African journal of education and developmental studies volume 5 no 2 september 2008 articles e journal

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AFRICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION
AND DEVELOPMENTAL STUDIES
(AJEDS)
AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR
MULTI-DISCIPLINARY STUDIES
SEPTEMBER, 2008
EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
PROF. B.S. OKEKE
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT
FACULTY OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF
PORT HARCOURT

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AFRICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION
AND
DEVELOPMENTAL STUDIES (AJEDS)
VOL. 5, NO.2 SEPTEMBER, 2008
ISSN: 07945-760

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AFRICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION AND
DEVELOPMENT STUDIES (AJEDS)
EDITORIAL BOARD
• Professor B.S. Okeke - Editor-in-Chief
University of Port Harcourt
• Dr. Nath. M. Abraham - Editor
University of Port Harcourt
• Dr. (Mrs.) Maureen N. Koko - Associate Editor
Rivers State University of Science
and Technology, Nkpolu, Port Harcourt
• Dr. Musa O. Anavberokhai
Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma - Associate Editor
• Dr. David Aboho
Benue State University, Makurdi - Associate Editor
• Dr. (Mrs.) Grace K. Etuk
University of Uyo - Associate Editor
• Dr. (Mrs.) Jessica Ezekiel-Hart
Rivers State College of Education,
Port Harcourt. - Associate Editor

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CONSULTING EDITORS
Professor S.P.T. Gbamanja - Njala University, New England,
Freetown, Sierra Leone.
Professor (Mrs.) C.C. Nwagwu - Institute of Education, University
of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria.
Ms. Boakye Cecilia - Institute of Education, University
of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana.
Professor Kayode Ajayi - Olabisi Onabanjo University,
Ago-Iwoye, Ogun State, Nigeria.
Dr. Martin Fabunmi - Department of Educational
Management, Faculty of Education,
University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.
Professor Wey Amaewhule - Rivers State University of Science
And Technology, Nkpolu,
Port Harcourt, Nigeria.
William Mhuri Masocha - Applied Scholastic, Zimbabwe.
Professor Abimbola Olakanmi - University of Ilorin, Ilorin,
Nigeria.
African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies . Vol 5., No 2, September, 2008

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EDITORIAL/NOTES FOR CONTRIBUTORS
African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies (AJEDS)
is making steady progress in its avowed responsibility of publishing and
disseminating scholarly research reports. This is Volume 5, Number 2 of
the journal, and it contains 14 articles.
Being a multi-disciplinary outlet, the journal invites scholarly
articles on current issues of educational concern and those from other
disciplines.
• The Article should not be more than 15 A-4 pages, references and
appendices inclusive.
• Each article must be typed with double line spacing on one side of
paper only, using font 14.
• Article must have an abstract of not more than 200 words.
• Three (3) copies of article should be submitted for peer review with
non-refundable assessment fee as shall be decided by the Board.
• Citations and references must conform to current American
Psychological Association (APA) style.
• Each submission should be accompanied with one (1) self addressed
and stamped Large (bag) envelope as well as an official self
addressed/stamped envelope of return of assessed paper(s), and
acceptance letter respectively.
• Cover page of each article should have name(s) of author(s), title of
article, institutional affiliation, e-mail address as well as telephone
numbers of contributors.
All correspondence should be directed to:
Dr. Nath. M. Abraham – Editor
African Journal of Education and Development studies (AJEDS),
C/o Department of Educational Management,
Faculty of Education,
University of Port Harcourt,
Port Harcourt, Nigeria

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LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
Jamabo, A. (Ph.D) - Rivers State Universal Basic
Education Board, Port Harcourt
Jamabo T. (Mrs.) - Rivers State College of Education
Rumuolumeni, Port Harcourt
Asagwara, C.G. (Ph.D.) - Associate Professor, Faculty of
Education, University of Calabar,
Calabar.
Macaulay, E.D. - Federal College of Education
(Technical), Omoku, Rivers State.
China, Mercy A. (Mrs.) - Federal College of Education
(Technical), Omoku, Rivers State.
Owhondah, Samuel N. (Ph.D)- Rivers State College of Education,
Rumuolumeni, Port Harcourt.
Deemua, G.A. - Department of Human Kinetics
and Health Education,
University of Port Harcourt.
Bassey, Steve U. (Ph.D.) - Department of Educational
Management University of Uyo,
Nigeria.

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Mezieobi, Dan - Department of Social Science
Education, University of Nigeria,
Nsukka
Mezieobi, Sam (Ph.D.) - Department of Curriculum Studies
and Educational Technology,
Omoni, Grace E. - Institute of Education Delta State
University, Abraka
Ijeh, Scholastica U. - Department of Psychology,
College of Education Agbor
Oghuvbu, E.P. (Ph.D.) - Department of Educational
Administration and Policy Studies
Delta State University Abraka,
Nigeria.
Iro, P.C.E. (Ph.D.) - Department of Human Kinetics,
and Health Education,
Okoro, James (Ph.D.) - Faculty of Education, Delta State
University, Abraka, Delta State.
Prof. John Bisi Asonibare - Depart of Guidance &
Counselling University of Ilorin,
Ilorin.

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Oniye, Abdulrazaq O. (Ph.D.)- Depart of Guidance &
Counselling University of Ilorin,
Ilorin.
Prof. P.O.M Nnabuo - Department of Educational
Management, University of
Port Harcourt.
Afangideh, Sunday T. - Department of Educational
Management, University of
Port Harcourt.
Kpee, G.G. (Ph.D.) - Institute of Education, University
of Port Harcourt.
Prof. E.B. Awotua-Efebo - Department of Curriculum Studies
and Educational Technology,
Baribor Vikoo (Ph.D.) - Institute of Education,

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Editorial i
Editorial Board ii
Consulting Editors iii
List of Contributors iv
Table of Contents v
Perceptual styles and scholastic status of students in rivers state
ATUBOBARALABI JAMABO & TAMUNOIMAMA
JAMABO & ASAGWARA, C.G. 1
Functional foods: an evolving food for healthy living
CHINA, MERCY & MACAULAY, EGBO D. 15
Sensitization and empowerment of female teachers: a trend towards
gender parity in Nigeria.
OWHONDAH, SAMUEL NARIOCHUKWU, 22
Towards enhancing Nigeria’s sports performance: issues and
prospects. DEEMUA, G.A. 34
Causal attributions of success on goal attainment of principals in Akwa
Ibom state of Nigeria STEVE U. BASSEY, 48
Conflict generation and management in the Nigerian socio-political
environment, DAN. I. MEZIEOBI & SAM A. MEZIEOBI, 61
Death, bereavement and caregiving: implications for counselling
GRACE EGO OMONI & SCHOLASTICA U. IJEH 70

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Analysis of resources management in primary schools in Delta State,
Nigeria. ENAMIRORO PATRICK OGHUVBU 80
Knowledge and practice of lesbianism among Nigeria university
athletes: implications for mitigating the HIV/AIDS scourge
P.C.E. IRO, 94
Assessment of working conditions of business studies teachers
in secondary schools in delta state, OKORO, JAMES 114
Retirement and retirement counselling: issues and challenges
PROF. JOHN BISI ASONIBARE &
ABDULRAZAQ OLAYINKA ONIYE 126
Effects of bibliotherapy and story telling Counselling techniques on
primary school teachers’ perception of retirement,
GRACE EGO OMONI 140
University autonomy and quality education in Nigeria
PROF. NNABUO, P.O.M; AFANGIDEH, S.T. &
KPEE, G.G. 150
Education for sustainable development: a coherent philosophy
for environmental education? AWOTUA-EFEBO, E.B.
& BARIBOR VIKOO. 160

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PERCEPTUAL STYLES AND SCHOLASTIC STATUS OF
STUDENTS IN RIVERS STATE
BY
DR. ATUBOBARALABI JAMABO;
DR. (MRS) TAMUNOIMAMA JAMABO
&
DR. C. G. ASAGWARA
Abstract
The study investigated if there was a relationship between perceptual
style and scholastic status of J.S.S. II students in Rivers State of
Nigeria. The ex post facto research design was used with a
hypothesis guiding the study. The stratified random sampling
technique was used in drawing a sample of 1205 subjects. The
instrument used for data collection was captioned “Perceptual
Organization Visual Battery Test” (POVBT). The major finding of
the study was that, there was a high significant relationship between
perceptual style and scholastic status. It was recommended that the
mode of the learners’ perceptual style should be taken into
consideration before effective teaching and learning would take
place.
Introduction
School failure and dropping out of school are serious educational
and societal problems (Ianni & Orr, 1996). These are equally costly
to the individual, family and nation. Because students who leave
school before receiving a certificate reduce their opportunities.
Besides, school failure and attrition impinge upon retention and
graduation rates of schools. Expectedly, high level of attrition affects
institutional planning for facilities long term planning for the
curriculum and an institution’s survival. Large number of dropouts
also increase the average cost per student. All these are critical for

