The document provides an introduction to English sentence structure. It discusses the five basic sentence patterns in English: subject-verb, subject-verb-object, subject-verb-adjective, subject-verb-adverb, and subject-verb-noun. Examples are given for each pattern. The subject-verb relationship is identified as the core of every English sentence. Additional elements like objects, adjectives, adverbs, and prepositional phrases are described as ways to modify the basic sentence structures.

1. Advanced English
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Chapter 1
Introduction to English Language
Scope of the Study in Chapter 1
1. Background of the History of English Language
2. The Importance of English language
Objectives of the Study
1. Learning to know and understand the background of
the History of English language as the universal language.
2. Learning to know and understand the importance of
English language as universal language.

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Chapter 1
Introduction to English Language
Background of the History of English Language
In this chapter I have tried to conclude the historical
background and the importance of English language. Here this
objective for making an understanding particularly the basic
knowledge about history and the importance of English language
in briefly description.
The history of the English language really started with the
arrival of three Germanic tribes who invaded Britain during the
5th
century AD. These tribes, the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes,
crossed the North Sea from what today is Denmark and northern
Germany. At that time the inhabitants of Britain spoke a Celtic
language. But most of the Celtic speakers were pushed west and
north by the invaders - mainly into what is now Wales, Scotland
and Ireland. The Angles came from "Englaland" and their
language was called "Englisc" - from which the words "England"
and "English" are derived.1
1abShore, Thomas William (1906), Origin of the Anglo-Saxon Race – A of the Settlement of
England and the Tribal Origin of the English People (2nd
ed.), London, pp. 3- 393.
2
All notes are loosely drawn from Pyles and Algeo's, The Origins and Development of the
English Language, 5th
edition, Harcourt Brace College Publishers, New York, 2005. Please
see Sources, which can be accessed from the main lobby, for a complete list of references.

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Language is a conventional, arbitrary system of sounds used
for communication in a human linguistic community. Language is
a system at many levels, including the following:2
Phonemic: Phonemes are the smallest meaningless
components that constitute the sound system of a language.
Morphemic: Morphemes are the smallest meaningful
components of a language. For example, the word cats
consists of two morphemes, {cat} and {-s}. Morphemes can
be grammatical (having dictionary definitions) or lexical
(affixes and function words). They can be free (able to stand
alone) or bound (complete only when combined with other
morphemes. Bound lexical morphemes (or affixes) can be
either derivational (used to create new words) or inflectional
(used to signal grammatical relationships).
Syntactic: Syntax governs the way words come
together to create sentences. The syntax of English has
become less synthetic (grammatical structures are signaled
primarily by inflectional endings) and more analytic
(grammatical structures are signaled primarily by word order
and function words).
Semantic: Semantics concerns the meaning of words,
including but not limited to etymologies.

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Lexical: Lexicology includes spelling, the formation
and use of words.
F. Stylistic: Linguistic choice and options.
Language is a human activity. Though animals can
communicate in a primal way, they do not have innate language
abilities that allow for an unlimited number of novel
utterances. Though some apes have been taught to use sign
language (a paralanguage, or parallel system of communication),
the breadth of ideas that they express are limited. Language is
arbitrary. Aside from echoic words, there is no intrinsic
relationship between words and the objects or concepts that they
represent. Language is conventional. Language is passed down
from one generation to the next. It is the nature of language to
change. Notions of absolute correctness are imposed by writers,
linguists, scholars, etc. and may slow down but do not prevent the
natural process of language evolution. Language is
sound. Linguists are primarily concerned with speech. Writing is
a secondary activity. The English language is one that most widely
spread around the world in around the world in using as a
universal language.
English is a West Germanic language that originated from the
Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Britain by Germanic invaders
and/or settlers from various parts of what is now northwest
Germany and the Netherlands. Initially, Old English was a diverse

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group of dialects, reflecting the varied origins of the Anglo-Saxon
kingdoms of Britain. One of these dialects, Late West Saxon,
eventually became predominant.
The English language underwent extensive change in the
middle Ages. Written Old English of AD 1000 is similar in
vocabulary and grammar to other old Germanic languages such as
Old High German and Old Norse, and completely unintelligible to
modern speakers, while the modern language is already largely
recognizable in written Middle English of AD 1400. The
transformation was caused by two further waves of invasion: the
first by speakers of the Scandinavian branch of the Germanic
language family, who conquered and colonized parts of Britain in
the 8th and 9th
centuries; the second by the Normans in the 11th
century, who spoke Old Norman and ultimately developed an
English variety of this called Anglo-Norman. A large proportion
of the modern English vocabulary comes directly from Anglo-
Norman.

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English is a member of the Germanic family of languages.
Germanic is a branch of the Indo-European language family.
Creative diagram by (http://www.englishclub.com)
Close contact with the Scandinavians resulted in a significant
grammatical simplification and lexical enrichment of the Anglo-
Frisian core of English. However, these changes had not reached
South West England by the 9th
century AD, where Old English
was developed into a full-fledged literary language. The Norman
invasion occurred in 1066, and when literary English rose anew in
the 13th
century, it was based on the speech of London, much
closer to the center of Scandinavian settlement. Technical and
cultural vocabulary was largely derived from Old Norman, with
particularly heavy influence in the church, the courts, and
government. With the coming of the Renaissance, as with most
other developing European languages such as German and Dutch,
Latin and Ancient Greek supplanted Norman and French as the
main source of new words. Thus, English developed into very
much a "borrowing" language with an enormously disparate
vocabulary.3
The Importance of English Language
3abShore, Thomas William (1906),Origin of the Anglo-Saxon Race – A of the Settlement
of England and the Tribal Origin of the English People (1nd ed.), London, pp. 3- 393.

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Modern English, sometimes described as the first global
lingua franca,4
is the dominant language or in some instances
even the required international language of communications,
science, information technology, business, seafaring, aviation,
entertainment, radio and diplomacy.5
Its spread beyond the British
Isles began with the growth of the British Empire, and by the late
19th
century its reach was truly global.6
Following British
colonization from the 16th
to 19th
centuries, it became the dominant
language in the United States, Canada, Australia and New
Zealand. The growing economic and cultural influence of the US
and its status as a global superpower since World War II have
significantly accelerated the language's spread across the planet.7
English replaced German as the dominant language of science
Nobel Prize laureates during the second half of the 20th
century.
English equal and may have surpassed French as the dominant
language of diplomacy during the last half of the 19th
century.
4
http://www."Global English: gift or curse?".Retrieved 4 April 2005.abcd David Graddol
(1997). “The Future of English” (PDF). The British Council.Retrieved 15 April 2007.
5
http://www."FAQ – Language proficiency requirements for licence holders – In which
languages does a licence holder need to demonstrate proficiency?".International Civil
Aviation Organization – Air Navigation Bureau. Retrieved 2 June 2011.
6
McGrath, Charles (2007-05-17). "Magazine Suspends Its Run in History". The New York
Times. Retrieved 2008-03-08.
7
http://www.abcd David Graddol (1997). "The Future of English?"(PDF).The British
Council.Retrieved 15 April 2007.

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A working knowledge of English has become a requirement
in a number of fields, occupations and professions such as
medicine and computing; as a consequence over a billion people
speak English to at least a basic level (see English as a foreign or
second language). It is one of six official languages of the United
Nations.8
One impact of the growth of English is the reduction of
native linguistic diversity in many parts of the world. Its influence
continues to play an important role in language attrition.
Conversely, the natural internal varieties of English along with
creoles and pidgin shave the potential to produce new distinct
languages from English over time.9
Because English is so widely spoken, it has often been
referred to as a "world language", the lingua franca of the modern
era,10
and while it is not an official language in most countries, it
is currently the language most often taught as a foreign language.
It is, by international treaty, the official language for aeronautical11
and maritime12
communications. English is an official language of
8
"UN official languages". UN.org.
9
Cheshire, Jenny (1991). English Around The World: Sociolinguistic Perspectives.
Cambridge University Press.doi:10.2277/0521395658. ISBN 0-521-39565-8.
10
http://www.abcdDavid Graddol (1997). "The Future of English" (PDF).The British
Council.Retrieved 15 April 2007.
11
http://www."ICAO Promotes Aviation Safety by Endorsing English Language
Testing". International Civil Aviation Organization. 13 October 2011.
12
http:www."IMO Standard Marine Communication Phrases".International Maritime

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the United Nations and many other international organizations,
including the International Olympic Committee.
English is the language most often studied as a foreign
language in the European Union, by 89% of schoolchildren, ahead
of French at 32%, while the perception of the usefulness of
foreign languages among Europeans is 68% in favour of English
ahead of 25% for French.13
Among some non-English-speaking
EU countries, a large percentage of the adult population claims to
be able to converse in English – in particular: 85% in Sweden,
83% in Denmark, 79% in the Netherlands, 66% in Luxembourg
and over 50% in Finland, Slovenia, Austria, Belgium, and
Germany.14
Books, magazines, and newspapers written in English are
available in many countries around the world, and English is the
most commonly used language in the sciences15
with Science
Citation Index reporting as early as 1997 that 95% of its articles
were written in English, even though only half of them came from
authors in English-speaking countries.
Organization.Archived from the original on 27 December 2003.
13
2006 survey by Eurobarometer, in the Official EU languages website
14
http://www."IMO Standard Marine Communication Phrases".International Maritime
Organization.Archived from the original on 27 December 2003.
15
http://www.abcdDavid Graddol (1997). "The Future of English"(PDF).The British
Council.Retrieved 15 April 2007.

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This increasing use of the English language globally has had
a large impact on many other languages, leading to language shift
and even language death,16
and to claims of linguistic
imperialism.17
English itself has become more open to language
shift as multiple regional varieties feed back into the language as a
whole.18
Conclusion
The English history is very important for all learners, when
you are learning a language we need to learn its history in order to
understand the reason of grammar rules and the origin of the
vocabulary, in this way, through the knowledge of the language
roots, learning a new language can be easier. Along my academic
life as an English learner, I have never heard about its history. I
find this subject very relevant for being introduced into the
teaching action, in order to make pupils aware of the functionality
of managing a new language.
…………………………………………
16David Crystal (2000) Language Death, Preface; viii, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge
17abJambor, Paul Z. 'English Language Imperialism: Points of View', Journal of English as
an International Language, April 2007 – Volume 1, pp. 103–123 (Accessed in 2007)
18
Ibid.p.115.

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Exercise
1. What is the best important thing for learning English
language?
……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………
2. Please summarize note about history of English language
as well as you can according to this chapter.
……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………….

