenges are being posed. To meet
those demands and needs remains the main focus of community education. Hence, its relevancy to meet the learning
needs of rural women cannot be over emphasized. The underlying objective of community education is to bring
education and community into a close and more equal relationship. Education through community education is
made to belong to the whole community including rural women.
In line with the fundamental objective stated above, community education has the potentialities of doing the
following:-
- educating and motivating the rural women for self-help projects;
- developing responsible leadership among the rural women;
- inculcating into the rural women a sense of citizenship and a spirit of civic consciousness;
- initiating a self-generative, self-sustaining and enduring process of growth among the rural women;
- enabling rural women to establish and maintain cooperative and harmonious relationships in their
communities;
- bring about gradual and self-chosen changes in the life of community particularly the rural women,
with a minimum of stress and disruption.
In view of the above, community education has a local relevance. It is a type of education that has stress on the
knowledge and attitudinal change rather than on mere acquisition of knowledge. Based on these assumptions Agi
(2006, pp. 174-183) and Findsen (2006, pp. 208-226) contend that community education is such an education that
gets the community members ready for the effective development and improvement of the community. Thus,
community education is education for better living. It is dynamic, continuous, functional, democratic, holistic and
efficient. Specifically, it is educational strategy for women development.
Impact Assessment of forms of Community Education on Rural Women in Nigeria
Nigeria as a developing nation has earmarked certain community education programmes. These include literacy
education, basic literacy, functional literacy, remedial education, vocational training for women, civic and political
education and women education.
Egunyomi (1999) highlights other avenues through which community education are fostered wrong the rural
women. These include, the activities of the Better Life for Rural Women, campaigns, seminars, workshops,
conferences, women education centers; road show clinics, co-operative education, religious activities and income
generating activities for women.
From the foregoing, it is worthwhile to assume that rural women in Nigeria have been motivated to participate in
community self-help development projects as a result of community education to which they have been exposed.
These include public campaigns, cooperative education, seminars, workshops, conferences, radio, T.V., jingles,
adverts, and mobile van. They are motivated to participate in road grading, health and sanitation programmes,
cooperative farming, building and development of markets. Thus, the possibility of actualizing MDGs in Nigeria by
the year 2015 is unquestionable if rural women through community education are braced as agents of development.
Utilizing community Resources for the Implementation of Community Education Programmes for Rural
Women
Community resources for educating learners refer to the things found within the community outside the school
(Ezimah, 2004). These resources may be of four different though related types. They may be natural, human,
material or institutional. Natural community resources refer to those things that are not man-made and they vary
from place to place. These include vegetation, highlands, rivers, trees and animals. Human resources, that is, fellow
members of the community with wealth of experience and knowledge in their fields of endeavour become useful in
community education. Material resources describe those things that are man-made such as machines, motion
vehicles, electrical and electronic gadgets and houses built in communities.
Institutional resources including religious, economic, political, social and health institutions. These institutions can
be found useful in promoting community education. These resources if well utilized can facilitate rural women
learning.

20
Policy implications:-
The present study established that if the learning needs of rural women would be met to enable them contribute
substantially to the actualization of the MDGs by the year 2015, there is need for government to reaffirm its
commitment to promote community education especially among the rural women. Thus, enhancing popular
participation in development programmes at the grassroots level. Government in this regard should adequately fund
community education, promote it and motivate the rural women to participate measuring fully in it.
Conclusion:
The present study established that rural women play vital roles in the socio-economic and cultural development of a
nation in general and the rural communities in particular. The study stressed that to further enhance the
contributions of rural women to the national development, there is need to meet their learning needs, through
community education. This implies that if the MDGs would be achieved in Nigeria by the year 2015, the learning
needs of rural women are to be met using the tool of community education. Community resources can therefore be
committed to enhance the effect of community education among the rural women in Nigeria.
References
Adediran, V.O. (2007). The impact of community education programmes on rural
women participation in self-help development projects in Osun State, Nigeria. An unpublished thesis,
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Adeyokun, T.O (1981). Agricultural and small farmers in Nigeria in S.O. Olayide,
et al, Nigerian small farmers: problems and prospects, London: Caxton Press, pp. 142-190.