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the nation because of the fair portion of Nigeria’s human and
financial resources that go into the education enterprise (Onyejiaku,
1982).
Many factors are assumed to contribute to school failure
namely, the home, the school, the educational policy, the teachers
and the students themselves. While some of these postulations may
be correct, it can be surmised that most underachievers have not
actually learned, possibly due to inappropriate application of their
perceptual modes of understanding and abstractions to the teaching
behaviour and life generally.
It has become obvious that individual differences in the
cognitive processes of perception, memory and problem solving do
not necessarily reflect differences in basic intelligence (Onyejiaku,
1980; Jamabo, 2004). Much meaningful and usable learning
activities depend on pupil’s meaningful understanding or
categorization and not necessarily on the quality or richness of their
native intelligence. Onyejiaku (1980) and Jamabo (2004) further
confirmed that potentialities or abilities per se do not influence
behaviour more than mode of perceptual style. An individual’s
reaction to a stimulus is to a large extent a function of how he
perceives, analyzes and categorizes the situation which is a function
of his perceptual style.
The knowledge of this makes teaching-learning process
meaningful and transfer of knowledge possible. That is the reason
why Onyejiaku (1982) affirmed that if a person’s manner of
understanding receives some boost and is allowed free expression,
he would maximize his potentialities, learn more effectively and be
more effective in his preferred career.
Conceptualization of perceptual styles
It must have to be emphasized at this point that the terms ‘perceptual
style’ and ‘cognitive style’ are used interchangeably. In the
dictionary of Behavioral Sciences (1975), it is defined as “the mode
in which a person organizes and classifies his perception of

3
environment in order to impose order upon a confusing series of
events” (p.175). Kagan, Moss and Sigel (1963), define the term as
“stable individual preferences in mode of perceptual organization
and conceptual categorization of the external environment” (p.74).
Schroder, Driver, and Strufer (1967), refer to the term as the stable
idiosyncratic differences among people in the way they go about
taking in, processing and utilizing information obtained from their
environment. In the light of these definitions, the term ‘perceptual
style’ or ‘cognitive style’ simply refers to the strategies which the
brain uses to actively select, attend to, organize, perceive, encode,
store, and retrieve information.
There have been several models of perceptual styles formulated
by psychologists of these streams of activity. Four of such
approaches have received greater attention. These are:
1. Levelling-sharpening (Gardner, Holzman, Klein, Linton
& Spence, 1959)
2. Field Dependence – Independence (Witkin, Dyke,
Faterson, Good -enough & Karp, 1962).
3. Analytic – Relational conceptual styles (Kagan et. al
1963).
4. Impulsivity – Reflectivity (Kagan, Roseman, Day,
Albert & Philips (1964)
Leveling – Sharpening tendencies to stimulus categorization is a
stream of activity in perceptual functioning grown out of the work of
Gardner and his associates (1959). Klein and Schlesinger (1950)
describe this conceptual style in terms of individual variations in
differentiation of the stimulus field.
Individuals with leveling tendency characteristically do not easily
distinguish between successive perceptual impressions so that
distractions within a perceptual field are blurred. On the other hand,
sharpeners are characterized by a high degree of separation between
memory of what has been learnt before and new information. That is
Perceptual Styles and Scholastic Status of Students in Rivers State, JAMABO , JAMABO &
ASAGWARA

4
why Onyejiaku (1980) presented sharpeners as having discrete
recalled images. For levelers, perceptual impressions are not so
distinct and categorization is somehow vague.
Field Dependence–Independence, often referred to as
psychological differentiation, is the work of Witkin and his group
(1962). His approach distinguishes between individuals who separate
an object from an organized field (field independent) from those who
do not (field dependent). It is because of the consistencies
individuals manifested in both perceptual and symbolic activities
that led Witkin to distinguish them as styles of intellectual
functioning.
Characteristically, field independent individuals are able to perceive,
imagine, separate and analyze units embedded in a larger
configuration. Field independents can distinguish and co-ordinate
relevant attributes in a complex and often unstructured and
distracting stimulus world. On the other hand, the field dependent
individuals are characteristically unable to separate and co-ordinate
discrete units or sub units from a larger context or stimulus world.
Analytic –non-analytic perceptual functioning grew out of the
work of Kagan and his associates. They proposed analytic,
inferential and relational modes of conceptualizing and categorizing
stimulus. They observed that some individuals fractionate a stimulus
world into small sub-units and respond to them accordingly while
others simply respond to a large stimulus chunk as a whole. Out of
these varying strategies of responding, they distinguished two
groups: the “splinters’ and the “lumpers’. The former
characteristically analyze and differentiate stimulus field applying
labels to sub-unit of whole. The latter refers to those who tend to
categorize a relatively undifferentiated stimulus, thus, paying less
attention to details within a stimulus arrangement (Onyejiaka, 1980).
On a closer examination of these characteristic modes of
categorizing stimuli, Kagan and associates postulated three
perceptual styles, namely:

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(1) analytic – descriptive (2) inferential – categorical and
(3) relational concepts. The authors’ definition of these styles as
paraphrased by Onyejiaku (1980).
Analytic Descriptive.
Analytic descriptive responses are defined on the basis of shared
stimuli. The subjects differentiate the stimulus configuration by
applying labels to sub-elements of the whole characteristically, they
prefer to split environmental stimulus or a given configuration into
discrete entities and responds to them as separate entities.
Operationally, analytic individuals refer to those who classify objects
together on their shared characteristics, for example, objects having
four legs, objects having one leg missing, animals with only one eye.
An analytic individual scores above the median on analytic
responses but below the median on inferential and relational
responses.
Inferential Categorical
Individuals with inferential categorical responding mode use
common class membership in relating to stimuli. In other words,
they group stimuli together on the basis of inferential quality of
language convention, not on the sub-elements of the whole.
Classification is based on the super-ordinate concept. Operationally,
individuals with inferential style are those who tend to group objects
because, for example, they are wooden furniture, or vehicles, or
living things, or just human beings. An individual with an inferential
style scores above the median on inferential responses but below the
median on analytic and relational responses.
Relational Style
Individuals with relational responding mode
characteristically pair stimulus configuration on the basis of
functional relationship between the stimuli. In a relational concept,
two stimuli are not independent conceptually, rather each derives
ASAGWARA

6
meaning from the other. In some texts, this style has been variously
labeled as global, contextual or theoretical mode of categorization
because of the characteristic ways these individuals associate a
whole stimulus with another whole stimulus in making an individual
with relational style group objects on functional basis. For example,
“a man lives in a house,” “a pen is used for writing”, “husband and
wife live together.” A relational individual scores above the median
on relational responses but below the median on analytic and
inferential responses.
According to Kagan et al (1963), relational concepts differ
from analytic descriptive concepts with respect to the part – whole
analysis of the stimulus. In a relational concept each stimulus in a
group retains its complete identity and is classified as a whole. In an
analytic-descriptive concept, the subject selects from each stimulus a
specific sub – element that is similar to a sub-element within another
stimulus, thus, separating figures, and there are no background
elements. For example, in a descriptive concept, “people wear shoes
on”, the crucial stimulus element is the presence of shoes, while the
remaining aspects of the stimuli are disregarded.
While the descriptive concepts involve an active conceptual analysis,
relational concepts seem to involve a passive acceptance of the
whole stimulus configuration.
Impulsivity-Reflectivity
Impulsivity-reflectivity dimension of intellectual functioning was
identified by Kagan et al (1964). It describes an individual’s
tendency to reflect on an aspect of problem situation, that is, when
there are available alternative solutions to a given problem but with
some uncertainty over which one is the most appropriate . when
highly alternative answers of which only one is the correct answer
are provided to subjects, subjects who respond quickly and in most
cases register more errors are labeled impulsive while those who
characteristically pause to as “reflective”.

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Thus, under experimental conditions in impulsivity-
reflectivity measures, response time and errors are most important. It
should be noted, however, that delay in responses due to ignorance
should not be taken as reflective stance.
Kagan (1964), operationally defines the reflection variable as
the response time in problem situation in which the subject is
presented with a standard stimulus and an array containing the
standard and 5 to 10 highly similar variants.
The reflective and the impulsive may arrive at the same
answer in a given situation, yet there is difference in action time.
Generally, in any given situation, the child who is above the median
on MFF response time and below the median in errors is called
reflective. On the otherhand, the child who is below the median on
responses time but above the median on errors is called impulsive.
Purpose
The purpose of this study was to investigate if there was a
relationship between perceptual style and scholastic status.
Hypothesis
There is no significant relationship between perceptual style and
scholastic status in J.SS.II students in Rivers State.
Assumptions Of The Study
1. In the school system, scholastic status of a learner can be
measured.
2. The learner’s perceptual style can be identified, measured
and it varies among learners.
Sample
The sample was drawn from the population of J.S.S. II students
in Rivers State. The population was made up of thirteen
thousand, two hundred and fifteen boys (13,215) and thirteen
thousand, eight hundred and eight (13,888) girls with a total size
of twenty seven thousand, one hundred and three (27,103)
ASAGWARA