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Chapter 2
Sentence Structure
Scope of the Study in Chapter 2
1. Sentence structure
2. Basic Sentence Structure
3. Subjects and Predicates
4. Direct Object and Indirect Object
5. Subject Complement
6. Basic Sentence Patterns and Tenses
7. Summing Up Sentence Pattern and Structure
Objectives of the Study
1. Learning to know and understand the Sentence structure and
Basic Sentence Structure
2. Learning to know and understand Subjects and Predicates
3. Learning to know and understand Direct Object, Indirect
Object and Subject Complement
4. Learning to know and understand Basic Sentence Patterns
and Tenses
5. Summing Up Sentence Pattern and Structure

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Chapter 2
Sentence Structure
Basic Sentence Structure
According to my own experiences in learning English
grammar mostly it is not difficult as many learners feared or
worried about. Every word in a sentence serves a specific purpose
within the structure of that particular sentence. According to rules
of grammar, sentence structure can sometimes be quite
complicated. For the sake of simplicity, however, the basic parts
of sentences will discussed here can be made easier to all learner
English grammar as follows:
Sentence Structure
There are five basic patterns around which most English
sentences are built. They are as follows:19
S-V Subject-Verb Yota sleeps.
Joy is eating.
Job will arrive next week.
S-V-O Subject-Verb- Object I like rice.
Joy loves her job.
19
Omaggio, Alice C. 1986. Teaching Language in Context: Proficiency-oriented
instruction. Boston: Heinle and Heinle. p.479.

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Job's eating an orange.
S-V-Adj Subject-Verb-Adjective He is good.
They are lazy.
She seems angry.
S-V-Adv Subject-Verb-Adverb Jay is here.
Plants are everywhere.
Nothing was there.
S-V-N Subject-Verb-Noun She is my girlfriend.
These women are doctors.
Mr. Yota is the teacher.
Note: At the heart of every English sentence is the
Subject-Verb relationship. Other elements can be added to make a
sentence more interesting, but they are not essential to its
formation.
The following sentences are examples of the S-V pattern.
She sleeps. Core sentence
She sleeps soundly. An adverb is added to describe how
she sleeps.
She sleeps on the sofa. A prepositional phrase is added to
tell where she sleeps.

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She sleeps every afternoon. A time expression is added to
tell when she sleeps.
She is sleeping right now. Verb tense is changed, but S-V
relationship remains the same.
Mary will sleep later. Subject is named and another tense
is used.
The dogs are sleeping in the garage. New subject may
require a different form of the verb.
Note: Any action verb can be used with this sentence pattern.
The following sentences are examples of the S-V-O pattern.
They like rice. Core sentence
The people like rice. Specific subject
The friendly people like rice. Subject modified
with an adjective
The people in the restaurant like rice. Subject
modified with an adjective
The people like boiled rice. Object modified with
an adjective
The people like hot, white rice. Object modified with
more than one adjective

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Note: Only transitive action verbs can be used with this
sentence pattern.
The following sentences are examples of the S-V-Adj.
pattern.
He is fine. Basic sentence with "be" verb
He seems happy. Basic sentence with another linking
verb
Yota is tall, black & white and handsome. Series of
adjectives
He appears very comfortable. Adverb or intensifier
added
George became sick last night. Different tense and
linking verb
Note: Only linking verbs can be used with this sentence
pattern.
The following sentences are examples of the S-V-Adv
pattern.
The teacher is here. Basic sentence
The teacher is over there. Using an adverb
phrase

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Teachers are everywhere. Plural noun and verb
used
The teachers are in the lobby. Prepositional phrase
functioning as adverb
Note: Only linking verbs can be used with this sentence
pattern.
The following sentences are examples of the S-V-N pattern.
The man is a doctor. Basic sentence
The women are doctors. Using plural noun
and verb
My father is a nice guy. Modified subject and
complement
My grandparents are senior citizens. Modified plural
subject and complement
Note: Only linking verbs can be used with this sentence
pattern. Other, less common structures are dealt with in another
unit. See also: parts of sentences: subject, predicate, direct object,
indirect object, complements.
There are many different ways of organizing words into
sentences. (Or we might say, Words can be organized into

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sentences in many different ways.)20
For this reason, describing
how to put a sentence together isn't as easy as explaining how to
bake a cake or assemble a model plane. There are no easy recipes,
no step-by-step instructions. But that doesn't mean that crafting an
effective sentence depends on magic or good luck.
Experienced writers understand that the basic parts of a
sentence can be combined and arranged in countless ways. So as
we work to improve our writing, it's important to understand what
these basic structures are and how to use them effectively.
We'll begin by introducing the traditional parts of speech and
the most common sentence structures. For practice in shaping
these words and structures into strong sentences, follow examples,
and expanded discussions. The two most basic parts of a sentence
are the subject and predicate
Subjects and Predicates
Subject
The subject of a sentence is the person, place, or
thing that is performing the action of the sentence. The
subject represents what or whom the sentence is about.
The simple subject usually contains a noun or pronoun
and can include modifying words, phrases, or clauses.
20
Cheshire, Jenny (1991). English around the World: Sociolinguistic
Perspectives,Cambridge University Press.

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The monk . . .
Predicate
The predicate expresses action or being within the
sentence. The simple predicate contains the verb and can
also contain modifying words, phrases, or clauses.
The monk / builds a pagoda.
The subject and predicate make up the two basic
structural parts of any complete sentence. In addition,
there are other elements, contained within the subject or
predicate, added meaning or detail. These elements
include the direct object, indirect object, and subject
complement. All of these elements can be expanded and
further combined into simple, compound, complex, or
compound/complex sentences.
Direct Object
The direct object receives the action of the
sentence. The direct object is usually a noun or pronoun.
The monk builds a pagoda.
The monk builds it.
Indirect Object
The indirect object indicates to whom or for whom
the action of the sentence is being done. The indirect
object is usually a noun or pronoun.

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The monk builds his temple a pagoda.
The monk builds it a pagoda.
Subject Complement
A subject complement either renames or describes
the subject, and therefore is usually a noun, pronoun, or
adjective. Subject complements occur when there is a
linking verb within the sentence (often a linking verb is
a form of the verb to be).
The monk is a good person.( person = noun which
renames the subject)
The monk seems kind.(kind = adjective which describes
the subject)
Note: As an example of the difference between parts of
speech and parts of a sentence, a noun can function within a
sentence as subject, direct object, indirect object, object of a
preposition, or subject complement.
Summary of Sentence Pattern
1. Basic Sentence Patterns
Subject + Verb
I swim. Joe swims. They swam.
Subject + Verb + Object
I drive a car. Joe plays the guitar. They ate dinner.

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Subject + Verb + Complement
I am busy. Joe became a doctor. They look sick.
Subject + Verb + Indirect Object + Direct Object
I gave her a gift. She teaches us English.
Subject + Verb + Object + Complement
I left the door open. We elected him president. They
named her Jane.
2. Tenses
Present Continuous
I am swimming. Joe is sleeping. They are jogging.
Present Simple
I play tennis. He swims every day. I usually swim for
two hours.
Present Perfect
I have eaten. He has just come home. They've already
gone.
Past Simple
I rested. He played tennis yesterday. They drove to
Boston.

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Past Continuous
I was sleeping. She was cooking a while ago. They
were talking.
Past Perfect
I had already seen it. He had played tennis.
3. Other
Possession
I have a camera. He owns a car. This house belongs to
them.
Location
I am here. He swims in the river. They live in the
mountains.
It's fun to swim.(Using adjectives similar to fun.)
It isn't healthy to smoke. Smoking is dangerous.
They agreed to swim.(Using verbs similar to agree.)
He didn't desire to work. They like to play.
They asked him to swim.(Using verbs similar to ask.)
He didn't advise me to work. They often encourage
me to work harder.

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They enjoy swimming.(Using verbs similar to enjoy.)
He didn't advise me to work. They often encourage
me to work harder.
Conclusion
Learning English grammar mostly it is not difficult as many
learners feared or worried about. Every word in a sentence serves
a specific purpose within the structure of that particular sentence.
According to rules of grammar, sentence structure can sometimes
be quite complicated. For the sake of simplicity, however, the
basic parts of sentences will discussed here can be made easier to
all learners English grammar.
All sentences have a structure. Structure means the shape of
the sentence. A simple sentence structure often looks like this:
Ø The dog (subject) ate (verb) the ping-pong ball. (object)
That’s a simple sentence. No problem. Simple structure But
any group of words which begins with a capital letter and
ends with a full stop is a sort of sentence – only it may not be
a grammatical sentence (subject + verb). It could be a
fragment or a command e.g.
………………………………………….

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Exercise
1.1 Please build the sentence following the abbreviate forms
below.
S-V
S-
V-O
S-
V-
Adj
S-V
Adv
S-
V-N
1.2 Please write these sentences to be abbreviate forms
He is fine.
He seems happy.
Jordan is tall, dark and
handsome.
He appears very
comfortable.
George became sick last
night.

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Chapter 3
Sentence Patterns
Scope of the Study in Chapter 3
1. Sentence Patterns
2. Verb of Being Patterns
3. Linking Verb Pattern
4. Action Verb Pattern
5. The Ten Sentence Patterns
Objectives of the Study
1. Learning to know and understand Sentence Patterns
2. Learning to know and understand Verb of Being Patterns and
Linking Verb Pattern
3. Learning to know and understand Action Verb Pattern
4. Learning to know and understand The Ten Sentence Patterns

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Chapter 3
Sentence Patterns
Basically in learning process of every language, the
understanding of sentence patterns is one of important thing that
all learner need for. The knowledge of how groups of words
function to convey units of thought further enhances our ability to
communicate clearly. This is why we need to know about sentence
patterns, the fundamentals of how those units of thought that we
call sentences are constructed. Just about all sentences in the
English language fall into ten patterns determined by the presence
and functions of nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.21
Verb of Being Patterns
The patterns are most easily classified according to the type
of verb used:22
Verb of being patterns (1, 2, 3) use a form of the verb to be
as the main verb in the sentence.
is are was were
has been have been had been
21
http://www.englishmistakeswelcome.com/sentence_patterns.htm retrieved on 12/2/2012
22
http://www.lovekraw.blogspot.com/2012/09/sentence-patterns-1.html retrieved on 4/9/2012

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Linking Verb Pattern
Linking verb patterns (4, 5) use one of the linking verbs as
the main verb in the sentence. The linking verb is followed by a
noun or adjective functioning as a subjective complement.
Smell, taste, look, feel, seem, become, appear, grow etc.
Action Verb Pattern
Action verb patterns (6, 7, 8, 9,10) use one of the many
action verbs as the main verb in the sentence. The action verb
may be either transitive (take a direct object) or intransitive (not
take a direct object).
See, jump, embrace, write, imagine, buy, plummet,
think etc.
Terms used to identify various parts of each sentence pattern
include the following:
 NP = noun phrase
This abbreviation refers to a headword noun and its modifiers
("noun phrase") functioning as a subject, direct object, indirect
object, subjective complement, or objective complement.
 NP1, NP2, NP3, etc. = designations for different
noun phrase functions

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Numbers in sequential order are used with each NP to
designate its difference from or similarity to other NPs before and
after it.
 V-be = verb of being
 LV = linking verb
 V-int = intransitive verb
 V-tr = transitive verb
 ADV/TP = adverbial of time or place
 ADJ = adjective
The Ten Sentence Patterns
1. NP1 + V-be + ADV/TP
The verb of being is followed by an adverb indicating where or
when.
See more information on subjects form
The adverbial indicating where or when may be a prepositional
phrase.

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2. NP1 + V-be + ADJ
The verb of being is followed by an adjective that functions as
the subjective complement.
See more information on subjective complements form
The adjectival functioning as the subjective complement may
be a prepositional phrase.
3. NP1 + V-be + NP1
The verb of being is followed by a noun that functions as the
subjective complement.
Note: The second NP receives the same numerical
designation as the first NP because the second NP, the subjective
complement, is the same as the subject (Mr. James = teacher).