Agi, U.K. (2006). Community development and education in realization of
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Anyanwu, C.N. (2002). Community education: The African dimension, Ibadan:
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Ibadan, p. 4.
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Egunyomi, D.A. (2001). Women education and development, in J.T. Okedara,
C.N. Anyanwu and M.A.L. Omole (Eds), Rethinking adults and non-formal education, Lagos: Sterling-
Horden Publishers (Nig.) Ltd. pp. 85-94.
Ekong, E.E. (2003). An introduction to rural sociology, Uyo: Dove Educational
Publishers (Nig.) pp. 372-385.
Ezimah. M.O.A (2004); Knowing adult education, Owerri: Spring Field Publishers
Ltd. pp. 291-299.
Findsen, B. (2006). Access and participation issues in New Zealand Adult,
Community and Tertiary Education. In Oduaran, A. and Bhola, H.S. (Eds) Widening access to education
as social justice, Dordrecht: The UNESCO Institute for Education and Springer, pp. 208-226.
Hassan, M.A. (2005). Financing adult and non-formal education in Nigeria. In

21
Adult and non -formal education in Nigeria: Emerging issues Ibadan: NNCAE, pp. 94-105.
Kumar, A. (1979). Education for rural development, in L. Bown and S.H.O.
Tomori (Eds), A handbook of adult education for West Africa London: Hutchinson & Co. Publishers Ltd.
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(Eds). Nigerian women in society and development, Ibadan: Dokun Publishing House, pp. 122-134.
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Olateju, E.O. (2002). Non-formal education an overview; In I.U. Nwangugo, B.
Anyikwa and E.O. Olateju (Eds). Education of special target groups, Lagos: Lai-Farayola, pp. 23-34.

22
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION AND HUMAN RESOURCES
DEVELOEPMENT: IMPLICATIONS FOR NATIONAL
DEVELEOPMENT
DR. (MRS.) NZOKURUM, JOY C.
+234 8036730641
AWAH, OKORIE AWAH
+234 8037808987 awahokorie@yahoo.com
&
INENGIM, SUNDAY E.
+234 8035429597
DEPARTMEMNT OF EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT,
FACULTY OF EDUCATION,
UNIVERSITY OF PORT HARCOURT.
Abstract
This paper examined university education and human resources development: university roles and implications for
development. It looked at the concept of human capital theory, human resources and human resource development.
This paper further highlighted the roles of the university in human resources development. Some of the roles as
identified in the study are: a major source in the provision of human capital through quality training and helping in
increasing the productive capacity of an employee. This paper also made some recommendations based on the
reviewed literature, the state of the art and implications of the study. Some of the recommendations were that there
should be an increased budgetary allocation to universities and more emphasis should be placed on practical in the
universities.
Keywords: University Education; Human Resources Development; National Development; Nigeria.
Introduction
The essence of every nation’s education plan is to make her education system more relevant. One of these areas of
relevance it aims at achieving is the generation of manpower needed to drive the nation’s economy. Education to the
economist is both a consumer and capital good because it offers utility to a consumer and also serves as an input into
the production of other goods and services. As a capital good, education can be used to develop the human resources
necessary for economic and social transformation. The focus on education as a capital good relates to the concept of
human capital (resources) which emphasizes that the development of skills is an important factor in production
activities (Olaniyan & Okemakinde, 2008). In this regard, the level of a nation’s human resources is a function of
their education system. Given the academic ladder of Nigeria education system, university education is the highest
rung upon which this is achieved in totality. No wonder the Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004:34) in defining
tertiary education stated that one of the goals of tertiary (university) education is “to contribute to national
development through high level manpower training”.
Sriyan (1997) is of the view that education and training are the primary systems by which the human capital of a
nation is preserved and increased. From an economic-stand point, higher standards in the schools are the equivalent
of competitiveness. The basis of the above assertion is hinged on the Human Capital thesis. This thesis is premised
on the notion that formal education has a positive relationship with the productive capacity of an individual and a
nation; and the more educated an individual or a nation is, the more productive he/she is. Little wonder in the
approaches to educational planning, the Manpower Approach assumes that:
1. various types of skills are required for productivity
2. it is true that it is education (university/tertiary) education that produces the required skills, etc.