8
students. Their age range by between twelve (12) and fifteen (15)
years. Actual sample size was 1205. Stratification of the sample
was based on territories.
Research Instrument
The research instrument was modified from Sigel’s cognitive style
Test (SCST). The actual triads used in the test were adapted from a
doctoral study titled, “Effects of cognitive styles and instructional
strategies on Academic Achievement, “(Onyejiaku, 1980). The
instrument was captioned ‘Perceptual Organization Visual Battery
Test’ (POVBT). An analysis of the various items in the different
tests making up the POVBT reveal ‘Embedded Figure Tests’ (sub-
test on figure-ground differentiation) which turns out subjects that
are Field independent/Dependent. Matching Familiar Figure Test
(MFF) (sub-test on constancy of shape) which way diagnose subjects
under the mould of impulsivity/Reflectivity. While the SCST which
stipulates the child to identify related pictures will indicate students
who are Analytic and Non-Analytic in their mode of perceptual
categorization. The instrument was validated by a team of experts in
psychology.
Besides, reliability was also established using the simple random
sample to select a sample of 60 students. The Cronbach Alpha
Reliability technique revealed a reliability coefficient of .73.
Result
There is no significant relationship between perceptual style and
scholastic status.
TABLE 1: Chi square contingency test result: perceptual style
versus scholastic status.
Perceptual Mainstream Highrisk Total
n=1204
Styles students students
(n=742) (n=462)

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Analytic Fo = 266 Fo = 252 Fo = 518
Fe = 319.2 Fe = 198.8 Fe = 518
Inconsistent Fo = 112 Fo = 98 Fo = 210
Fe = 194.4 Fe = 80.6 Fe = 210
Non-analytic Fo = 364 Fo =112 Fo = 476
Fe = 293.3 Fe = 182.7 Fe = 476
742 462 1204
X2 = 73.61., DF = 2, P <.05
From table 1, the observed (ie computed X2
value of 73.61) far
exceeded the critical X2
value of 10.60 for 2 df at the .05 significance
level. This implies that the null hypothesis that there is no significant
relationship between perceptual style and scholastic status is
rejected.
Discussion
The result showed that relationship between style and scholastic
status is significantly high.
However, the finding of this study supports that of Goodacre (1971),
Onyejiaku (1982) and Schneider (1996) who found that perceptual
cognitive styles influence the manner in which the learner
understands and interprets what has been presented to him.
Perceptual styles must play an important part in the degree of
persistence the learner brings to the task. In studies by Ward, Pelco
and Landrum (1998), Schaiper and Flores (1985), individual
differences in learning were determined and subjects were made
more aware of their overall perceptual/cognitive learning style, their
overall perceptual/cognitive learning style preferences and their
actual strengths.
Possible reasons for this finding can be explained in the examination
of the construct of perceptual style itself. An individual’s perceptual
style is based on his responses to each triad of familiar pictures.
ASAGWARA

10
Analytic students choose to break these perceptions into discrete
entities while the nonanalytic students choose to treat them as
unified wholes.
This is supported by Onyejiaku (1980), Satterly (1976),
Frehner (1973), Mercer and miller (1992) where results of tests of
significance show that analytic students scored significantly higher
than nonanalytic students.
In a similar vein, Crow and Piper (1993), in their study found
that students who were field dependent and possessed a positive
attitude scored significantly higher on a science achievement test
than students who were field dependent and possessed a negative
attitude.
Ogunyemi (1973), and Duttweiler (1992) investigated the
relationship between science achievement and cognitive style. They
reported that among boys, the difference between high and low
science achievers on the inferential and analytic styles increased with
academic level. The studies also confirmed the finding that the
preferential style is superior to the analytic in terms of cognitive
hierarchy.
This is also in consonance with the findings of Cropley and Field
(1969), Stevens (1990) who reported that honours graduates came
almost exclusively from among those who have been rated high
divergent in their style of thinking on entry to the University four
years previously. In effect, what Cropley and Field observed is that
better understanding of the role of style in classroom performance
would be particularly useful in view of the current desire to identify
talent early and to foster its realization. In the same vein, De Nike
(1974), Deshler and Shumaker (1993), demonstrated that teachers
can individualize instruction by being aware of the cognitive style of
the individual learner.
This present study also affirmed that students with analytic
cognitive style perform significantly better than students with
nonanalytic cognitive styles.

11
Recommendations/Counselling Implications
Based on the finding of this study, and subsequent conclusions, the
following recommendations have been made:
 For effective teaching and learning, the mode of the learner’s
perceptual style, in other words, his mode of understanding
seems to be basic. The results of this study have shown that
analytic and nonanalytic students react differently to stimuli
presented to them.
 Students should be exposed to the instructional technique in
which they would benefit more. If learning activities are
prescribed that match even the highrisk student’s perceptual
style, the certainty of successful accomplishment of a
learning task are guaranteed.
References
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13
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Macmillan Press.

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FUNCTIONAL FOODS: AN EVOLVING FOOD FOR
HEALTHY LIVING
BY
CHINA, MERCY A (MRS.) & MACAULAY, EGBO D.
Abstract
In the world today good health is one of the major concerns of every
nation because, a healthy nation is a wealthy nation. Food plays a
paramount role in our lives; everyone has the ambition of becoming
something in life this can only be true if we are healthy. This paper
therefore, focuses on the consumption of functional foods. In a
country where people are well fed with these functional foods, there
will be less incidence of sickness therefore; less amount will be
expended on health. The importance of functional foods was
critically examined. This paper concludes with the note that
functional foods are an integral part of on overall healthy lifestyle.
The paper recommends among others that people should strive to
consume a wide variety of functional foods.
Introduction
Consumer interest in the relationship between diet and health has
increased the demand for information about functional foods. Rapid
advances in science and technology, increasing health care cost,
changes in food laws affecting label and product claims, an aging
population, and rising interest in attaining wellness through diet, are
among the factor fueling a nations interest in functional foods.
Food has been defined as any substance, which after consumption,
digestion and absorption by the body produces energy, promotes the
growth and repair of tissues and regulates all the body process
(Olusanya, 1988). Functional food on the other hand is defined as
the dietary components that provide a health benefit beyond basic

16
nutrition (Hasler, 1998). (Achalu 1998) equally asserts that health is
more than just the absence of physical pain or disease as previously
thought in the ancient past. He defines health as a condition of the
body that enables one to cope with his or her environment and
enables one to derive reasonable satisfaction from one’s daily
activities, physically, emotionally, socially or otherwise. World
Health Organization (2003), views healthy living as the state of
complete physical, mental and social well – being of an individual,
individual healthy living is often contingent upon his dietary pattern,
which largely makes for his overall life success. There could
therefore be no skepticism that most person could struggle with
much assiduity to achieve good health through the consumption of
functional foods. In the same vein, healthy living may not be
achieved if we fail to take personal responsibility for promoting
health by practicing good eating habits especially, consumption of
functional foods (Haster, 1998).
Functional Foods from Plants Sources
Oats
Functional foods have been defined in a number of ways by different
persons, the emphasis however, inspite of the variation is on disease
prevention and health promotion. Borrowing from the words of
Okada (2005:40), “Oats products are dietary source of the
Cholesterol – lowering soluble fiber b-glucan”. From the foregoing,
it therefore means that oat consumption can reduce total and low
density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol thereby reducing the risk of
coronary heart disease (CHD) some examples of oat products are
Quaker oat, corn flakes etc.
Soybean
Soybean is without doubt one of the most important food crop ever
discovered by man from nature. Soy has been in the spotlight during
the 1990s not only is soy a high quality protein as assessed by the
FDA’s protein digestibility correction amino acid score method, soy

17
is now thought to play preventive and therapeutic in Cardiovascular
Disease (CVD), Okaka (2005), held that, soybean consumption is
relatively low in some countries especially Nigeria.
However, soy is form of milk and flour is fast becoming household
food in some countries including Nigeria because of its diet
improving capabilities and disease prevention. Soybean should be
made a household food he added.
Tomatoes
Credible scientific research indicates there are many clinically
demonstrated and potential health benefits from food components.
These benefits continue to expand the health claims not permitted to
be identified by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Hasler
(1998), clearly stated that tomatoes as a functional food have
received significant attention, that tomatoes was selected by eating
well magazine as the 1997 vegetable of the year because of its role in
cancer risk reduction. However, the big question here is! Are we
eating tomatoes at least 10 or more time per week? (Fresh or
processed) the answer may not be far from the negative, if this be the
case, then we are very far from attaining or achieving good health.
Buttressing further, he added that tomatoes should be eating at least
10 times per week for prevention and reduction of cancer risk.
Garlic (Allium Sativum)
The purported health benefits of garlic are numerous, garlic is widely
quoted in the literature for medicinal properties. According to
Hasler (1998), garlic has ranked as the second best selling herb in
the United States, reason been that garlic is noted for prevention of
CVD, through it’s antihypertensive properties. However, there is
still insufficient evidence to recommend it as a routine clinical
therapy for the treatment of hypertensive subjects. Adlercreutz and
Fotsis (1982) opined that, the cardioprotective effects are more likely
due to its cholesterol – lowering effect. According to them, the
result of five randomized placebo controlled clinical trials, involving
Functional Foods: An Evaluation food for Health Living, CHINA & MACAULAY

18
410 patients, showed that an average of 900mg garlic per day (as
little as one – half to one clove of garlic) could decrease total serum
cholesterol level.
Citrus fruits
The major nutrient in citrus fruit is Vitamin C (ascorbic acid).
Borrowing from the words of Olusanya (1998), “citrus fruits are
protective against a variety of human cancers” from the foregoing, it
therefore means that, oranges, lemons, limes and grape fruits should
be adequately consumed because they are the principal source of this
nutrients.
Hasler (1998) views it as mild natural laxatives, as the cellulose is
however indigestible and so adds bulk to the stool. He held that
consumers should strive to consume a wide variety of citrus fruits.
Citrus are particularly high in a class of phytochemicals (ADA,
1995).
Tea
Tea is second only to water as the most widely consumed beverage
in the world. A great deal of attention has been directed to the
polyphenolic constituents of tea particularly green tea (AHF, 1992),
ADA(1995) posits that tea consumption can reduce the risk of CVD
in human.
AHF (1992) held that, most research on health benefits of tea has
focused on its cancer chemopreventive effect. This of course makes
it functional.
Wine and Grapes
Wine and grapes particularly red wine has some functional
attributes. Red wine has been known to reduce the risk of CVD
(Hasler 1998). He added that, the link between wine intake and
CVD first became apparent in 1979 when St. Leger in 1979 found a
strong negative correlation between wine intake and death from
Ischemic heart disease in both men and women from 18 countries.