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4. NP1 + LV + ADJ
The linking verb is followed by an adjective functioning as a
subjective complement.
The adjectival functioning as the subjective complement may
be a prepositional phrase.
5. NP1 + LV + NP1
The linking verb is followed by a noun functioning as a
subjective complement.
Note: The second NP receives the same numerical
designation as the first NP because the second NP, the subjective
complement, is the same as the subject (Joan = Buddhist).

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6. NP1 + V-int
The action verb takes no direct object.
Even if the action verb is followed by a prepositional phrase,
the verb is still intransitive as long as it does not take a direct
object.
7. NP1 + V-tr + NP2
The action verb is followed by a direct object.
See more-information on direct objects form
Note: The second NP, the direct object, receives a different
numerical designation (NP2) because it is not the same as the
subject (NP1).

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8. NP1 + V-tr + NP2 + NP3
The action verb is followed by an indirect object and then a
direct object.
See more information on indirect objects
Note: The indirect object and the direct object each receive a
new numerical designation because each is different from the
other and both are different from the subject.
9. NP1 + V-tr + NP2 + ADJ
The action verb is followed by a direct object. The direct
object is followed by an adjective functioning as an objective
complement.
See more information on objective complements form
Note: The second NP, the direct object, receives a different
numerical designation (NP2) because it is not the same as the
subject (NP1).

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10. NP1 + V-tr + NP2 + NP2
The action verb is followed by a direct object. The direct
object is followed by a noun functioning as an objective
complement.
Note: The second NP, the direct object, receives a different
numerical designation (NP2) because it is not the same as the
subject (NP1). The third NP, the objective complement, receives
the same numerical designation as the direct object (NP2) because
it is the same as the direct object (Jacobsen = friend).
Conclusion
Sentence patterns usually describe what part of speech goes
first, second, third. For example, the most common sentence
pattern in English is Subject-Verb-Object, often shortened to S-V-
O, as in "She saw the movie." Another common sentence pattern
is Subject-Verb-Complement, S-V-C, as in "He is cute."
Questions in English are usually V-S, as in "Did they?"
Concluding Sentence Patterns—Compare and Contrast
Paragraph The concluding sentence restates the items that were
compared and contrasted in the paragraph. Examples to

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summarize, the car buyer should consider these points as well as
the obvious price difference when deciding which of these cars to
purchase. Now that you know something about the similarities and
differences between souqs and shopping malls, you can decide
where you want to shop. In conclusion, Ali and Fuad are similar
and different in many ways. However, it would seem the
differences outweigh the similarities. Type the sentence that
would make the better concluding sentence for that paragraph and
indicate which function that concluding sentence serves.
………………………………………………..
Exercise
3.1. Please build the sentences by use the whole kinds of verb as
follows:
is are was were
has been have been had been
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................

35. Advanced English
35
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
smell taste look feel seem become appear grow
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
see jump embrace write imagine buy think
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................

36. Advanced English
36
3.2 Please write the whole kinds of verb of being or (V. to be) as
follows:
 V-be = verb of being
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
 LV = linking verb
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
 V-int = intransitive verb
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
 V-tr = transitive verb
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
 ADV/TP = adverbial of time or place
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
 ADJ = adjective
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
3.3 Please build the sentences following the structural
forms below:

37. Advanced English
37
NP1 + V-be + ADV/TP
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
NP1 + V-be + ADJ
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
NP1 + V-be + NP1
...............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
NP1 + LV + ADJ
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
NP1 + LV + NP1
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................

38. Advanced English
38
NP1 + V-int
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
NP1 + V-tr + NP2
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
NP1 + V-tr + NP2 + NP3
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
NP1 + V-tr + NP2 + ADJ
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
NP1 + V-tr + NP2 + NP2
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................

39. Advanced English
39
Chapter 4
Elements of Sentence Structuring
Scope of the Study in Chapter 4
1. Elements of Sentence Structuring
2. Independent Clauses and Dependent Clauses
3. Compounding Sentence Elements and Avoiding Fragments
4. Avoiding Comma Splices and Fused Sentences
5. Sentence Types and Punctuation
6. The Value of Punctuation
7. Table Chart of Punctuation Marks
Objectives of the Study
1. Learning to know and understand Elements of Sentence
Structuring
2. Independent Clauses and Dependent Clauses
3. Learning to know and understand Compounding Sentence
Elements and Avoiding Fragments
4. Learning to know and understand Avoiding Comma Splices
and Fused Sentences
5. Learning to know and understand Sentence Types and
Punctuation and the Value of Punctuation
6. Learning to know and understand Table Chart of
Punctuation Marks

40. Advanced English
40
Chapter 4
Elements of Sentence Structuring
In this chapter that I will explain and give the example which
it concerned with elements of sentence structuring, there are eight
components to consist of each sentence. Part of speech is the
common name for a word class--a category into which words are
placed according to the work they do in a sentence.23
Here we'll be
introduced to the eight traditional parts of speech. Parts of speech
have specific tasks to perform when they are put together in a
sentence. See an example below:
Table Chart of Parts of Speech
Part of
Speech
Basic Function Examples
Noun names a person, place, or
thing
pirate, Caribbean,
ship
23
http://www.towson.edu/ows/sentpatttrans.html by Margaret L.
Benner, benner@towson.edu.For educational purposes
only. All commercial uses strictly prohibited. Copyright © 2012, 2011, 2010, 2009, 2008,
2007, 2006, 2005, 2004, 2003 Towson University. All rights reserved. Retrieved on
8/4/2012.

41. Advanced English
41
Pronoun takes the place of a noun I, you, he, she, it,
ours, them, who
Verb identifies action or state of
being
sing, dance, believe,
be
Adjective
Adverb
modifies a noun hot, lazy, funny
modifies a verb, adjective,
or other adverb
softly, lazily, often
Preposition shows a relationship
between a noun (or
pronoun) and other words
in a sentence
up, over, against,
by, for
Conjunction joins words, phrases, and
clauses
and, but, or, yet
Interjection expresses emotion ah, whoops, ouch
(See more details about English grammar in part of speech)
Note: Though some traditional grammars have treated
articles (the, a[n]) as a distinct part of speech, contemporary

42. Advanced English
42
grammars more often include articles in the category of
determiners.
A noun or pronoun functions as the sentence subject when it
is paired with a verb functioning as the sentence predicate. Every
sentence has a subject and predicate.24
Subject
A subject can be a noun or pronoun that is partnered with an
action verb.
Example:
Sometimes a verb will express being or existence instead of
action.
Example:
24
Learn English Network. “English Grammar – Simple Sentence Construction.”Learn
English: LEO Network. (2007). See more details:
http://www.learnenglish.de/grammar/sentencetext.htm#Object.

43. Advanced English
43
Sometimes we use sentences in which a subject is not
actually stated, but is, nevertheless, understood in the meaning.
Example:
A sentence like this gives an order or a request to
someone.
Because we use such statements when we are talking directly
to someone, we omit the word you. It is understood in the
sentence. Therefore, in statements like this one, we say the
subject is
You (understood).
This kind of sentence is an imperative sentence.
Predicate
A predicate is a verb that expresses the subject's action or
state of being.
Example:

44. Advanced English
44
Sometimes the predicate will be composed of two or three verbs
that fit together - the main verb preceded by one or more
auxiliary (helping) verbs.
Note: To be a predicate, a verb that ends in -ing must
always have a helping verb with it. An -ing verb without a
helping verb cannot be a predicate in a sentence. A subject and
predicate may not always appear together or in the normal order,
as the following examples show:
Phrases
A phrase is a group of related words that

45. Advanced English
45
1. does not express a complete thought
2.does not have a subject and predicate pair
One type of phrase is a prepositional phrase.
Examples:
Another kind of phrase is a verbal phrase.
Examples:
Even though these phrases contain nouns (pronouns) and/or
verb forms, none of the nouns/pronouns/verbs are subjects or
predicates. None of them work as a partnership.
Also, these phrases do not express complete thoughts.
Clauses
Words and phrases can be put together to make clauses.
A clause is a group of related words that contain a
subject and predicate.Note the difference between phrases
and clauses in the following examples:
Only one of the clauses is a sentence.

46. Advanced English
46
Clause #1 gives a thought or an idea that is complete, that can
stand by itself, independent of other words.
However, clause #2 gives an incomplete thought or idea, one
that cannot stand by itself, one that needs some more words to
make it whole. The word after changes the meaning, making the
thought incomplete, after reading this clause, we are left hanging.
These two clauses illustrate the two kinds of clauses:
Independent Clauses and Dependent Clauses
An independent clause is a group of words that
contains a subject, a predicate, and a complete thought.
A dependent clause is a group of words that contains a
subject and a predicate, but does not express a complete
thought.
Compounding Sentence Elements
Words, phrases, and clauses may be joined to one another
inside a sentence with a conjunction. The coordinating
conjunctions and, but, or, and nor may join subjects, predicates,
adjectives, adverbs, prepositional phrases or dependent clauses

47. Advanced English
47
within a sentence. This process is called "compounding."25
The
following examples show the process of compounding
Words
Phrases
Clauses
25
http://www.towson.edu/ows/sentpatttrans.htmby Margaret L.
Benner, benner@towson.edu.For educational purposes
only. All commercial uses strictly prohibited. Copyright © 2012, 2011, 2010, 2009, 2008,
2007, 2006, 2005, 2004, 2003 Towson University. All rights reserved, Retrieved on
8/4/2012.

48. Advanced English
48
When entire independent clauses (simple sentences) are
joined this way, they become compound sentences.
Avoiding Fragments
A complete sentence needs only two elements:
a subject - predicate unit and a complete
thought
In other words, a simple sentence is actually the same
thing as an independent clause.
Dependent clauses or phrases are called fragments
because they are missing one or more parts needed to make a
sentence. Therefore, they are only pieces or fragments of
complete sentences.
Look at these examples:

49. Advanced English
49
Avoiding Comma Splices and Fused Sentences
Sometimes two independent clauses (simple sentences) can
be joined to form another kind of sentence: the compound
sentence.26
Two major errors can occur when constructing
compound sentences.
Error #1: The Comma Splice
Writers make this error when they try to separate the two
independent clauses in a compound sentence with a comma
alone. A comma is not a strong enough punctuation mark to
separate the two independent clauses by itself; thus, using it
causes the clauses to be spliced together.
Example of a comma splice:27
This sentence can be repaired in three ways:
1. By adding an appropriate coordinating
conjunction
26
The New Fowler's Modern English Usage edited by R.W. Burchfield. Clarendon Press:
Oxford, England. 1996. Used with the permission of Oxford University Press.
27
Longman Guide to English Usage,Practical English Usage the Oxford Companion to the
English Language,This message has been edited. Last edited by: PromegaX, March 09,
2005.