23
The pace at which university education and training system transmits knowledge and skills of the requisite quality
directly affects the pace of development. Countries that do not plan now to address not only the current human
resources problems but also those of infrastructure conducive for to future knowledge work and workers through
university education, will find out that the development gap between them and those that do will continue to widen
as is the case in the present Nigeria. Bringing Nigeria to the fore on the issue of university education and human
resources development, Harry (2010:2) asserts that:
Nigeria state has not demonstrated serious commitment to
human capital development since independence in 1960. Indeed,
the state has consistently under-funded education, research and
health care. Globally, Nigeria is ranked 158 out of 182 countries
assessed by the United Nations Development (UNDO) in 2007
in the area of human development index.
Drawing a relationship between higher (university) education and development, the International Institute for
Educational Planning IIEP (2007) argues that universities play a crucial role in generating new ideas, and in
accumulating and transmitting knowledge needed for national and human resources development. Writing on the
benefits of university education, it opined that the individual benefits include better employment, higher salaries and
great ability to consume and save. Abdulkareem (2009) argues that universities all over the world are accepted as
citadel of knowledge and human development. The belief in the efficacy of university education as a panacea to
human resources development, and invariably national development has led to various governments (regional /state
and federal) to engage in the establishment of universities (conventional, agricultural and technological) which have
now been proliferated in Nigeria.
Harry (2010), Sriyan (1997), Olaniyan and Okemakinde (2008) in their independent studies assert that the level of
economic and all around growth and development enjoyed by the “Asian Tigers”-the present East Asia of today is as
a result of the strong commitment to higher education and capital development. Given the centrality of university
education in a human and nation’s human resources development, this provides the justification for a continued
investment on higher/university education. It is in the light of the above that this paper seeks to examine Nigeria
universities and human resources development with a view to proffering lasting solutions.
Human capital theory
Human capital theory provides a justification for a large public expenditure on education in developing and
developed nations. This theory suggests that education or training raises the productivity of workers by imparting
useful knowledge and skills, hence raising workers’ future income by increasing their life time earnings.
The concept of human capital theory was first used by the classicalist economists like Alfred Marshal and Adam
Smith (although developed by G.S Berker, 1991) which stresses the significance of education and training as the key
to participation in the new global economic order. Ramchandra (2009) writes that this theory roots from the branch
of Economics, which is Labour Economics. Labour Economics study is on workforce in quantitative terms, thus has
the most accurate predictability than other social sciences. This theory posits that human capital is similar to
“physical means of production”, e.g factories, and machines. In this case, a higher level in the provisions of these
physical means of production would as well result to an increased productivity because one’s output depends partly
on the rate of return on the human capital one owns. Thus, human capital is a means of production into which
additional investment yields additional outputs.
In a nutshell, this theory is of the view that the most valuable of all capital is that invested in human being. Human
capital of an organization or country is strictly tied to the education in that country. It therefore advocates for a
continuous increase in the amount of investment in human capital through education. The investment in human
capital creates in the labour force the skill-base indispensable for economic growth. Throw (1975) writes that
education is used as a market signal to indicate the potential productivity of workers. It maintains that productivity is
largely a characteristic of jobs rather than of workers; employers use education credentials to select workers because
better educated workers can be trained for specific jobs more quickly and at a lower cost than their less educated
persons. He therefore suggests that education enhances an individual’s ability to successfully deal with disequilibria
University Education & Human Resources Development: Implications For National Development

24
in a changing conditions. Such ability includes that of perceiving a given disequilibrium, analyzing information,
reallocating resources to act.
Human resources and human resources development
Human resources are considered by many to be the most important asset of an organisation. Human resources of an
organisation consist of the human beings who work in an organization. The earlier statement is true because it is the
human beings working in organization that co-ordinate and manage the physical materials / resources used to work
in an organization.