19
France in particular has a relatively low rate of CVD despite diet
high in diary fat. AHF (1992) supported that, moderate wine
consumption has bee associated with a decrease risk of age related
macular degeneration especially non-alcoholic wine ADA (1995)
attributed the positive benefits of red wine to the ability of phenolic
substance to prevent the oxidation of low density lipoprotein (LDL)
a critical event in the process of atherogenesis. However, a note of
caution is in order, as alcoholic wine of all kinds have been linked to
increased risk of several types of cancer, including breast cancer
(Adlercrleutz et al 1982).
Functional Foods from Animal Sources
Although the vast number of naturally occurring health-enhancing
substances are of plant origin, there are a number of physiologically
– active component in animal products that deserve attention for
their potential role in optimal health.
Fish Omega – 3
According to Albert and Hennekens (1998) Omega – 3 fatty acids
are essential class of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAS) derived
primary from fish oil and known to play an important role in
reducing CVD risk.
Conclusion and Recommendation
As scientific and technological advances develop in the field of
health and nutrition, more and more focus has been directed towards
the emerging field of personalized nutrition which involves the
application of the human genome to nutrition and personal health to
provide individual dietary recommendations. Since functional food
has already been described as foods or dietary components that
provide a health benefit beyond basic nutrition, this gives clarity
that, you can take greater control of your health through the food
choices you make, knowing that some foods can provide specific
health benefits. Examples are fruits and vegetables, whole grains,
fortified or enhanced foods and beverages etc. It is therefore

20
recommended that people should strive to consume a wide variety of
functional foods.
- Attention should be paid on preventive rather than
curative
- Diet should be personalized considering genetic make
upon and nutritional requirements.
- Access to food by all, food security should be achieved.
References
Achalu, E. I. (1989). Communicable and non-communicable
diseases, Causes and prevention (Rev. Ed.) Ibadan Afrika –
link books publishers Int. Ltd.
American Dietetic Association (ADA) (1995). Phytochemicals and
functional foods. Retrieved on 15/07/2008 from wikipedia
Org/nutrition/functional food/index.cof.
Albert C. M. & Hennekens, C.H. (1998). Fish consumption and risk
of sudden death J.A.M. Assoc. 279:23-28
http/www.nutriwatc.org/04foods/ffhtmt 15/07/2008.
Adlecreutz H. & Fotsis, T (1982). Excretion of the lignans
enterolactone and enterodiol in Omnivorous and vegetarian
postmenopausal women with breast cancer. Lancet: 1295-
1299. Retrieved on 15/07/2008 from wikipedia
org./nutrition/functional food/index.Cof.
American Health Foundation (1992). Pharmacological effect of
camellia Snensis (Tea): Implication for cardiovascular
disease, cancer, and public health. Retrieved on 18/07/2008
from Http/www.nutriwatch.org/04foods/ff.html.

21
Hasler, C. M. (1998). A publication of the institute of food
technologists expert panel on food Safety and nutrition.
http/www.nutriwatch.org/o4food/ff htm/ 15/07/2008.
Iwe, M. O. (2003). The science and technology of soybean Enugu.
Rojoint Communication Services Ltd.
Okaka, J.C. (2005). Handling, storage and processing of plant foods.
Enugu. OCJ Academic Publishers.
Olusanya, J. O. (1990). Foods and Nutrition for Senior Secondary
School 1 – 3 Ibadan University Press Plc.
World Health Organization (2003). A health and nutrition atlas.
Retrieved on 17/0708 from http/www.health and
nutrition.org.

22
SENSITIZATION AND EMPOWERMENT OF FEMALE
TEACHERS: A TREND TOWARDS GENDER PARITY IN
NIGERIA
OWHONDAH, SAMUEL NARIOCHUKWU, Ph.D.
Abstract
Taking note of a world that is apparently giving audience to its
deprived and oppressed women folk, the need for sensitization and
empowerment of female teachers towards gender parity in all
spheres of life in Nigeria emerged. A theoretical review of related
literature was embarked upon to fathom the persistent gender
inequalities and oppressive practices against women, and outline
efforts, and specific projects/strategies towards curbing the
oppressive practices. Based on the facts of the review, the paper
recommends unwavering commitment to women education,
(including second chance opportunity for those who missed their
chance and those who dropped out), membership of NGOs and co-
operative societies and advocacy on women empowerment among
other imperative actions.
Introduction
The speedy transportation provided by airline services, the fast and
far-reaching information delivery of radio, the amplified
dissemination of the video effect of satellite-driven
television/internet and the voluntary instant link of GSM
telecommunication have combined to compress the world into a
global village, thus reducing the cartographic delineation of the
various states, nations and countries into imaginary faint lines.
Consequently, the socio-cultural uniqueness of Nigeria and other
countries of the world are fast disappearing and being steadily
neutralized into a single global entity. With this progressive global

23
harmonization of human affairs, changes have consistently been
generated and sustained in all spheres of human development by
United Nation’s – a voluntary aggregation of well meaning nations
of the world.
In the Beijing Conferences (UNIFEM and UNIC, 1995:6), some
efforts made to neutralize the socio-cultural uniqueness of countries
include the United Nation’s Conferences and Summits on Women in
Nairobi in 1985, on Children in New York in 1990, on Environment
and Development in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, on Human Rights in
Vienna in 1993, on Population and Development in Cairo in 1994
and on Social Development in Copenhagen in 1995.
Besides, an editorial titled “Mainstreaming Gender Approach in
Unions” in Awurusa (2004:2) added that Mexico 1975, Nairobi
1985, Beijing 1995 all preached gender justice and women’s right as
a human right. All these meetings provided useful platforms for
women movements to focus attention on their quest for equality and
equity. Mainstreaming gender perspective is necessary in society
especially among the female teachers who are privileged by virtue of
their profession to sensitize and empower other women and who also
ought to belong to current women organizations including the
Nigeria Union of Teachers (N.U.T.) because they are the mirrors of
society and are concerned [as mothers] about the welfare of the
majority of our vulnerable members who are the women. The
ultimate goal is to achieve equality, unity, peace, democracy and
gender justice.
Efforts are made to address the social ills against women as
embodied in the United Nations human rights declaration which
called for equality between men and women, the Beijing Declaration
and Platform for Action the Convention on the Elimination of all
forms of Discrimination Against Women, the 1979 Nigerian
Constitutional Provision on the equal rights and opportunities of all

24
citizens before the law, Better life for Rural Women of Babangida’s
Regime, Family Support Programme of Abacha’s Regime, National
Policy of the year 2000 and the current NEEDS/SEEDS of
Obasanjo’s administration.
Statement of the Problem
The persistent gender inequalities and oppressive practices against
women which deny them the possibility of realizing their potentials,
marginalization of women in the family and societal decision making
process, such as in early marriage, gender specific roles, right to
reproductive health, access to economic resources, responsible
parenthood, social security, access to education etc, including other
gender issues such as violence against women like battery and rape,
travails of widow hood, boy-child vs. girl-child dichotomy leading to
preference of male to female children, high rate of maternal
mortality, female genital mutilation, denial of right to education and
vocation of feminization of poverty, which leads to prostitution and
its related hazards.
This paper therefore outlines the need to enlighten female teachers,
nay women, on the burning issues, and challenge them to take
positive actions that will enhance the realization of the elimination of
all forms of discrimination against women-a move with positive
imperatives for the well-being of all people, irrespective of race,
creed and nationality.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is the need to sensitize and empower
female teachers in Nigeria towards gender parity. The specific
objectives of the investigation are:
1. To outline the persistent gender inequalities and oppressive
practices against women,
2. To highlight a number of efforts made to address the outlined
social ills against women, and
Sensitization and Empowerment of Female Teachers: A Trend Towards Gender Parity in
Nigeria., OWHONDA

25
3. To highlight the specific projects/strategies to address the
outlined social ills against women.
The Persistent Gender Inequalities and Oppressive Practices
against Women
1. Overbearing Interest of Man
The world is often described as men’s world. The man is the head of
the family. He often sees the women as men’s property married
(bought with bride price) and therefore owned. His desires and
wishes are laws that cannot be queried but simply complied with.
The women’s aspiration therefore must obtain clearance from the
man to be sustained. The husband can send the wife packing at will
(Nsirim, 2006 & Bosaji, 2005).
2. Early Marriage
The under age girl-child is often withdrawn from school in some
parts of the country against her will and married out to her fathers
choice husband, irrespective of her emotional, physical,
psychological and economical immaturity. Child pregnancy, VVF
and the attendant complications are possible consequences with
harrowing experiences.
3. Gender Specific Roles
The girl-child is expected to help her mother draw water, fetch
firewood, keep the house clean, helping in the farm where men
preside, do the shopping, go to the market to sell the agricultural
produce etc. Chabaud (1970) notes that a woman’s pre-occupation,
or wishes are to pass on these domestic skills to her daughter. Men
are to be served.
4. Right to Reproductive Health
The decisions of when to have sex, get pregnant and how many
children to bear and how to space them (that is family planning)
belong to the man irrespective of the state of the woman’s medical
and mental health. Any resistance is punished with sanctions,
violence or taking another wife or outright repatriation to her
parents.