50. Advanced English
50
2. By changing the comma to a semicolon
3. By changing the punctuation and adding an
appropriate conjunctive adverb
Error #2: The Fused Sentence
Writers make this error by joining two independent clauses
into a compound sentence without using any punctuation between
them. No punctuation between the two independent clauses causes
them to "fuse" into an incorrect compound sentence.
Example of a fused sentence:28
This sentence is also repaired in three ways:
1. By adding a comma and an appropriate coordinating
conjunction
28
http://www.grammar.about.com/od/fh/g/fusedsentenceterm.htm, fused sentence By
Richard Nordquist, retrieved 5/29/2012. For more guiding:
http://www.americanheritage.yourdictionary.com/fused-sentence, The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language, 4th
edition Copyright © 2010 Published by Houghton
Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company.

51. Advanced English
51
2. By placing a semicolon between the two clauses
3. By adding the needed punctuation and an appropriate
conjunctive adverb
Another way to repair a comma splice or fused sentence is to
make each independent clause into a simple sentence.
Sentence Types and Punctuation
A sentence may be one of four kinds, depending upon
the number and type(s) of clauses it contains.
An independent clause contains a subject, a verb, and a
complete thought.
A dependent clause contains a subject and a verb,
but no complete thought.

52. Advanced English
52
A Simple Sentence has one independent clause.
Punctuation note: NO commas separate compound elements
(subject, verb, direct object, indirect object, subjective
complement, etc.) in a simple sentence.29
A Compound Sentence
A Compound Sentence has two independent clauses
joined by
A. a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor,
but, or, yet, so),
B. a conjunctive adverb (e.g. however, therefore),
or
C. a semi colon alone.
Punctuation patterns (to match A, B, and C above):
29
Fries Charles, Carpenter. (1952). The Structure of English; an introduction to the
construction of English sentences, New York: Harcourt, Brace.

53. Advanced English
53
A. Independent clause, coordinating conjunction
independent clause
B. Independent clause; conjunctive adverb,
independent clause.
C. Independent clause; independent clause.
A Complex Sentence
A Complex Sentence has one dependent clause (headed by a
subordinating conjunction or a relative pronouns) joined to an
independent clause.
Punctuation patterns (to match A, B, C and D above):
A. Dependent clause, independent clause
B. Independent clause dependent clause
C. Independent, nonessential dependent
clause, clause.
D. Independent essential dependent clause clause.
A Compound-Complex Sentence
A Compound-Complex Sentence has two independent
clauses joined to one or more dependent clauses.

54. Advanced English
54
Punctuation Patterns:
Follow the rules given above for compound and complex
sentences.
A compound-complex sentence is merely a combination of the
two.
Connectors-Compound and Complex Sentences
Two independent clauses may be joined by
1. Coordinating conjunctions (Fan boys) Ic, and ic
2. Conjunctive adverbs Ic; therefore, ic.
A dependent (subordinate) Clause may be Introduced by
1. Subordinating conjunctions (Adverb
Clause) Dc, ic. Or Ic dc.
2. Relative pronouns (Adjective Clause) I, dc, c.
or I dc c.

55. Advanced English
55
3. Relative pronoun, subordinating conjunctions, or
adverbs (Noun Clause)
Punctuations
Adverb clause:
Examples:
Because she was sick, she didn’t come to
attend the speech.
She didn’t come to attend the speech
because she was sick.
An adverb clause may precede or follow
an independent clause.
A comma is used if the adverb clause
comes first.
Preposition
Because of her sickness, she didn’t come to attend the
speech.
She didn’t come to attend the speech because of her
sickness.
A preposition is followed by a noun, not by a subject
and verb.

56. Advanced English
56
A comma is usually used if the prepositional phrase
precedes the subject and verb of the independent
clause.
Conjunction
She was sick, so she didn’t come to attend the speech.
A conjunction comes between two independent
clauses.
Usually a comma is used immediately in front of a
conjunction.
Transition
He worked very hard. (;) Therefore, he passed his
exams.
He worked very hard. (;) He, therefore, he passed his
exams.
He worked very hard. (;) He passed his exams,
therefore.
Either a period or a semicolon may be used between the two
dependent clauses. A comma may not be used to separate the
clauses.
Commas are usually used to set the transition off from the
rest of the sentence.
Review: Punctuation Marks

57. Advanced English
57
Apostrophes
Colons
Commas
Dashes
Italics
Parentheses
Quotation Marks
Semicolons
Apostrophe
1. To show ownership (to form the possessive case of nouns)
Examples
2. To show joint ownership with nouns
Example
3. To show individual ownership with nouns

58. Advanced English
58
Example
4. To show ownership with indefinite pronouns
Examples
Note: Do not use an apostrophe to form the possessive case
of the personal possessive pronoun its.
Example
Do use an apostrophe with its to mean it is or it has
Correct
5. To form the plural of letters, numbers, and signs, and of
words referred to as words.
Examples

59. Advanced English
59
Parentheses
1. To enclose interrupting elements that added information
or identification
Examples
2. To enclose figures or letters when used for
enumeration within a sentence
Example
Dash
To set off parenthetical matter
Example
Note: Unlike parentheses, which minimize the

60. Advanced English
60
importance of the parenthetical material, dashes emphasize
parenthetical material.
Notice the different emphasis in each sentence.
Italics (underlining)
1. For words, letters, and figures referred to as such
Examples
2. For foreign, technical (including mathematical
expressions), or unusual words and phrases.
Examples
3. For titles of books, newspapers, magazines, journals, plays,
movies, radio programs, TV programs, long musical works,
long poems, works of art, names of ships and airplanes.

61. Advanced English
61
Examples
Quotation Marks
1. To enclose titles of minor works: articles, essays,
poems, songs, chapters of books,
short stories, episodes of radio/TV programs.
Examples
2. To enclose words used ironically or where the
term so-called could be inserted.
Examples
3. To enclose a direct quotation: a person's exact
words
Example
Note: Do not use quotation marks to enclose indirect
quotations.

62. Advanced English
62
Incorrect
Correct
If the quotation within another quotation is a question
or an exclamation, place appropriate punctuation next to the
item concerned.
Examples
Question quotation inside statement
Quotation:
Statement quotation inside question quotation
Question quotation inside question quotation
Exclamation quotation inside question
quotation or Question quotation inside exclamation
quotation

63. Advanced English
63
Note: Punctuation is the system of symbols (. , ! - : etc) that
we use to separate sentences and parts of sentences, and to make
their meaning clear. Each symbol is called a "punctuation mark".30
The Value of Punctuation
An English teacher wrote these words on the board: 31
Woman without her man is nothing.
The teacher then asked the students to punctuate the
words correctly. The men wrote the top line. The women
wrote the bottom line.
30
Robbins, Sonia Jaffe. “Punctuation: A Brief History.” Editing Workshop, Journalism
Department. New York University, Journalism Department, NYU Web (2005, January 16)
See more http://www.englishclub.com/writing/punctuation.htm retrieved on 5/18/2012.
31
Robbins, Sonia Jaffe. “Punctuation: A Brief History.” Editing Workshop, Journalism
Department. New York University,Journalism Department, NYU Web (2005, January 16).
http://www.nyu.edu/classes/copyXediting/Punctuation.html#history,“A Grammar Toolkit
(10.).” The American Heritage Book of English Usage: A Practical and Authoritative Guide
to Contemporary English [Electronic version]. (1996). http://www.bartleby.com/64/10.html

64. Advanced English
64
Table Chart of Punctuation Marks
Punctuation Mark Name Example
full stop or
period I like English.
comma
I speak English,
French and Thai.
semi-colon
I don't often go
swimming; I prefer to
play tennis.
colon
You have two choices:
finish the work today
or lose the contract.
hyphen
This is a rather out-of-
date book.
dash
In each town—
London, Paris and
Rome—we stayed in
youth hostels.
question
mark Where is Shangri-La?
exclamation
mark
exclamation
"Help!" she cried. "I'm
drowning!"

65. Advanced English
65
point
(AmE)
slash,
forward
slash or
oblique
Please press your
browser's
Refresh/Reload
button.
backslash C:UsersFilesjse.doc
double
quotation
marks
"I love you," she said.
single
quotation
marks 'I love you,' she said.
apostrophe This is John's car.
underline
Have you read War
and Peace?
underscore bin_lad@cia.gov
round
brackets
I went to Bangkok
(my favourite city)
and stayed there for

66. Advanced English
66
two weeks.
square
brackets
The newspaper
reported that the
hostages [most of
them French] had
been released.
ellipsis
mark
One happy customer
wrote: "This is the
best program...that I
have ever seen."
(The Table of Summary of Punctuation Marks By
http://www.englishclub.com)
English Tips
Although there are general rules for English punctuation,
there are differences of style between, for example, British and
American English, some publishers and some writers. Anyone
seeking guidance at an advanced level is recommended to consult
a style guide (often included in good dictionaries) for their
particular variety of English or editorial style.
Conclusion
Every word in a sentence serves a specific purpose within the
structure of that particular sentence. According to rules of
grammar, sentence structure can sometimes be quite
complicated. For the sake of simplicity, however, the basic parts
of a sentence are discussed here. The two most basic parts of a
sentence are the subject and predicate. The subject of a sentence

67. Advanced English
67
is the person, place, or thing that is performing the action of the
sentence. The subject represents what or whom the sentence is
about. The simple subject usually contains a noun or pronoun and
can include modifying words, phrases, or clauses. The man ....The
predicate expresses action or being within the sentence. The
simple predicate contains the verb and can also contain modifying
words, phrases, or clauses.
For more information on the structure and formation of
sentences, see the following TIP Sheets:
Sentence Types and Purposes32
1. Sentence Fragments
2. Independent and Dependent Clauses: Coordination
and Subordination
3. Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases
4.Other Phrases: Verbal, Appositive, Absolute
5. Comma Splices and Run-on Sentences
6.The Eight Parts of Speech
7.Nouns
8.Pronouns
9.Verbs
10.Adjectives
11.Adverbes
32
Fries Charles, Carpenter. (1952). The Structure of English; an introduction to the
construction of English sentences, New York: Harcourt, Brace

68. Advanced English
68
12.Conjunctions
13.Interjections etc.
………………………………………………..
Exercise 1
Writing Skill in Grammar Structures
Directions: Please write these abbreviate of alphabets / words to
be full word and give two examples by writing the full sentence
Ex. S. = Subject = I, You, We, They, He, She, It etc.
1. N.
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
2. NP.
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................

69. Advanced English
69
3. VP. Or Gerund ing. To
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
4. Nprop. Obarma
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
5. Ncom. bird
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
6. Ncount.
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................

70. Advanced English
70
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
7. Nuncount.
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
8. Nsing.
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
.....................................................
9. Npl.
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................

71. Advanced English
71
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
10. Art.
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
11. Art Def.
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
12. Art Indef.
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
13. Num.

72. Advanced English
72
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
14. NumC.
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
15. NumO.
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
16. Aux.
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................

73. Advanced English
73
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
17. Adj.
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
18. Adv.
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
19. V.
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................

74. Advanced English
74
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
Exercise 2
Directions: In the text boxes provided below each item, identify
the sentence's simple subject and simple predicate.
1. Four young soldiers led the troops into battle.
Subject =
Predicate =
2. In less than two hours, the entire cake had been eaten.
Subject =
Predicate =
3. For most of his career, Jim has ridden his bicycle to his office.
Subject =
Predicate =
4. Two beautiful goldfish in the pond were eating the insects on
the top of the water.
Subject =
Predicate =
5. Until that last telephone call, I was having a wonderful day.
Subject =
Predicate =
6. Last week's fire was started by an arsonist from a nearby town.