Lado and Wilson (1994) defined human resources development as a set of distinct but interrelated activities,
functions and processes that are directed at attracting, developing and maintaining a firm’s human resources. Neo,
Hollenbeck, Gerhart and Wright (as cited in Maduagwu and Nwogu 2006) defined human resources as the
organisation’s employees which are described with reference to their training, experience, judgement, relationship
and insight.
Writing on the importance of human resources, Olaniyan and Okemakinde (2008) argue that most economists agree
that it is the human resources of a nation, not its capital, not its material resources , that ultimately determines the
character and pace of its economic and social development. Psacharopoulos and Woodhall (1997:5) assert that:
Human resources constitute the ultimate basis of
wealth of nations. Capital and natural resources are
passive factors of production, human beings are the
active agencies who accumulate capital, exploit
natural resources, build social, economic and political
organisations, carry informed national development.
It is therefore that manpower which can be defined as the bulk of labour available for any particular kind of work.
Given the other two factors of production- land and capital in their right quality and quantity, production still cannot
be possible on its own. There is the need therefore for a human-face of those productive factors, hence the need for
human resources. As it has been established above, production can only be possible when there is a combination of
land, capital with labour (Entrepreneur). No wonder Gbosi (2003) said it is the bulk of human beings with the
relevant skills, energies, talents, knowledge and attitudes that can be committed towards the production of goods and
resources.
Human resources development on the other hand could be conceptualized as a process of developing and/or
unleashing human expertise through organisation development and personnel training and development for the
purpose and individual/group levels (Swanson,1999). He further highlighted the process of human resources
development is made up of five core phases including: analyze, propose, create, implement and assess. To Sriyan de
Silva (1997:2):
Human resources development is the process of increasing the knowledge, the
skills and the capacities of all the people in a society. In economic terms, it
could be described as the accumulation of human capital and its effective
investment in the development of an economy. In political terms, human
resources development prepares people for adult participation in a political
process, particularly as citizens in a democracy. From the social and cultural
points of view, the development of human resources helps people to live fuller
and richer lives, less bound by tradition. In short, the process of human
resources development unlocks the door of modernization
In order to achieve human resources development, education is at the centre. Babalola (2003) argues that the
rationale behind investment in human capital is for its development for better productivity and it is based on the
following facts:
i. that the new generation must be given the appropriate parts of knowledge which have already been
accumulated by previous generations;

25
ii. that new generations should be taught how existing knowledge should be used to develop new products, to
introduce new process to production method and social services; and
iii. that people must be encouraged to develop entirely new ideas, products, processes and method through
creative approaches.
Based on the knowledge of human resources and its importance in that it is the major resource by which the
organization combine other resources for the achievement of organizational goals, there is need for its development
for a continuous and better productivity. It therefore calls for the integrated use of training and development; career
development and organization development to improve individual and organizational effectiveness. Given
globalization, accompanied by an increased world knowledge-base, increasing societal and ICT complexities; and
most importantly, the dynamic nature of the world as the hallmark for production is geared towards quality; there is
therefore the urgent need to train and re-train the workers working in an organization in order to meet up with the
challenges identified above. One cannot help but wonder the fate of a worker whose knowledge is not updated on
the current demands of his job/career, then goes out to meet these challenges
University education roles in human resources development in Nigeria
The above reviewed literature has drawn our attention to why investment in education should be taken seriously by
nations, Nigeria in particular. It has been established that the more educated one gets, the more his productivity and
wages. Since this is so, our universities and institutions of higher learning have a huge role to play to actualize this.
At present, there are 108 universities in Nigeria, (34 federal, 34 state, 40 privately owned) as reported by JAMB
(2012). All these universities are geared towards achieving the broad goals of tertiary education as stated by the
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004:36). Amongst the seven broad goals, two of them border specifically on human
resources development (goals a & d). They stated thus:
a. contribute to national development through high level relevant manpower training;
d. acquire both physical and intellectual skills which will enable individuals to be self-reliant and useful members
of the society.