26
5. Access to Economic Resources
The National Policy on Women (2000:12) posits that patriarchy and
its related practices constitute major impediments to the full
integration of women into the Nigerian economy. As practiced in
Nigeria patriarchy gives men ascendancy in inheritance, authority
and decision making inside and outside the home. Patriarchy is
inheritance through the male with high value on male children, strict
adherence to division of labour along gender lines. Land property
and the family savings are inherited by males only.
6. Responsible Parenthood
This involves being socially and economically stable to many, and
raise children responsibly. The practice of child spacing and number
limitation are expected to respect the health of the mother and ensure
that children are adequately fed, clothed, trained (go to school) and
generally cared for. The ceaseless search for the preferred male child
often leads to un-bargained number of children who subsequently
become potential maids and candidates for trafficking.
7. Access to Education
This has improved a lot in the Southern Nigeria. In a not too distant
past, the girl-child was considered someone’s property the boy child
went to school at the expense of the girl, especially when the
parent’s financial muscle was weak.
In advanced communities university education was an exclusive
preserve for men at a time. Such subjects like Mathematics, Science
and Technology were referred to as masculine. Girls were for arts,
social sciences and education.
On this matter, UNESCO (1981) affirmed that boys are entitled to
training that paves the way to occupations connected with production
and to jobs with responsibility, whereas girls are confined to courses
for service, occupations for family life.
Nigeria., OWHONDA

27
Apparently, lamenting the admission of the first set of women
admitted into the university, Frazier and Sadker (1973) had reported
a university vice chancellor as saying that Men will lose as women
advance. We will have community effeminate women and
emasculated men.
8. Violence against Women
Issues as rape, battery, forceful ejection from matrimonial homes are
facts of violence against women. When reported even to the police,
such assaults are dismissed as domestic affairs.
9. The Travail of Widowhood
At the death of a husband some widows are compelled by custom
and tradition to sit on bare floor for weeks in half-node without a
bath, compelled to have strange sexual intercourse to sever her bond
with the dead and forced to drink the water used in bathing the
corpse of the late husband if suspected to have had a hand in the
husband’s death. Such suspicion usually arose if the relationship
between the woman and the husband was strained shortly before his
death. Surviving the strange drink proves her innocence.
10. Other Oppressive Practices against Women
These include female mutilation to reduce their sexual urge and
prevent them from being wayward. This is a primitive practice which
is known to be harmful to the woman’s reproductive health. High
rate of maternal mortality due to poor maternity facilities,
feminization of poverty which appears to force the girl-child into
seductive attire, prostitution and the danger of contracting STDs, STI
and HIV/AIDs also expose some girls to the danger of trafficking for
forced prostitution abroad (Bosaji, 2005).
Efforts towards Curbing the Oppressive Practices
A number of efforts have been made to curb the oppressive practices
against womanhood
1. UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights
The UNICEF in an undated publication on CEDAW noted that the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights affirms the principle of the
inadmissibility of discrimination and proclaims that all human

28
beings are borne free and equal in dignity and rights and that
everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth therein
without distinction of any kind including distinction based on sex.
Nigeria as a member of the United Nations should also respect and
honour its Universal declarations.
2. Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (1995)
The biggest and most successful women conference took place in
Beijing China on August 30, 1995. Over 46000 women from 189
countries of the world deliberated and made far-reaching
declarations indicating international commitment to the goals of
equality, development and peace for all women everywhere. A few
out of the 38 documented declarations include:
(a) We dedicate ourselves unreservedly to addressing these
constraints and obstacles and thus enhancing further, the
advancement and empowerment of women all over the world
and agree that this requires urgent action in the spirit of
determination, hope, co-operation and solidarity, now and to
carry us forward into the next century.
(b) We affirm our commitment to the equal rights and inherent
human dignity of women and men and other purposes and
principles enshrined in the charter of the United Nations to
the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and other
international human rights instruments, in particular, the
convention on the Elimination of All forms of Discrimination
Against Women (CEDAW) as well as the Elimination of
Violence Against Women [EVAW] and the Declaration of
the Rights to Development [DRD]. Nigeria was adequately
represented in Beijing Conference and is committed at least
in policy to the declaration she was party to the making.
(c) The Provisions of the 1979 Constitution Women
empowerment is justifiable. Chapter 11, Section 17,
Subsection 2 of the 1979 Nigerian Constitution states that
“every citizen shall have equality of rights, obligations and
opportunities before the law.” Subsection 3 added that “all
Nigeria., OWHONDA

29
citizens without discrimination on any group whatsoever,
have the opportunity for securing adequate means` of
livelihood as well as adequate opportunity to secure suitable
employment.
(d) Better Life for Rural Women
This was a pet project of the spouse of President Ibrahim
Babangida, a politico-socio attempt to empower women, an
indication that a concerted effort to mobilize women to self-
help and sustenance is feasible.
(e) Family Support Programme
Like her predecessor, Mrs. Myriam Abacha, wife of
President Sanni Abacha stepped out to lend support to ailing
families. It was believed to be a form of assistance to the
women folk because an ailing family in practical terms is
primarily the woman’s burden. She must improvise while the
man is away sniggling for the family’s up-keep.
(f) National Policy on Women (2000)
This was a powerful government thrust that genuinely
showed government commitment to the global trend in
women welfare, different in seriousness from previous pet
project of government appendages.
Some of the goals of the policy include:
i. Raising national awareness of the citizens’ constitutional
rights and on a long term basis, mobilizing and educating the
public on human rights in order to remove legal, cultural,
religious and other constraints against the attainment of
social justice and equity in the society.
ii. Ensuring the elimination of all forms of discrimination
among women.
iii. Instituting an effective Gender and Development (GAD)
management structure for the co-ordination of all GAD
activities in the country.

30
The Ministry of Women Affairs and Youth Development
[MWAYD] should coordinate these activities. The policy thus
includes:
1. Equity, social order and social well-being;
2. Resource allocation for full participation of women in
economic programmes for improved self image;
3. Economic growth and efficiency through educational and
skill development of women for capacity/ potential
utilization;
4. Discouragement of patriarchy through education,
enlightenment, egalitarianism and legislation review on
gender and enactment of new ones where necessary; and
5. Cultural dynamism, which is, eliminating those aspects of
our culture that inhibit the development of positive self-
identity of women and their participation in the society.
Specific Projects/Strategies towards Curbing Oppressive
Practices against Women
NEEDS/SEEDS
The National Economic Empowerment Development Strategies
(NEEDS) cited in Bosaji (2005) is the most current developmental
thrust developed by the Federal Government. Its state counterpart is
State Economic Empowerment Development Strategies (SEEDS).
Since SEEDS is yet at formulation stage and a translation of Federal
Government development thrust at the state level, Anikweze
(2004:9) indicated that NEEDS aims at fully integrating women
through enhancing their capacity to participate in the economic,
social, political and cultural life of the country.
The specific projects/strategies to achieve this were outlined as:
1. Ensuring equitable representation of women all over the
country in all aspects of our national life, the affirmative
action of proportionate representation of not less than 30%
will be pursued, where feasible;
Nigeria., OWHONDA

31
2. Domestification of the UN Convention on the Elimination of
all forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW);
3. Pursuing legislation for the abolition of all forms of harmful
traditional practices against women;
4. Mainstreaming women concerns and perspectives in all
policies and programmes;
5. Promotion of women access to micro finance and all poverty
alleviation strategies with a view to reducing feminized
poverty;
6. Empowerment of women through sustained advocacy,
education and mobilization to reduce women’s vulnerability
to HIV/AIDS, STI and other STDS.
7. Establishing scholarship schemes at the secondary and
tertiary levels in order to expand educational opportunities
for female students where necessary and expanding a
programme on non-formal education e.g. Adult and
Vocational Education to cater for women beyond formal
school age.
Recommended Actions for All Female Teachers
Female teachers and indeed all women in Nigeria are urged to:
1. Note the oppressive/discriminatory practices outlined in this
paper and make concerted efforts to update it to a
comprehensive compilation of all forms of discrimination
against women in the school setting. One needs to be aware
and conscious of the discriminations before addressing them.
Besides, an adage says that problems properly identified are
half solved.
2. Note that all efforts are put in place to address the
discriminations and empower women. This will enable
female teachers take advantage of such provisions as they
concern or benefit them and use them to assist individuals or
group that need help within and outside the school setting.