75. Advanced English
75
Subject =
Predicate =
7. Her latest statement to the press was carefully worded.
Subject =
Predicate =
8. Novels by E. L. Doctorow are my favorite.
Subject =
Predicate =
9. The farmers in that part of the county are planting their fields
this week.
Subject =
Predicate =
10. You eat your food slowly.
Subject =
Predicate =
Answer Key
Identifying Subjects and Predicates - Exercise 1
The correct answers are given below. For help with subjects and
predicates,
1. Four young soldiers led the troops into battle.
Subject = soldiers Predicate = led
Your answers: subject= predicate=
2. In less than two hours, the entire cake had been eaten.

76. Advanced English
76
Subject = cake Predicate = had been eaten
Your answers: subject= predicate=
3. For most of his career, Jim has ridden his bicycle to his office.
Subject = Jim Predicate = has ridden
Your answers: subject= predicate=
4. Two beautiful goldfish in the pond were eating the insects on
the top of the water.
Subject = goldfish Predicate = were eating
Your answers: subject= predicate=
5. Until that last telephone call, I was having a wonderful day.
Subject = I Predicate = was having
Your answers: subject= predicate=
6. Last week's fire was started by an arsonist from a nearby town.
Subject = fire Predicate = was started
Your answers: subject= predicate=
7. Her latest statement to the press was carefully worded.
Subject = statement Predicate = was worded
Your answers: subject= predicate=
8. Novels by E. L. Doctorow are my favorite.
Subject = novels Predicate = are
Your answers: subject= predicate=
9. The farmers in that part of the county are planting their fields
this week.

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Subject = farmers Predicate = are planting
Your answers: subject= predicate=
10. Eat your food slowly.
Subject = "you" understood Predicate = eat
Your answers: subject= predicate=

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Chapter 5
Expansion of Phrases to Clauses
Scope of the Study in Chapter 5
1. Expansion of Phrases to Clauses
1.1. What are Phrases and Clauses?
1.2. How Can We Identify Phrases and Clauses?
1.3. Five Basic Structures of Simple Sentences
1.4. Samples of Patterns Expanded with Clauses and Phrases
1.5. Subject/Verb expanded with a dependent relative clause
and a prepositional phrase
1.6. Subject/Verb/Object expanded with a participial phrase
and Subject/Verb/Object expanded with a dependent
adverbial clause
1.7. Subject/Verb/Object expanded with a dependent relative
clause
1.8. A Guide to Phrases and Clauses
Objectives of the Study
1. Learning to Know and Understand Expansion of Phrases to
Clauses
1.1. What are Phrases and Clauses?
1.2. How Can We Identify Phrases and Clauses?
1.3. Five Basic Structures of Simple Sentences
1.4. Samples of Patterns Expanded with Clauses and Phras

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1.5. Subject/Verb expanded with a dependent relative clause
and a prepositional phrase
1.6. Subject/Verb/Object expanded with a participial phrase
and Subject/Verb/Object expanded with a dependent
adverbial clause
1.7. Subject/Verb/Object expanded with a dependent relative
clause
1.8. A Guide to Phrases and Clauses

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Chapter 5
Expansion of Phrases to Clauses
This chapter I would like to give you understanding the
definition of phrases and clauses, how can we identify phrases and
clauses included with explaining and giving the example about the
structure of simple sentences throughout guiding to phrases and
clauses, here we’ll continue what are phrases and clauses.
What are Phrases and Clauses?
Phrases and clauses are groups of related words that serve as
building blocks of sentences on a larger scale than parts of speech.
A clause contains both a subject and a verb whereas a phrase does
not. Understanding phrases and clauses and knowing how to
recognize them help writers create varied sentences and avoid
problems such as run-on sentences, fragments, and punctuation
errors.33
How Can We Identify Phrases and Clauses?
A phrase, which generally consists of multiple parts of
speech, behaves as a unit like a single part of speech. In the
following examples, note how phrases take on the roles of nouns,
verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. (Phrases that begin with a
33
http://web.cn.edu/kwheeler/gram_clauses_n_phrases.htmlCopyright Dr. L. Kip Wheeler
1998-2012. Permission is granted for non-profit, educational, and student reproduction. Last
updated 2 January, 2013

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preposition—called “prepositional phrases”—can fulfill various
functions, particularly as adjective phrases, adverb phrases, or part
of noun phrases.34
)
Noun phrases name a person, place, thing, or idea.
Buying a home can be a stressful ordeal.
My elegant Aunt Ida adores that mangy one-eyed mutt
of hers.
Verb phrases express action or state of being.
We may have been mistaken about the car’s reliability.
The Sampson twins will be traveling in Belize all next
month.
Adjective phrases describe nouns.
The bird, a beautiful yellow grosbeak, is chirping
gleefully.
The tree on your left is a popular haven for such
species.
Adverb phrases describe verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, or
even whole sentences.
Because of the recent rainfall, our vegetable garden is
thriving.
I wish all people could live with music in their hearts.
Clauses fit into two main categories: independent and dependent.
34
http://www.eslgold.com/grammar/clauses_phrases.html/Last updated: 15 February, 2010.

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An independent clause may stand alone as a complete
sentence because it contains a
subject and a verb and forms a complete idea. A sentence made of
one independent clause is called a “simple sentence.”35
A sentence
made of two or more independent clauses is called a “compound
sentence.”36
Note that these distinctions rely on the particular
combination of subject (underlined) and verb (double-underlined)
rather than the length of the sentence.
(Uncle Jay’s two Siamese kittens kept me awake all
night long with their constant mewing and wrestling.)
(I sing,] and [she dances.)
A dependent clause contains a subject and a verb but does not
form a complete idea.
(When Laney scratched off the final number on the
lottery ticket)
Do you feel the suspense?
A dependent clause needs an independent clause to
finish the thought and become a complete sentence. This type
of sentence is called a “complex sentence.”37
A sentence with
35
Omaggio, Alice C. 1986. Teaching language in context : Proficiency-oriented
instruction. Boston: Heinle and Heinle. p.479.
36
http://www.orl.devry.edu/tutoring/Phrase,%20Clause,%20Sentence.html retrieved on
3/3/2012.
37
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All rights Reserved. Posted on 18.3.12.24.30

83. Advanced English
83
at least one dependent clause and at least two independent
clauses is called a “compound-complex sentence.”38
(When Laney scratched off the final number on the
lottery ticket,) she remembered the reason for her
nickname, Luckless Laney.
The movie (that I saw last weekend) wasn’t nearly as
good as the popcorn.
Mr. Wu will not visit tomorrow (unless he can get his
car repaired this afternoon).
Five Basic Structures of Simple Sentences
Recognizing the five basic structures of simple sentences can
be helpful as you later begin to identify subordinate structures that
expand these simple structures. At the heart of any complete
sentence, you will find one or more of these basic patterns.
Sometimes the patterns are not obvious as they appear when listed
together. However, as you become familiar with these structures,
you will become skilled in recognizing and expanding them with
subordinate structures.
38
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All rights Reserved. Posted on 18.3.12.24.30

84. Advanced English
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Basic Pattern Pattern Example
1. Subject/Verb Edward laughed.
The baby crawls and coos.
Spring rain and flowers abound.
2. Subject/Verb/Direct Object Margaret recalled a
memory.
Susan shovels snow.
President Obama gave a speech.
3. Subject/Verb/Complement The consultant seemed
pleasant.
All applicants were UM
graduates.
Our house is sturdy.
4. Subject/Verb/Indirect Object/ The new candidate give
me hope.
Direct Object I offered the
candidate my support.
He gave the child a stern
look.

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85
5. Subject/Verb/Direct Object/ The girl thinks herself
intelligent.
Object Complement The children made David
“it.”
Squirrels drove the dogs
mad.
You will notice that these basic sentence types can be
expanded by dependent (subordinate) structures like dependent
adverbial clauses, dependent relative clauses, and the variety of
phrases made up of dependent prepositional, participial,
appositive, and absolute phrases. These are all strategies of
sentence expansion.
Samples of Patterns Expanded with Clauses and Phrases
Subject/Verb expanded with a prepositional phrase:
A herd of elk gathered (beside the stream.)
New students arrive (at the end of August).
Subject/Verb expanded with a dependent relative clause
and a prepositional phrase:
The house, (which was originally built in the 1920s),
stood (next to an old mill).
Her computer, (which was donated by a colleague),
crashed (during a data analysis).

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Subject/Verb/Object expanded with a participial phrase:
(Hearing a loud clap of thunder), the campers gathered
their gear.
(Intending to garner support for his campaign), the
politician delivered his speech.
Subject/Verb/Object expanded with a dependent
adverbial clause:
The campers packed their gear (while rain soaked the
ground).
(Although the forecast calls for freezing temperatures),
she planted her garden.
Subject/Verb/Object expanded with a dependent relative
clause:
The athlete, (who knew her own prowess), scored a
goal.
Her father, (who could hardly contain his excitement),
let loose a cheer.
Subject/Verb/Object expanded with all of the above:
(Using all her strength), the athlete, (who knew her own
prowess), scored a goal (while her father cheered from
the stands).

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The other three basic sentence patterns can also be
expanded in the same manner.
A Guide to Phrases and Clauses
Phrases
1.Prepositional phrases (over the rainbow)
a. as adjectives
b. as adverbs
2. Adjectival phrases (free from government
control)
3. Verbal –ing phrase [present participle] (running
five miles each day)
a. as adjective
b. as noun
c. as adverb (sometimes)
4. Verbal –ed phrase [past participle] (written in
2001)
a. as adjective
5. Verbal to phrase [infinitive] (to win the game)
6. Truncated clause [subordinating conjunction +
five structures {adj phrase, -ing phrase, -ed phrase,
prepositional phrase, noun} ] (when in Rome)

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88
7. Noun absolute [noun or pronoun + five
structures] (his knees shaking)
8. Noun appositive (the reserve catcher)
Clauses
9. Dependent adjectival clause (she slept in the
barn)
a. as a restrictive that clause
b. as a nonrestrictive which clause
c. as a restrictive and nonrestrictive
who/whom/whose clause
10. Dependent adverbial clause (because he
enjoyed the special effects)
11. Dependent noun clause (that he would prevail)
(See more concerned details in chapter 4 pp.19-25)
Conclusion
The definition of phrases and clauses, how can we identify
phrases and clauses included with explaining and giving the
example about the structure of simple sentences throughout
guiding to phrases and clauses, by continue what are phrases and
clauses. Phrases and clauses are groups of related words that serve
as building blocks of sentences on a larger scale than parts of
speech. A clause contains both a subject and a verb whereas a

89. Advanced English
89
phrase does not. Understanding phrases and clauses and knowing
how to recognize them help writers create varied sentences and
avoid problems such as run-on sentences, fragments, and
punctuation errors. How Can We Identify Phrases and Clauses? A
phrase, which generally consists of multiple parts of speech,
behaves as a unit like a single part of speech. In the following
examples, note how phrases take on the roles of nouns, verbs,
adjectives, and adverbs. (Phrases that begin with a preposition—
called “prepositional phrases”—can fulfill various functions,
particularly as adjective phrases, adverb phrases, or part of noun
phrases.Clauses fit into two main categories: independent and
dependent.
A dependent clause needs an independent clause to finish the
thought and become a complete sentence. This type of sentence is
called a “complex sentence.”39
A sentence with at least one
dependent clause and at least two independent clauses is called a
“compound-complex sentence.”40
And “Five Basic Structures of
Simple Sentences” Recognizing the five basic structures of simple
sentences can be helpful as you later begin to identify subordinate
structures that expand these simple structures.41
At the heart of
39
Omaggio, Alice C. 1986. Teaching language in context : Proficiency-oriented
instruction. Boston: Heinle and Heinle. p.479.
40
http://www.englishpractice.com/improve/phrases-clauses/ EnglishPractice.com © 2013 –
All rights Reserved. Posted on 18.3.12.24.30.
41
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All rights Reserved. Posted on 18.3.12.24.30.