Writing on the roles of the university towards national and human resources development, IIEP (2002) opined that
higher education (university education) is the major source for providing the human capital. Babalola (2007) on the
above writes that it is the statutory duty of university education to groom the required human capital, relevant
manpower training, abilities, attitudes, skills and knowledge. Looking at the categories of labour- skilled, semi-
skilled and unskilled labour, a greater chunk of the skilled labour in Nigeria is produced by universities looking at
their number compared to the number of other higher institutions in Nigeria.
Another vital role the university plays towards human resources development is the improvement in individual
earnings. IIEP (2007) writes that the individual benefits of higher (university) education are well known. It ensures a
better employment, higher salaries and a greater ability to consume and save. Based on this, the university emerges
as an important variable contributing significantly towards improving individual earnings. It is obvious that in
Nigeria, so far as one is underemployed, the higher schooled he gets, the higher his pay in his place of work and a
greater possibility for right employment or career placement. This informs the reason for the large number of aged
men and women in schools, especially those enrolled in the part-time education programmes of universities. The
reason for this is not far-fetched, just based on the axiom of the human capital thesis and that ordinarily, individual
desire for a higher pay in the job he/she is doing.
It is obvious today that the society is undergoing a constant change, necessitated by globalization, ICT revolution;
which has as well resulted in the increasing complexities experienced in our daily jobs. Taking the Nigeria banking
sector as a case in point, looking at what it was like two decades ago and what it is now shows a lot of changes.
Today we talk of electronic banking, sms banking, ATM banking, and so on. In order to cope up with the demands
of our jobs, our universities have always brought the required novelty which they impart as well in order to make the
graduates more equipped in meeting up with the demands of their present jobs. No wonder Wellerstein as cited in
Okeke (2006:272) rightly argued as regards the functions of the university thus:
The primary functions of a university are neither professional
training, general education nor intellectual research. These are
all tasks assigned to the institution. It’s primary function is

26
perpetually to question the truths of the time- whether they are
truths of the universe or of the social consensus.
Given the assertion above, it therefore behoves of the university to pursue truths which are ‘relevant’ to meeting up
with the day’s challenge.
The university also plays a huge role towards human resources development by the designing of curricular necessary
for the training of the required skills, national development, development of textbooks for up-dating knowledge,
training of teachers who impart these skills and as well certify individuals who had undergone various trainings in
the universities. With the above, universities in Africa would be able to produce the skilled human resources
necessary to manage newly independent countries as proposed by Saint (1992) in Okeke (2006).
It is true as established above that the required manpower needed by a nation; as a concomitant of the above, the
university helps to increase the productive capacity of an individual and nation. This is actually the main tenets of
human capital theorists like Berker (1964) and Schultz (1961). They are of the view that education increases the
productive capacity of workers and the nation at large. What follows is that higher education (university education)
equals higher productivity of an individual and the GDP of a nation. Usoro (2010) writes that after graduating from
the university, these graduates are now more productive than they were before their schooling.
The hallmark for benching production today is quality. This call for quality can only be achieved through the
organization and development of human resources in various universities; and in order to continuously meet up with
quality, there is need for a continuous development of the human aspect of the organization resources. The quality of
people appropriate to the particular level and complexities of the activities determines how well or poorly these tasks
are accomplished.
Implications of human capital thesis on university education in Nigeria
The human capital thesis posits the centrality for increased investment on education as a key to producing the
required human capital resources necessary to fast track national development and productivity. This assumption has
a huge implication for high spending on university education in order to realize the necessary human resources. The
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004:61) had long recognized this fact when it stated that education is an expensive
social service. Since thus is true, it follows that if the government of Nigeria does increase its budgetary allocation
for universities and other tertiary institutions of learning, the aim of generating the needed manpower necessary to
drive forward economic development and required output/productivity would be a shattered dream.
Conclusion
Empirical evidence on the impact of increased expenditure on education abounds showing the increase in the
availability of human resources and the tripled pace of development. A perfect example today is the case of East
Asia popularly known as the ‘Asian Tigers’. Looking at this, the writers conclude that continuous investment on
education (university education in particular) in Nigeria is one which the Nigeria government must pursue
vigorously in order to generate the needed manpower necessary to drive the long expected development forward
and the actualization of vision 2020. Therefore, continuous investment in university education is sine qua non to
development.