32
3. Generate a list of local, state, national and international
NGOS, government organizations and cooperative societies
interested and committed to the course of women with a view
to approaching them for assistance, support or affiliation.
4. Equip yourself to be a role model in the classroom, school,
union [NUT] and society by encouraging young and aged
women alike, through words and actions to appreciate the
value of education. This could be through formal and
informal classroom interactions. Those women who are
incapacitated by lack of access to school or by dropping out
should be assisted to take the second chance position
provided by life long education, adult and non-formal
education and distance education programmes. Ignorance is a
big set back to all forms of women empowerment.
5. As female teachers aspire to update yourself educationally,
socially, economically, spiritually, and politically if need be.
6. Female teachers should form, join or mobilize women
advocacy groups to remind government, ministries,
parastatals or NGOs that have made policy pronouncements
or declaration of intent on women affairs, need and
empowerment to live up to expectation. Women affairs in the
hand of men may continue to be forgotten or postponed to a
more auspicious time, which may never come.
7. Examine and ensure that women are fairly represented in
NUT, classroom Teachers Association and other
organizations in which one is a member.
8. National Economic Empowerment Development Strategies
(NEEDS) is a new and rich women empowerment
programme, which female teachers should take advantage of.
It should be closely monitored and embraced.
9. The provocative, seductive and sometimes irresponsible
fashion of over revealing or flaunting the contour erotic
parts of the body along the street may be fancied by
many, but is surely loaded with negative implication for
Nigeria., OWHONDA

33
the girl-child who knows next to nothing about her
reproductive health, the dangers of STDs, STI, HIV/AIDs
pandemic and the human trafficking syndicates. Female
teachers should be the leading vanguards of these
obnoxious practices that are too serious to be ignored.
References
Anikweze, C. M. (2004). Educational policies, practices
and strategies for achieving reforms in Nigeria. A Resource
Paper Presented at Workshop on Capacity Building
Organized by Education Tax Fund at Federal College of
Education (Technical) Umunze, Anambra State.
Awurusa, H. (2004). Mainstreaming gender approach in
unions (Editorial). Pro women, Jan – Dec.
Bosaji, S. O. (2005). The need to sensitize and empower women in a
changing world. Lecture at Nwafor Orizu College of
Education Nsugbe, during CTT/NUT In-service Planning
Workshop for Teachers Held from July 25 – 29, Anambra
State.
Federal Ministry of Women Affairs and Youth Development
(2000). National policy on women, Abuja: FMWAYD.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (1979). The Nigerian constitution.
Frazier, N. and Sadker, M. (1973). Sexism in school and society,
New York: Harper and Row Publishers.
Nsirim, E. U. (2006). Problems and prospects of the education
of the girl-child in Emohua local government area.
Unpublished B.Ed Project, RSUST, Port Harcourt.
UNESCO (1981). Sex bias in training and the labour force, Paris:
UNESCO
UNICEF (Undated). Convention on the elimination of all forms of
discrimination against women.
UNIFEM and UNIC (1995). Beijing declaration and platform for
action, Nigeria: UNIFEM and UNIC.

34
TOWARDS ENHANCING NIGERIA’S SPORTS
PERFORMANCE: ISSUES AND PROSPECTS.
BY
G.A. DEEMUA
Abstract
Sports is a strong force which contributes immensely towards
maintaining a peaceful co-existence in societies. Nigeria’s
awareness is improved toward excellent performance in competitive
sports through healthy competitions. Although there has been a
growing controversy on the dwindling fortune of Nigeria’s sport
performance in contemporary time, particularly, in the context of
how to sustain efficiency in administration organization, coaching
strategies, motivation of athletes and time utilization series. The
paper harnessed to ensure brilliant performance of Nigeria’s
athletes in global sports competitions. Such factors include the
availability of sports facilities and equipment as a prelude for
sustaining optimal performance. The paper highlighted in strong
terms the need for adequate funding, motivational strategies for
athletes, the competency of sports personnel in administering sports
programmes and of course human performance attributes among
others. The paper made recommendations that would help to
improve the standard of sports in Nigeria, chief among which is
good training programs where the athletes will be adequately
prepared for the challenges ahead of time. Finally, our coaches
should be knowledgeable and skillful so that they will attain the
efficiency level of foreign coaches.
Introduction
Sports arouses the interest and enthusiasm of people all over the
globe including Nigerians. It is well known that sports capture the
interest of people in almost all countries no matter what their stage
of development. According to Morakinyo (2002), sports is a social

35
phenomenon that has grown from its humble beginning of being an
entertainment and recreation past-time to becoming a viable and
prominent business phenomenon that could no more be ignored in
the social, political and economic environment of any nation.
Nigerians are sports loving people who even in early times
devoted themselves to such sports as wrestling, hunting, swimming,
acrobatic display and boat regattas. The increasing awareness of
Nigerians about sports and excellent sports performance at
competitions has become a contemporary concern of the present day
Government, corporate bodies and individuals alike. As Awosika
(2000) said, today there is a new dimension to sports development in
Nigeria with emphasis not only on the physical and mental
development but also financial encouragement and scholarships from
government and philanthropists for individual sports men and
women. The general recognition and importance of sports has made
it to become a vehicle for promoting rapid sports development in
Nigeria. Sports as an important social phenomenon in the world have
attracted a lot of personnel, money and time for its development.
Apart from the athletes, and their coaches, some other
categories and specialization supportive personnel have emerged.
According to Oyebola (1997), dieticians, sports administrators,
physiotherapists, doctors specialized in sports medicine and sports
physiologists are now important in ensuring that athletes achieve the
best possible results in competitions. Sports is a business enterprise
which tasks the brains and minds of coaches and sports
administrators to harness the human and material resources
embedded in sports culture of Nigeria, to make Nigeria great in the
sporting world. There is no doubt that sports deal with human
beings, and as such the determinants that will help them should be
properly implemented in order to succeed. These determinants range
from facilities and equipment, incentives and other enabling inputs
which will facilitate the achievement of efficiency and excellence in
sports.

36
Factors Enhancing Excellent Sport Performance
The Coach: The position of a coach as a team handler and trainer is
a very crucial one. Coaching is not an all comer job. Coaching
should attract competent, qualified and professional personnel
(Igboanugo, 1986).
Bucher (1979) listed four qualifications of good coach. First,
is the ability to teach fundamentals and strategies of the sport; he or
she must be a good teacher. Second, there is also the need to
understand the players: how they function at a particular level of
development. Thirdly, he or she must understand the sport coached –
through knowledge of techniques, rules, strategies, formation.
Fourth, the coach has desirable personality and character. Patience,
understanding, kindness, honesty, sportsmanship, sense of right or
wrong, courage, cheerfulness, affection, and enthusiasm are
imperative.
The coach, as a decision maker in the field of play and
practice sessions is often seen as a helper who assists in bringing out
the talents of athletes to fullest potentials (Eboh, 2002). The coach
plays the following roles that revolve around motivating of athletes,
creating a conducive atmosphere for participating for all athletes,
providing athletes with all necessary and required medical/health
facilities, assisting in planning and conducting practice sessions,
scouting and recruiting new players into teams, establishing training
programmes, conditioning athletes mentally, physically, and
emotionally for training and competitions. He is also involved in
keeping records of and training and conducting practices, taking care
of correspondence on all team matters, updating of coaching skills
through clinics and workshops, maintaining good public relations,
making arrangement for trips and travelling with team(s) and
maintenance of facilities, equipment and supplies.
Some people have the erroneous impression that they have
outstanding athletes. Igboanugo (1986) emphasized that exceptional
skill in any sport does not necessarily guarantee success in the
Towards Enhancing Nigeria’s Sports Performance: Issues and Prospects. DEEMUA

37
coaching of the sport. The writer supports the position that the best
preparation a coach can have is to train in the field of physical
education, specializing in coaching a particular sport.
The big questions are whether Nigerian coaches handling
various sports are experts and the best candidates available? Are they
employed on the basis of expertise and the ability to deliver the
goods and not on the basis of quota? Why are we relying so much on
foreign coaches for the grooming of our athletes for international
competitions?
It is the contention of this paper that Nigeria coaches are
proving their mettle in their chosen profession. To satisfy the
yearnings of Nigerians towards achieving the desired performance
expectations, the sports administrators, at both the national and state
sports councils, should set up periodic in-service training courses for
coaches so that they will attain the efficiency level of foreign
coaches. It is equally important that there must be enough incentives
to be able to employ and retain the best hands in coaching
profession.
Sound Administrative Competence: The term administration is
commonly used in government organizations and institutions.
Administration involves the activities and processes adopted by a
group of individuals toward the attainment of set objectives or
policies. It is an attempt at coordinating people, facilities,
equipment, supplies and materials towards attaining set objectives.
Administration is a means to an end and not an end itself. It is the
methods and strategies adopted by individuals toward policy
attainment (Bucher, 1979). Traditionally, administration exists in
order to carry out the policies that had been developed by the duly
constituted policy – forming group, like Sport Management Board.
Bucher (1971) posits that when policies are properly selected and
developed, they enable each member of the organization to know
what duties are to be performed, how best the departments’ goals can
be accomplished and the procedure by which accountability can be
established and evaluated.