90. Advanced English
90
any complete sentence, you will find one or more of these basic
patterns. Sometimes the patterns are not obvious as they appear
when listed together. However, as you become familiar with these
structures, you will become skilled in recognizing and expanding
them with subordinate structures.
You will notice that these basic sentence types can be
expanded by dependent (subordinate) structures like dependent
adverbial clauses, dependent relative clauses, and the variety of
phrases made up of dependent prepositional, participial,
appositive, and absolute phrases. These are all strategies of
sentence expansion.
…………………………………………………………….
Exercise
Using the examples as a guide, expand each sentence or word
group below by adding an appropriate adjective clause.
Examples:
(1) I admire the person who _____.
Sample sentence #1: I admire the person who first dared to
eat a tomato.
Sample sentence #2: I admire the person who has the
courage to speak her mind.
(2) The house in which _____ was run down and smelled like

91. Advanced English
91
boiled cabbage.
Sample sentence #1: The house in which my teacher lived
was run down and smelled like boiled cabbage.
Sample sentence #2: The house in which the body was
found was run down and smelled like boiled cabbage.
A simple sentence may be converted into a complex
sentence by expanding a word or phrase into a subordinate noun
clause, adjective clause or adverb clause.
Study the following examples
By expanding a noun into a noun clause
A noun may be expanded into a noun clause.
He admitted his mistake.
He admitted that he had made a mistake. (Here the noun
mistake is expanded into the noun clause ‘that he had made a
mistake’.)

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92
We heard of his death. (Simple)
We heard that he had died. (Complex)
A noun phrase can also be expanded into a noun clause.
He seems to be a fool. (Simple)
It seems that he is a fool. (Complex. Here we expand the
phrase ‘a fool’ into the clause ‘that he is a fool’.)
I would like to know the secret of your success. (Simple)
I would like to know how you succeed. (Complex)
By expanding a word or phrase into an adverb clause
A word or phrase can be expanded into an adverb clause.
It is too hot to go out without an umbrella. (Simple)
It is so hot that we cannot go out without an umbrella.
(Complex)
Seeing the snake, the boy shouted.
When the boy saw the snake, he shouted.

93. Advanced English
93
We didn’t go out because of the rain.
We didn’t go out because it rained.
By expanding a word or phrase into an adjective clause
A simple sentence may be converted into a complex sentence
by expanding a word or phrase into an adjective clause.
Prudent boys work hard. (Simple)
Boys who are prudent work hard. (Complex)

94. Advanced English
94
Chapter 6
Sentence Pattern Transformations
Scope of the Study in Chapter 6
1. Sentence Pattern Transformations
1.1. Transform to Passive Voice
1.2. To Create the Transformation
1.3. Transform to the Expletive there is / there are
1.4. Transform to Negative and Transform to
Interrogative with yes-no Answer
1.5. Transform to Interrogative
1.6. Transform to Emphasis / Emphatic
1.6.1. Transform to Imperative
1.6.2. Transform to Exclamatory
Objectives of the Study
1. Learning to know and Understand Sentence Pattern
Transformations
1.1. Transform to Passive Voice
1.2. To Create the Transformation
1.3. Transform to the Expletive there is / there are
1.4. Transform to Negative and Transform to
Interrogative with yes-no Answer
1.5. Transform to Interrogative
1.6. Transform to Emphasis / Emphatic

95. Advanced English
95
1.6.1. Transform to Imperative
1.6.2. Transform to Exclamatory

96. Advanced English
96
Chapter 6
Sentence Pattern Transformations
In this chapter I will try to give an easily example and make a
shortly explanation about the sentence pattern transformation
show to write a sentence or clause, by changing the form of the
sentence, the other forms, by trying to preserve the original
meaning or may change the meaning some what, depending on the
purpose of the author himself. Is there a way to convert the
sentence with a collection of them? The ideas presented are not
well enough. The basic sentence patterns in the English language
may be transformed in the following ways:
Transform to Passive Voice
This transformation requires using a sentence with an action
verb and a direct object.
The sentence may be any of the following patterns:42
NP1 + V-tr + NP2 The dog ate the bone.
NP1 + V-tr + NP2 + NP3 Joe gave Mary a ring.
NP1 + V-tr + NP2 + Adj We consider Joe intelligent.
42
http://www.towson.edu/ows/sentpatttrans.htmby Margaret L. Benner, benner@towson.edu.
For educational purposes only. All commercial uses strictly prohibited. Copyright © 2012,
2011, 2010, 2009, 2008, 2007, 2006, 2005, 2004, 2003 Towson University. All rights
reserved, Retrieved on 8/4/2012.

97. Advanced English
97
NP1 + V-tr + NP2 + NP2 The people made Olaf king.
To Create the Transformation,
1. Make the direct object into the subject,
2. Add the "be" auxiliary and the -en ending to the main
verb, and
3. Place the original doer of the action into a
prepositional phrase beginning with by.
Examples:

98. Advanced English
98
Note: Do not change verb tense when transforming
sentences from active to passive.
Ate = was eaten
Gave = was given
Consider = is considered
Made = was made
Transform to the Expletive there is / there are
This transformation requires using a sentence with a verb of
being as the main verb. The sentence pattern must be
NP1 + V-be + ADV/TP. A fly is on the wall.
Two dogs were at the
park.
To Create the Transformation,
1. Place there at the beginning of the sentence and
2. Reverse positions of the subject and verb.
Examples:

99. Advanced English
99
Note: Do not change verb tense when creating there is /
there are transformation.
is = there is
is = There was
are = there
were = there were
Transform to Cleft/Divide
This transformation allows the writer to emphasize the
sentence subject or object. This transformation may be used with
any of the sentence patterns. There are two ways to create this
transformation.
Method 1
1. Begin the sentence with It and the appropriate
number and tense of the verb of being,
2. Focus on either the subject or direct object, and

100. Advanced English
100
3. Create a second half for the sentence that begins
with who, whom, or that.
Examples:
In the above example, the first cleft transformation
emphasizes the subject, dog, using three words to refer to the
dog: it, dog, and that.
The second cleft transformation emphasizes the direct object,
bone, using three words to refer to the bone: it, bone, and that.
In the above example, the first cleft transformation
emphasizes the direct object, Joe, using three words to refer to
Joe: it, Joe, and whom.
The second cleft transformation emphasizes the subject we,
using three words to refer to us it, we, and who.

101. Advanced English
101
Method 2
1. Begin the sentence with What,
2. Follow with the subject and verb, and
3. Insert the appropriate tense of the verb of being
and follow with the direct object.
Examples:
In the above example, the cleft transformation emphasizes
the direct object, bone, using two words to refer to bone: what
and bone.
This cleft transformation emphasizes the direct object, ring,
using two words to refer to the ring: what and ring.
Note: Do not change verb tense when creating the cleft
transformation.
Past Tense:
The dog ate the bone.

102. Advanced English
102
It was the dog who ate the bone.
It was the bone that the dog ate.
What the dog ate was the bone.
Present Tense:
We consider Joe intelligent.
It is Joe whom we consider Intelligent.
Past Tense:
Joe gave Mary a ring.
What Joe gave Mary was a ring.
Transform to Negative
This transformation may be used with any of the sentence
patterns.
To Create the Negative Transformation
1. with a verb of being as the main verb: Add not to the
verb.
Example

103. Advanced English
103
2. with an action or linking verb that has an auxiliary verb
(have or be): Add not to the verb
Example - action verb
Example - linking verb
3. With an action or linking verb that does not have an
auxiliary verb: Add not and the appropriate number and tense of
do.
Example - action verb
Example - linking verb

104. Advanced English
104
Transform to Interrogative with yes-no answer
This transformation may be used with any of the sentence
patterns. To transform sentences into the interrogative with yes-no
answer,
1. with a verb of being as the main verb: Transpose the
position of the subject and the verb
2. with an action or linking verb that has an auxiliary verb
(have or be): Transpose the position of the subject and the
auxiliary verb
Example - action verb
Example - linking verb
3. With an action or linking verb that does not have an
auxiliary verb: Add the appropriate number and tense of do

105. Advanced English
105
Example - Action verb
Example - Linking verb
Transform to Interrogative
This transformation provides questions that will produce
more than a yes/no answer. It may be used with any of the
sentence patterns.
To create the transformation,
1. Place an interrogative word at the beginning of the
sentence,
2. Reverse positions of the subject and verb, and
3. Add do/does/did if needed (action or linking verb
without auxiliary verb).
Interrogative Words:
how when where why what which who
whom

106. Advanced English
106
Example - verb of being
Example - action verb with auxiliary verb
Example - linking verb with auxiliary verb
Example - action verb without auxiliary verb
Example - linking verb without auxiliary verb

107. Advanced English
107
Note: Sentences using which or whose to create the
interrogative may not require adding do/does/did or transposing
the positions of the subject and verb.
Transform to Emphasis / Emphatic
This transformation may be used
 With all sentence patterns except the verb-of-being
patterns.
 With action or linking verbs that do not have
auxiliary verbs.
To make the emphatic transformation, place do, does, or did
in front of the verb, as tense and number dictate.
Examples
Transform to Imperative
This transformation creates a command. It may be used with
all sentence patterns. To make the imperative transformation,

108. Advanced English
108
replace the sentence subject with you understood and change the
verb form to its infinitive form without to
Examples:
Note: There is only one tense, simple present, for the
imperative transformation.
Transform to Exclamatory
This transformation creates a surprise statement. It may be
used with all sentence patterns. To make the exclamatory
transformation,
 place what or how at the beginning of the sentence
 rearrange words in the sentence as needed
 place an exclamation point at the end of the sentence
Examples:
In many cases, more than one transformation may be
performed at a time on a given sentence.
Example - passive and interrogative

109. Advanced English
109
Example - passive, negative, and interrogative yes-no
Example - cleft, emphasis, and interrogative yes-no
Answer the Question Active and Passive
Examples: Change the following active sentences into
passive form.
She wrote a letter.
A letter was written by her.
2. Julia rescued three cats.
Three cats were rescued by Julia.
2. Steven has forgotten the books.
The books have been forgotten by Steven.
3. The teacher will not open the window.
The window will not (won’t) be opened by the
teacher.
4. Susan is baking a cake.