Recommendations
In order for the Nigeria economy to derive the benefits as postulated by the human capital theorists, the writers
recommend that:
1. There MUST be an increased budgetary allocation to the education sector (the university education in
particular) because the more schooled we are, the more productive we become.
2. Universities should offer courses which are of great relevance to the development of Nigeria economy. The
mismatch between the needs of the labour market and the taught courses in the universities should be a
thing of the past.
3. More emphasis should be given on practicals especially for those who are science inclined in the university
education.

27
4. There should be a steady review of curricula to meet up with what is obtainable in the developed world
such that our output/human resources can comfortably match or compete with them.
5. Teachers/lecturers should be reading and researching steadily in order to update their knowledge so that the
required skills for developing human capital would be taught. The idea of using one lesson note prepared
over a decade to teach/lecture students should be done away with.
6. Funding of universities should not be the sole responsibility of the state and federal governments, all hands
must be on deck, a call for private and NGO participations.
7. universities are not the only one to shoulder the responsibility of human resources development; public and
private organizations should sponsor their employees to go for training, attend workshops, symposia,
seminars and conferences.
References
Abdukareem, A. Y. & Mope, I, R. (2009). Higher education and information and communication technology in
Nigeria: a case study of University of Ilorin and Adoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso.
Benin Journal of Erittmotioral Studies, 19(2), 215-225.
Agabi, C.O. & Ogah, J.E. (2010). Education and human resources planning in Nigeria: The Case of National
Manpower Board (NMB). International Journal of Scientific Research in Education, 3(3), 152-165.
Babalola, J.B. (2003). Budget preparation and expenditure control in education.In J.B. Babalola (ed). Basic facts in
educational planning. Ibadan :Ibadan. Newmark industrial printers.
Becker, G.S. (1994). Human capital: A theoretical and Empirical Analysis with special reference to Education.
Chicago: The university of Chicago press.
Gbosi, A.N. (2003). Economics of human resources development. Choba: Nigeria. Emhai printing and publishing
company.
IIEP (2007). Higher education and development. Retrieved February 13, from http//:www.iiep.unesco.org.
JAMB (2012). Unified tertiary matriculation examination brochure 2012/2013 academic session. Abuja:Nigeria
Lado, A. & Wilson, M. (1994). Human resources systems and sustained competitive advantages: A Competency-
base perspective. Academy of Management Journal, 19(4), 699-727.
Maduagwu, S.N. & Nwogu, U .J.(2006). Resource allocation and management in education. Rivers: Chadik printing
press.
Okeke, B.S.( 2007). Politics of education. Awka: Nigeria. Doone printing and publishing.
Olaniyan, D A & Okamakinde (2008). Human capital theory: Implications for Educational Development. European
Journal of Scientific Research , 24(2) 157-162.
Psacharopoulos, G. & Woodhall, M. (1997). Education for development: An Analysis of Investment Choice. New
York: Oxford press.
Ramchandra, A. (2010). Theory and philosophy of human capital theory. Malaysia: University teknologi.
Schultz (1960). Investment in human capital. New York: The free press.
Swanson, R.A (1999). Human resources development theory, real or imagined. Human Resources International
Journal, 2(1), 2-5

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Sriyan de Silva (1997). Human resources development for competitiveness. A paper presented at the ILO workshop
on Employers’ Organization in pacific Asia in the Twenty-First Century. Turin, Italy, 5-13 May, 1997.
Retrieved February 13, 2012 from http//:www.ilo.org/public/English/dialogue /actemp/
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Usoro, E.B. (2010). Developing human resources in tertiary business education for youth empowerment and
national development in Nigeria. Higher Education in Africa Journal, 2(1).Retrieved February 13, 2012
from http//:w:ww.criticalimprov.com
Van-Den-Berg (2001). Leading issues in economic development. London: Addison-Wesley publishing company.
Xiao, J. (2001). Determinants of salary growth in Shenzen, China: An analysis of formal education on the job
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