38
Administration can only take place if the following four
elements are available (Halpin, 1962):
• Formal organization
• Task to be performed.
• Workers to perform task
• Leaders to show the way
Sports administration involves the coordination of essential elements
in an administrative environment for the purpose of ensuring
efficiency and effectiveness in the running of a sporting organization
so that a set policy could be achieved.
Sports administration entails two main areas of emphasis,
namely: institutional/organizational administration and
situational/event administration. Institutional or organizational
administration involves administrative activities and processes
geared towards ensuring successful policy outcome while
situational/event administration entails activities and processes
geared toward ensuring the success of training and competitive field
situations. However, for Sports Administration to succeed, whatever
forms of operational policy that is adopted should not negate the
broad policy guidelines.
Sports administration is fast becoming a vital part of the
overall organization of sports. Bucher (1979) asserts that effective
organization starts with good administration. The emphasis should
be on employing adequate and qualified persons to organize and
administer sports in Nigeria if desirable performance expectations
are to be ensured. Competent sports organization and effective
administration involve human, material and financial management.
Days are gone when any body in any trade or profession can ascend
sports platform and perform the job satisfactorily. Ikulayo (1986)
affirmed that unless sports administrators are well equipped and
knowledgeable enough about the mechanical and technical demands
of their callings, they can never perform the job as effectively and
efficiently as the real professional at the job. It is the contention of
this paper that the resultant effect of the practice of having non-

39
specialists occupying the administrative posts in sports management
are evidence of fluctuating performance outputs which have
characterized our sporting performance in recent times.
Equipment and Facilities: Sports equipment and facilities occupy
strategic position in the making and performance of an athlete. There
have been numerous studies which results portray the influence of
good and appropriate equipment and facilities on participation and
performance in sports. Umeasiegbu (1981) states that good sports
programmes can only function effectively when they are supported
with good and appropriate equipment and facilities.
Other studies, Ajisafe (1974), Anyanwu (1979) and
Onyilogwu (1975) emphasized that it would be impossible to
achieve satisfactory results from athletes whose training facilities are
inadequate or substandard. Standard facilities and equipment are
essential pre-requisites for good and impressive performance.
In these days of economic difficulties, programme directors
are expected to demonstrate competence in soliciting for funds from
other sources like the interested public, fans, alumni associations and
philanthropic organizations. To do this successfully requires the
ability to identify the present and future financial needs, as well as
identifying all available sources of funds. He also needs human
relations skills in reaching all potential contributors. The problem
we have in Nigeria with regards to procurement and maintenance of
the facilities we spend millions of Naira to build/buy is lack of
maintenance culture. Omoruan (1996) observed that:
One of the best ways of maintaining sports
facilities and equipment is to put them into use.
Just as it is important to provide these sport
facilities and equipment, it is even more
important to maintain them. These can be
achieved in these three ways. First, people
should use rather than misuse these facilities
and equipment. Secondly, those employed to
look after them must have the knowledge of

40
what they are to take care of. Thirdly, money
should be provided for maintenance. (p. 116-
117).
It is no gain-saying that due to lack of sporting structures and
equipment, most of our youths migrate overseas where there are
abundance of these. That is why for a long time we will continue to
depend on foreign-based athletes for the realization of our sports
performance expectations.
Finance: Perhaps the most important element to achieve effective
organization of sports and resultant performance objectives is the
availability of finance to support and execute it. Athletes are
expensive commodities to maintain. Without money there can be no
standard facilities and equipment for training. Since sports is no
longer a play thing but a business and an enterprise there is the need
of identifying and adequately fund sources, so as to optimize output
from input for an effective and productive outlay. Sport
development officers and sport managers in developing economies
can explore and thus exploit adequately the following fund sources
for the purpose of ensuring steady supply of funds for sports
development. These are:
• Government
• Ticketing
• Fund raising campaign
• Donation from philanthropic individuals and organizations
• Media rights
• Endorsements
• Transfer fees
• Marketing of items and products
• Sponsorship
• Lottery
Government is the largest spender of funds in the developing
world and thus provides some of the funds for sports development. It
is not surprising that all through the year, sporting agencies and

41
associations depend on government. According to Jackson (1998)
government involvement with both private and non profit sport
entities is marketing technique that has been applied in the United
States of America and Canada. It means that while government
funding exists, other fund sources should be exploited.
However, now that most developing countries which regard
sport as a social service are experiencing financial constraints that
have necessitated a cut in budget from year to year, it has become
difficult for sporting organizations to survive. Therefore, sports
development officers and administrators must act fast and look for
other sources of revenue. It is therefore seen that adequate provision
of finances for effective organization and administration of sport in
Nigeria is a must if high performance in this country is to be
realized.
Human Performance Factors: Human performance factor can be
defined as physical, psychological, physiological and motor
performance attributes which enable the performer or athlete to
execute his skills efficiently, economically and gracefully (Owolabi,
1897; Umeasiegbu, 2002). These factors are built and executed.
This is because no athlete can be successful unless he is in line with
the basic and refined skills of his sport. In the same way, no athlete
can succeed in executing his learned or acquired skills unless he is
naturally endowed with or has acquired the performance attributes
relevant to his sport.
The identified performance attributes include age, height,
body weight, body fat, strength, endurance, flexibility, speed and
psychological traits such as motivation and personality (Owolabi
1987). Most of these performance factors in sports have been
identified through research studies on habitual performers, and
champion athletes in each sport. (Sharp, 1980; Owolabi, 1985;
Schwartz, 1973).
These factors have been found to vary according to their skill
levels, being higher in champion athletes and lower in habitual
athletes. However, with specific reference to Nigeria sports, Owolabi

42
(1987) lamented that there is no doubt that little or no attention is
paid to training and improving the performance factors in our sports
men and women for efficient productivity.
Motivation
Motivation is defined in various ways by scholars and professionals
of various backgrounds. It is the tendency for the direction and
selectivity of behaviour to be controlled by its connection to
consequences and the tendency of this behavior to persist until a goal
is achieved (Alderman, 1974). The persistence of an individual
partaking in any act is influenced by possibilities of achieving set
goals and targets or accomplishing ambitions or felt needs (Akhioya,
1993). Motivation must be kept up pre and during the period of
competition. Both the coach and the learners/athletes need to be
motivated. Adeyanju (1975) opines that to enhance performance, it
may be necessary to organize pre-competition motivation during the
hours before competition. In the process, negative thoughts will be
eliminated and positive thinking used and words employed to
increase self-confidence. Athletes should be motivated to build
athlete confidence on tangible, practical cues to which they can
relate and during competition where the coach can directly
communicate with them for an all out efforts and supervisor
performance (Bompa, 1999).
The sport managers/coaches roles in sport competition is
very important because the learners/athletes take direction from him.
Although, according to Amuchie (1987), coaching is regarded as a
very risky venture that is full of uncertainties. This is because the
efficiency of the athletes and the coach is usually measured by their
success at the end of the competition. The losing coach stands the
risk of losing his job while the victorious coach becomes the darling
of the public. Therefore, both the athletes and the coach should be
highly motivated. They should be less nervous and adapt coping
behaviour and strategies. Coaches should know that the power of
the mind is the key element in competition. Meeting the mental
demands, the ability to remain focused, maintain emotional control,

43
concentration, sustain his job performance, use psychological
principles and skills relating to motivation, goal setting, attention
control, feedback, performance profiling, personality and stress
coping – techniques (Rushall, 1986).
Strategies for Motivating Athletes
The importance of motivation in higher level competitions or any
field of endeavour can not be overemphasized. The following are
strategies for motivating athletes:
1. Knowing each performer
2. Communicating effectively
3. Administrative effectiveness
4. Application of leisure
5. Ensuring that motivational incentive schemes are
standardized and athletes educated and informed on the
conditions and requirements for application
6. Developing and enhancing leadership
7. Enhancing team friendship
8. Making approved payments as at when due
9. Athletes should be recognized when they perform well
Conclusion
Nigeria holds the performance expectations of athletes, coaches and
administrators in sports scene very high. The federal government of
Nigeria has taken the task of controlling and regulating sport expect
coaches and technical advisors to be more competent, dedicated and
result oriented, while the athletes should train harder and performer
better in order to win more laurels at international competitions.
Nigeria in the organizations of sports demands a review of
the organizational model of sports. Therefore, to improve sports
performance the administrative and technical crews must be proven
professionals working together to effect proper organization at all
levels.
However, in order to ensure organizational efficiency and
effectiveness, the representatives of government must join hands