110. Advanced English
110
A cake is being baked my Susan
5. Tim washed many cars.
Many cars were washed by Tim.
Examples: Change the following passive sentences into
active form.
Pasta is being cooked by Jim.
Jim is cooking Pasta.
1. The words were explained by the teacher yesterday.
The teacher explained the words yesterday.
2. Many dishes were not washed by my little
brother.
My little brother didn’t wash many dishes.
3. Photos are taken by me.
I take photos.
4. Housework is done by her.
She does housework.
5. Kevin asked Dennis a question.
Denis was asked a question by Kevin.(here change
Active to be Passive)

111. Advanced English
111
Conclusion
According to the sentence pattern transformations it makes a
shortly explanation about the sentence pattern transformation
show to write a sentence or clause, by changing the form of the
sentence, the other forms, by trying to preserve the original
meaning. Or may change the meaning some what, Depending on
the purpose of the author himself. Is there a way to convert the
sentence with a collection of them? The ideas presented are not
well enough.
…………………………………………………………..
Exercise
The Answer keys of Active and Passive
1. Exercise: Change the following active sentences into passive
form.
0. She wrote a letter.
A letter was written by her.
1. Julia rescued three cats.
Three cats were rescued by Julia.
2. Steven has forgotten the books.
The books have been forgotten by Steven.
3. The teacher will not open the window.
The window will not (won’t) be opened by the teacher.

112. Advanced English
112
4. Susan is baking a cake.
A cake is being baked my Susan
5. Tim washed many cars.
Many cars were washed by Tim.
2. Exercise: Change the following passive sentences into active
form.
0. Pasta is being cooked by Jim.
Jim is cooking Pasta.
1. The words were explained by the teacher yesterday.
The teacher explained the words yesterday.
2. Many dishes were not washed by my little brother.
My little brother didn’t wash many dishes.
3. Photos are taken by me.
I take photos.
4. Housework is done by her.
She does housework.
5. Kevin asked Dennis a question.

113. Advanced English
113
Denis was asked a question by Kevin. (here it is changedActive
voice to bePassive voice)
3.Complete the correct verb form with the passive.
1. A song ..(sing)..........................by Ann now.
2. Rice (usually eat) .............................by Thai people nationwide.
3. English (teach).......................................by me for more than 20
years.
4. Two snakes (kill).................................by my dog yesterday.
5. My birthday party (hold) ...............................next Saturday.
…………………………………………………

114. Advanced English
114
Chapter 7
Clause and Sentence Structure
Scope of Study in Chapter 7
1. Clause and Sentence Structure
1.1. The Simple Sentence
1.2. The Compound Sentence
2. Special Cases of Compound Sentences
2.1. Compound-Complex
2.2. The Complex Sentence
Objectives of the Study
1. Learning to know and understand the Clause and Sentence
Structure
2. Learning to know and understand Special Cases of
Compound Sentences

115. Advanced English
115
Chapter 7
Clause and Sentence Structure
In this chapter I would like the learners please remind and
remember that every clause is, in a sense, a miniature sentence. A
simple sentence contains only a single clause, while a compound
sentence, a complex sentence, or a compound-complex sentence
contains at least two clauses.43
The Simple Sentence
The most basic type of sentence is the simple sentence,
which contains only one clause. A simple sentence can be as short
as one word:44
Run!
Usually, however, the sentence has a subject as well as a
predicate and both the subject and the predicate may have
modifiers. All of the following are simple sentences, because each
contains only one clause:
Melt!
43
The American Heritage Book of English Usage by American Heritage Dictionaries
Hardcover, Houghton Mifflin, www.bookfinder.com/author/american-heritage-publishing-
staff/ retrieved on 4/8/2012.
44
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2013 Demand Media, Inc. Use of this web site constitutes acceptance of the How Terms of
Use and Privacy Policy. Report Copyright. Ad Choices en-US,Read more: How to Identify
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116. Advanced English
116
Ice melts.
The ice melts quickly.
The ice on the river melts quickly under the warm March
sun.
Lying exposed without its blanket of snow, the ice on the
river melts quickly under the warm March sun.
As you can see, a simple sentence can be quite long -- it is a
mistake to think that you can tell a simple sentence from a
compound sentence or a complex sentence simply by its length.
The most natural sentence structure is the simple sentence: it
is the first kind which children learn to speak, and it remains by
far the most common sentence in the spoken language of people of
all ages. In written work, simple sentences can be very effective
for grabbing a reader's attention or for summing up an argument,
but you have to use them with care: too many simple sentences
can make your writing seem childish.
When you do use simple sentences, you should add
transitional phrases to connect them to the surrounding sentences.
The Compound Sentence
A compound sentence consists of two or more independent
clauses (or simple sentences) joined by co-ordinating conjunctions
like "and," "but," and "or":

117. Advanced English
117
Simple
Canada is a rich country.
Simple
Still, it has many poor people.
Compound
Canada is a rich country, but still it has many
poor people.
Compound sentences are very natural for English speakers --
small children learn to use them early on to connect their ideas and
to avoid pausing (and allowing an adult to interrupt):
Today at school Mr. Moore brought in his pet rabbit,
and he showed it to the class, and I got to pet it, and
Kate held it, and we coloured pictures of it, and it ate
part of my carrot at lunch, and ...45
Of course, this is an extreme example, but if you over-use
compound sentences in written work, your writing might seem
immature.
A compound sentence is most effective when you use it to
create a sense of balance or contrast between two (or more)
equally-important pieces of information:
Montréal has better clubs, but Toronto has better cinemas.
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118. Advanced English
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Special Cases of Compound Sentences
There are two special types of compound sentences which
you might want to note. First, rather than joining two simple
sentences together, a co-ordinating conjunction sometimes joins
two complex sentences, or one simple sentence and one complex
sentence. In this case, the sentence is called a compound-complex
sentence:46
Compound-Complex
The package arrived in the morning, but the
courier left before I could check the contents.
The second special case involves punctuation. It is possible
to join two originally separate sentences into a compound sentence
using a semicolon instead of a co-ordinating conjunction:
Sir John A. Macdonald had a serious drinking
problem; when sober, however, he could be a
formidable foe in the House of Commons.
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119. Advanced English
119
Usually, a conjunctive adverb like47
"however" or
"consequently" will appear near the beginning of the second part,
but it is not required:
The sun rises in the east; it sets in the west.
The Complex Sentence
A complex sentence contains one independent clause and at
least one dependent clause. Unlike a compound sentence,
however, a complex sentence contains clauses which are not
equal. Consider the following examples:
Simple
My friend invited me to a party. I do not want
to go.
Compound
My friend invited me to a party, but I do not
want to go.
Complex
Although my friend invited me to a party, I do
not want to go.
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120. Advanced English
120
In the first example, there are two separate simple sentences:
"My friend invited me to a party" and "I do not want to go." The
second example joins them together into a single sentence with the
co-ordinating conjunction "but," but both parts could still stand as
independent sentences -- they are entirely equal, and the reader
cannot tell which is most important. In the third example,
however, the sentence has changed quite a bit: the first clause,
"Although my friend invited me to a party," has become
incomplete, or a dependent clause.
A complex sentence is very different from a simple sentence
or a compound sentence because it makes clear which ideas are
most important. When you write:
My friend invited me to a party. I do not want
to go.
Or even
My friend invited me to a party, but I do not
want to go.
The reader will have trouble knowing which piece of
information is most important to you. When you write the
subordinating conjunction "although" at the beginning of the first
clause, however, you make it clear that the fact that your friend

121. Advanced English
121
invited you is less important than, or subordinate, to the fact that
you do not want to go.
Terminology
Capital letter - use capital letters:
To begin sentences
With the first person subject pronoun "I"
For all proper nouns including names, days of the week,
month, names of institutions, etc.
Nationality adjectives (i.e., Italian)
For the first letter in direct speech
Determiner: type - definite article
Subordinate clause - cannot stand alone
Main clause - can stand alone
Connective adverb - other examples include: firstly,
finally, etc.
Adjective - modifying following noun

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122
Connective conjunction - other examples include: and,
or, etc.
Determiner: type - possessive adjective (also known as
possessive pronoun)
Determiner: type - demonstrative adjective (including
this, that, these, those)
Connective: relative pronoun
Period (US English), full stop (British English)
Comma
Upgradable adjective - these adjectives are already 'very'
(Example: 'wonderful' means 'very good'. These adjectives can
only be used with 'extreme' modifiers like absolutely, extremely,
etc.) 48
Exclamation mark - used for emphasis
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123. Advanced English
123
Modifier - adverb. Other examples include: pretty, very,
quite, etc.
Question mark - used when asking questions
Quotation marks - used when employing direct speech
(See more information on chapter 2 pp.16-25)
English Learning Tip
Take a daily English course by subscribing to English Tip of
the Day which provides a new English learning tip every day.
Each day you will receive an important English learning tip with
example sentences. The newsletter also provides links to a quiz of
the day and a worksheet of the day to help you practice your
English.
Conclusion
In this chapter I would like the learners please remind and
remember that every clause is, in a sense, a miniature sentence. A
simple sentence contains only a single clause, while a compound
sentence, a complex sentence, or a compound-complex sentence
contains at least two clauses. The Simple Sentence the most basic
type of sentence is the simple sentence, which contains only one
clause. A simple sentence can be as short as one word: Run!.
However, the sentence has a subject as well as a predicate and

124. Advanced English
124
both the subject and the predicate may have modifiers. All of the
following are simple sentences, because each contains only one
clause: Melt! Ice melts. The ice melts quickly. The ice on the
river melts quickly under the warm March sun etc.
The most natural sentence structure is the simple sentence: it
is the first kind which children learn to speak, and it remains by
far the most common sentence in the spoken language of people of
all ages. In written work, simple sentences can be very effective
for grabbing a reader's attention or for summing up an argument,
but you have to use them with care: too many simple sentences
can make your writing seem childish. When you do use simple
sentences, you should add transitional phrases to connect them to
the surrounding sentences. Learning sentence structure will help
you master punctuation and write better sentences with a greater
confidence. Begin by working on subjects, predicates, and objects,
and then move on to clauses. I hope this helps.
…………………………………………………
Exercise
Compound Complex Sentences Practice Exercises
Practice Exercise 1
Combine the following simple sentences to create a compound
sentence. You can check your answers below.

125. Advanced English
125
1.
It rained for three days. The streets in my neighborhood
flooded.
2. I got to ball practice late. I forgot to set my alarm.
3. Kyle completed his homework. He put it in his binder.
4. Luke mowed the lawn. He earned ten dollars.
5. I stayed up late last night. I am tired today.
6. Neil doesn't like seafood. He doesn't like cabbage.
7. My pencil was broken. I borrowed one from Jake.
8. I like apples. I like pears more.
9.
Eight people got into the elevator. It was crowded. Three
people got off.
10.
Georgia gathered the pictures. She could arrange them in a
special album for her family.
Answers
(In each case, only one possible answer is shown.)
1.
It rained for three days, so the streets in my neighborhood
flooded.
2. I got to ball practice late for I forgot to set my alarm.
3. Kyle completed his homework and he put it in his binder.
4. Luke mowed the lawn and he earned ten dollars.
5. I stayed up late last night so I am tired today.