44
with the interest groups in taking appropriate decisions and actions
on matters relating to sports development.
Recommendations
Based on the above discussion, the following recommendations are
made towards improving sports performance:
(a) In-serve programmes, seminars and workshops should be
organized regularly for coaches, sports managers and
administrators to keep abreast of innovations in sports.
(b) Adequate funds should be provided to run the sports
programme of this country. Sports is capital intensive.
Fund is needed to provide sports facilities and
equipment, build and maintain infrastructure, provide
conducive environment for training and maintaining athletes
and their handlers. However, sports philanthropists
industrial establishments and co-operate bodies should assist
the government in the sponsorship of sports programmes if
the desired goal is to be met.
(c) Federal government should help build state stadia to
international standard and refurbish other existing stadia
throughout the federation for effective use by
athletes/coaches.
Sports facilities and equipment should be properly
maintained to meet with what is obtainable in developed
countries. This will help coaches and athletes for effective
performance.
(d) Poorly constituted administrative sports organs and
ineffective organizations are among the major factors that
negatively affect sports performance in this country.
Sometimes, geographical spread, ethnic affiliations and
unwarranted favouritism are brought to bear in appointments
into sports management cadres in this nation. For
performance to improve significantly, the administrative and
technical crews of sports in Nigeria must be proven
professionals working together to effect proper organization

45
at various levels. Unless sports administrators are
professionals who are well equipped and knowledgeable
enough about the mechanical demands of the profession, they
can never perform well.
(e) In matters relating to the human performance factors, it is
advised that the coach or the trainer must identify the
relevant performance factors in his sport and then train them
along the skills/factors. A thorough understanding of the
performance factors is essential for the result-oriented coach
or athlete who aspires to excel at international competitions.
(f) Organizations should develop a well structured motivational
package for employees. A well structured motivational
package is necessary for job satisfaction and commitment since
employees get to know and articulate such welfare programmes
before accepting an offer of appointment.
References
Awosika, B.Y. (2000). Predictors of students’ participation in
limited Resources Recreation in third Generation of two
Nigerian Universities. Journal of Nigeria Academic of Sports
Administration, Vol. 1 No. 2 pp. 51-57.
Adermen, R.B. (1974). Psychological Behaviour in Sport.
Philadelphian: Saunders.
Adeyanju, F.B. (1986). Psychological preparation of athletes with
International Sports engagement. Tips on coping with stress
of competition. A paper presented at Sports Psychology
Association of Nigeria (SPAN) seminar held at N.I.S.
Surulere, Lagos.
Amuchie, F.A. (1986). Preliminary observation on the effective
organization and performance in sports in the Nigerian
Universities. Proceedings of Guiness-NUGA’86 sports clinic

46
(Udoh, C.O., Sohi, M., Ajala A. (eds) Ibadan Calverianum
Press Bodija.
Anyanwu, S. U. (1979) The strategies for effective organization and
administration of school sport Health and Physical Education
and Magazine. U.N.N.: Vol. 3 No. 3.
Bucher, C.A. (1979). Administration of Physical Education and
Athletic Programmes. St Loius. The C.V. Mosby Company.
Bucher, V.A (1971). Administration of Health and Physical
Education Programme including Athletes (5th
Ed) St. Loius: the
C.V. Mosby Company.
Ikhioya, O.S.A. (2001). Functional strategies for effective sports.
Management Practical. Lagos: Sport & Leisure Consults.
International Olympic Committee (1999). Sports Administration
manual. Jackson R (Ed) Lausanne: Mc Dra Printing Limited.
Igboanugo, V.C. (1986). Effective organization of sports:
Relationship to performance. Proceedings of Guinness-
NUGA 86 Sports clinic. (Udoh, C.A., Sohi, M., Ajala J.A.
(ed). Ibadan: Claveriannum press, Bodija.
Omoruan, J.C. (1996). A handbook in Physical Education, Sports
and Recreation. Zaria: S.A. Asekome and Co.
Owolabi, E.O. (1987). Human Performance factors in achieving
excellence in sports. (Udo, C.O., Sohi, M., Ajala, J.A. (eds)
Department of PHE, University of Ibadan Monograph series,
No. 2

47
Professionalization of Sport Administration and Management in
Nigeria (2002). Issues and challenges. NAPHER-SD
Uchegbu J.N. (1992). Motivational Strategies of Physical and Health
Education teachers and sports participants for maximum
productivity in the UBE programme. A paper presented at
NAPHER-SD. 35th
National Conference, 25th
– 28th
September, in Port Harcourt in Rivers State.
Umeasiegbu, G.O. (2002) “Towards Achieving Nigeria’s sports
performance expectation in 21st
century: Issues and
prospects”. In E.O. Ojeme; F.A. Amuchie & O.S.A. Ikhioya
(Eds). Professionalization of sports Administration and
Management in Nigeria – Issues and Challenges. Lagos:
Aduke Ventures.

48
CAUSAL ATTRIBUTIONS OF SUCCESS ON GOAL
ATTAINMENT OF PRINCIPALS IN AKWA IBOM STATE
OF NIGERIA
BY
STEVE U. BASSEY, Ph. D.
Abstract
The study investigated the causal attributions of success on
principals’ goal attainment at secondary school level. The
population of study was five thousand, six hundred and sixty-sixty
teachers while sample size was two hundred and twenty teachers
randomly selected from urban and rural secondary schools. A
researcher-constructed instrument was used in data collection. The
means, standard deviation and repeated measures analysis were
employed. Major finding revealed a significant difference in the
causal attribution factors (effort, ability, task difficulty and luck).
While the most important factors were effort and ability, the least
effective were task nature and luck. On the basis of the findings and
conclusion, recommendations were made to local education
committees and school Boards on need for proper orientation and
training of school heads in order to render them achievement and
goal-oriented.
Introduction
It is normal for people, for instance school principals, to seek to
explain why and how they succeeded or failed in their endeavours.
Such knowledge tends to control expectancies and determines the
probability of control. Ukpong (1997, p. 28) argues that if
individuals can find out the causes of their success, they may be able
to repeat such causes to ensure continuing success. Similarly, failure
can be avoided if past causes are known. The school principal would
want to know how far or why he has succeeded or failed to succeed
in the different roles he performs. When the performance of students

49
in sports or examinations is good, for example, school management
might wish to find out the reasons just like when the performance is
not commendable they would be keen on tracing the cause(s) so that
corrective measures can be adopted. This line of reasoning seems to
inform the need for applying attribution principle in investigating the
role performance of school administrators.
Causal Attributions and Conceptual Analysis
The term attribution refers to the perceived causes of an
event, causal assuration made regarding the outcome of an event or
performance (Jona, 2000). The principle of attribution holds that the
source to which credit or blame is assigned determines the course of
action. It seems that attribution theory emphasizes personal
perceptions of situational experiences and the consequent causal
attributions. It is argued that an individual’s perceptions of the causal
failure are determined primarily by variables specific to that situation
in which the causal attribution is made (Roptter, 1996).
Weiner (1985, p. 54) identified three dimensions of causality
which he argued determine the nature of subsequent performance on
a given task. These are locus of causality, control, and stability
dimensions. Locus of causality can be internal or external. Some
internal causes (e.g. effort) are under the control of the subject while
others (e.g. ability) are not. The stability dimension classifies causes
either as stable (invariant) or unstable (variant). The tendency to
experience pride in achievement or shame in failure is related to the
person’s perceived locus of causality for the performance outcomes
(Weiner, 1979). The increased pride for individuals who attribute
their success to personal ability or effort result in increased
achievement motivation and consequently increased success
expectancies in future when working on similar tasks
(Ukpong,1997). It is believed that success attribution to stable
factors of internal locus will produce pride which motivates greater
effort investment in subsequent tasks to ensure success and retain the
pride (Dweck & Goetz, 1978). On the other hand, attributing success
to unstable factors (e.g. luck) discourages effort input since

50
achievement ( as the individual tends to believe ) is not dependent on
trying but on chance ( or luck), and luck can sometimes fail. In the
same way, when we attribute failure to stable and uncontrollable
factor it tends to dry up the motivation to initiate achievement-
oriented behaviours.
Goal Attainment of Principals
The major roles (or goals) that school principals are to perform on a
daily basis have been identified by the American Association of
School Administrators (Ogbodo, 2002) to be: community relations,
personnel administration, financial administration and school plant
management. Effective operation of every school towards the
realization of its pre-determined objectives depends on the way the
listed goals are attained. The success level of a school depends on
the achievement motivation of the administrator. Principals differ in
their levels of administrative effectiveness. Some are effective in one
area while others are more effective in some other areas. It is normal
for a principal to know when he is doing well in personnel
management function, for instance, as he will experience high staff
morale or in curriculum and teaching when students of his school
will pass their examination in flying colours while the opposite is the
case in neighbouring schools.
It is against this backdrop that this study was undertaken to
investigate the ways that causal attribution of success influences the
goal attainment efforts of principals in Akwa Ibom State. The state
public school system has a teacher population of 5,666 distributed
into 214 secondary schools (SSEB, 2006).
Problem
Principals are blamed generally for observed quality degradation of
our graduates from the secondary level of education. We now
produce secondary school graduates who, besides not possessing any
general industrial skills, are essentially illiterate and “innumerate”
(Ocho, 2001, p. 12). In line with this observation, this study sought
to determine the nature of influence exerted by causal attributions of
success on principals’ goal attainment in Akwa Ibom State.
Casual Attributions of Success on Goal Attainment of Principals in Akwa Ibom State of
Nigeria, BASSEY

African journal of education and developmental studies volume 5 no 2 september 2008 articles e journal

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