126. Advanced English
126
6. Neil doesn't like seafood, nor does he like cabbage.
7. My pencil was broken so I borrowed one from Jake.
8. I like apples, but I like pears more.
9.
Eight people got into the elevator, but it was crowded, so three
people got off.
10.
Georgia gathered the pictures so she could arrange them in a
special album for her family.
Practice Exercise 2
Identify the independent and subordinate clauses in the following
sentences and determine whether they are complex or compound-
complex. You can check your answers below.
11.
Jason decided to stay up late because he had a lot of
homework to do.
12. If you hurry, we might get to school on time.
13.
Although Monica had a cold, she went to school because she
had a test.
14. While washing the car, Todd slipped on the soap and he fell.
15. Dad takes the train to work even though he has a car.
16.
After Mom arrived, she put the disk in the DVD player and we
watched a great movie.
17. Even though his heart pounded with dread, Ben bolted up the

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127
stairs, and he checked out the strange noise.
18. Molly baked brownies since she had nothing else to do.
19.
Karen made a list of what was needed, and she double-
checked it so she wouldn't forget anything.
20. Frank had a good sense of humor, so he laughed a lot.
………………………………………………

128. Advanced English
128
Chapter 8
Reduction of Adverb Clauses to Modifying Phrases
Scope of the Study in Chapter 8
1. Reduction of Adverb Clauses to Modifying Phrases
2. Reduction of Adverb Clauses to Modifying Phrases
(continuous)
3. Cause and Effect
4. Adverb clauses
4.1.1. Time relationships with adverb clauses
4.1.2. Cause and effect relationships with adverb clause
Objectives of the Study
1. Learning to Know and Understand the Reduction of Adverb
Clauses to Modifying Phrases
2. Learning to Know and Understand Reduction of Adverb
Clauses to Modifying Phrases (continuous
3. Learning to Know and Understand Cause and Effect
4. Learning to Know and Understand Adverb clauses

129. Advanced English
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Chapter 8
Reduction of Adverb Clauses to Modifying Phrases
Here for this part of the chapter, we’ll take a look and make it
clear understanding how to write the correctly English grammar
about reduction of adverb clauses to modifying phrases. Now I
will give you explain and show you easily examples forms of
reduction of adverb clauses to modifying phrases.
These modifying phrases are often called “participial
phrases” because the main word is a present participle (-ing form)
or sometimes a past participle (-ed form, conveying a passive
meaning). If the phrase doesn’t modify the subject of the main
clause, the unacceptable result is called a “dangling participle”—
the participle has nothing to modify, so it dangles (hangs)
unattached to any other word.49
For example:
While walking by the lake, a fish jumped out of the water.
Obviously, the fish wasn’t walking! But in this sentence
walking must refer to fish, so the whole thing is ungrammatical
(as well as unscientific). Here we will start reduction of adverb
clauses to modifying Phrases as follows
Time: Since, After, and Before
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130. Advanced English
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General Rules
Rule 1: If the main verb of the adverb clause is the
be verb, omit the subject and the be verb.
While I was walking down the street, I came across a
very strange guy.
While walking down the street, I came across a very
strange guy.
Rule 2: If the main verb of the adverb clause is not
the be verb, omit the subject and change the verb to
~ing.
Before I go to school in the morning, I usually take a
shower.
Before going to school in the morning, I usually take a
shower.
Rule 3: The reduction is possible only when the subjects
of the adverb clause and the main clause are the same. (In
very formal English, is sometimes possible to use the
different subjects.)
(Different subjects)
Before he came, I had already finished my homework.

131. Advanced English
131
[The adverb clause in this sentence cannot be reduced to a
phrase.]
Since I came to the U.S.A., I have been studying English.
Since coming to the U.S.A., I have been studying English.
After I finished my homework, I went to the party. After I
had finished my homework, I went to the party.
After finishing my homework, I went to the party.
After having finished my homework, I went to the party.
Before I came to the U.S.A., I lived in Australia. I lived in
Australia before I came to the U.S.A.
Before coming to the U.S.A., I lived in Australia. I lived in
Australia before coming to the U.S.A.
Reduction of Adverb Clauses to Modifying Phrases
(continuous)
Time: While (during the same time)
While I was watching TV, I heard someone knock
on the door.
While watching TV, I heard someone knock on the
door.
Watching TV, I heard someone knock on the door.

132. Advanced English
132
[While can be omitted.]
Cause and Effect
Because he wanted more money, he accepted the
offer.
Wanting more money, he accepted the offer.
[Because is omitted.]
Because I didn’t want to hurt her, I didn’t tell her
the truth.
Not wanting to hurt her, I didn’t tell her the truth.
Because I (have) lived in the city before, I have
many friends there.
Having lived in the city before, I have many
friends there.
[The time in the adverb clause is before the main
clause.]
Because I had read the book before, I didn’t read it
again.
Having read the book before, I didn’t read it gain.
Because she was anxious to see them, she couldn’t
sleep that night.

133. Advanced English
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Being anxious to see them, she couldn’t sleep that
night.
Anxious to see them, she couldn’t sleep that night.
[Being can be omitted.]
Time + Cause & Effect: Upon -ing/ On –ing
When she heard the news, Jennifer burst into tears.
[Immediately after she heard the news (and because
she heard it), she burst into tears.]
Upon hearing the news, Jennifer burst into tears.
On hearing the news, Jennifer burst into tears.
Adverb clauses
Part 1: Adverb Clauses
1. Introduction:
Examples:
When she was in Miami, she
visited many friends.
She visited many friends when she
was in Miami.

134. Advanced English
134
When she was in Miami: is an
adverb clause.
She visited many friends:
Independent clause.
The words used to introduce adverb clauses are called
subordinating conjunction.
Time:
After, before, when, while, as by the time
(that), whenever, since, until, as soon as, once, as so
long as.
Cause and effect:
Because, since, now that, as so long as,
inasmuch as, so (that), in order that.
Opposition:
Even though, although, though, whereas, while.
Condition:
If, unless, only if, whether or not, even if,
providing (that), provided (that), in case (that), in the
event (that).
2. Time relationships with adverb clauses
Examples:

135. Advanced English
135
After she (had) came, she turned
on the radio.
After she comes, she will turn on
the radio.
Before she came, she (had) turned
on the radio.
Before she comes, she will turn on
the radio.
The adverb clause contains a present tense
while the independent clause contains a future time.
When he came, she was turning on the radio.
When he came, she had already turned on the
radio.
When he came, she turned on the radio.
When he was out, she turned on the radio.
When he comes tomorrow, she will turn on the
radio.
While she was listening to the radio, he
knocked at the door.
As she was listening to the radio, he knocked at
the door.
As, while = during this time.
By the time he came, she had already listened
the news.

136. Advanced English
136
By the time he comes, she will listen the news.
By the time = one event is completed before
another event.
She listens to the radio whenever he comes.
Whenever = every time when
She stayed at home until he came.
Until = till = to that time and then no longer.
She hasn’t listened to the radio since he came.
Since = from that time to the present.
As soon as he knocks at the door, she will turn
off the radio.
Once he knocks at the door, she will turn off
the radio.
As soon as = once = when one event happens, another
Event happens soon afterwards.
He won’t come as long as she smokes.
He will never come so long as she doesn’t call
him.
As long as = so long as = during all that time, from
beginning to end.
3. Cause and effect relationships with
adverb clauses
Because:

137. Advanced English
137
Examples:
Because he wanted to visit his
friends, he went to Miami.
He went to Miami because he
wanted to visit his friends.
Since:
Examples:
Since she never heard about
cloning, she decided to not speak
about it.
Since = because
Now that:
Now that he has a lot of money, he can
afford a new computer.
Now that = because now. It is used for
present and future situations.
As:
As they graduated, they were looking for jobs.
As = because
As/so long as:
As long as he works for this company, he
can’t learn anything.
As/so long as = because

138. Advanced English
138
In as much as (very formal):
Inasmuch as anybody is responsible, the
situation becomes worse and worse. In as much as =
because
Part 2: Other ways of showing cause and
effect relationships:
1. Such … that and so … that:
Such … that encloses a modified
noun:
Such + adjective +noun + that
So … that encloses an adjective or
adverb:
So + adjective + that
So + adverb + that
Examples:
Because the exam was easy, they
could pass it.
(1) It was such easy exam that they
could pass it.
(2) The exam was so easy that they
could pass it. (3) (1), (2) and (3) have
the same meaning.
So … that is used with many, few, much
and little.

139. Advanced English
139
Examples:
They worked so hard that they
passed the exam.
She made so many mistakes that
she failed the exam.
He had so much time that he went
to hike.
They have so little work to do that
they share it.
He has so few books that he wants
to buy some.
Sometimes in speaking, that is
omitted.
The exam was so easy that I could
pass it.
I had so much time that I went to
hike.
Using “In order to”:
In order to = to. It is used to express
purpose.
It answers the question “Why”?
Examples:
He went to Miami because he
wanted to visit his friends.

140. Advanced English
140
He went to Miami (in order) to
visit his friends.
Don’t use for with a verb to
express purpose. Sometimes
We use for to express purpose but
with a noun.
He went to Miami for business.
Using: So …that:
So that = in order to
So that = in order that.
So that + can:
So that is often used rather in order to when the
idea of ability is being expressed.
Examples:
He is going to make a registration
in order to be able to take courses.
He is going to make a registration
so (that) he can take courses.
So that + could:
Could is used after so that in past sentences.
Examples:
He repaired his car in order to
enable his friend to use it.

141. Advanced English
141
He repaired his car so (that) his
friend could use it.
May and might, may also be used
after that, but are not as common as can
and could.
So that + will:
The use of will after so that gives the
idea that someone does something in order to
make sure that something else is the result.
Examples:
She fill her car up in order to make
sure that she will not run out of gas
during her trip across The Nevada desert.
She fills her car up so (that) she
will not run out of gas during her trip
across The Nevada desert.
So that would:
Would is used in past tense.
Examples:
Last week, he early left his car in
the garage in order to make sure that it
would be ready by eleven.

142. Advanced English
142
Last week, he left leaves his car in the
garage so (that) it would be ready by
eleven.
Using: “because of” and “due to”:
Examples:
Because she was sick, she didn’t
come to attend the speech.
Because of her sickness, she didn’t
come to attend the speech.
Due to her sickness, she didn’t
come to attend the speech.
Because is an adverb. It introduces
an adverb clause. It is followed by a
subject and verb.
Because of and due to are
prepositions. They are followed by a
noun object.
Sometimes, usually, in more
formal writing, due to is followed by a
noun clause introduced by the fact that.
Due to the fact that she was sick, she
didn’t come to attend the speech.

143. Advanced English
143
Using “therefore”:
Examples:
He passed his exams because he
worked very hard.
Therefore is called a transition (or
conjunctive adverb)
He worked very hard. Therefore,
he passed his exams.
He worked very hard. He,
therefore, he passed his exams.
He worked very hard. He passed
his exams, therefore.
A semicolon may be used instead a period:
He worked very hard; therefore, he
passed his exams.
Consequently is also a transition and has
the same meaning as therefore:
He worked very hard. Consequently, he
passed his exams.
A transition is used with the second
sentence of a pair. It shows the relationship of
the second idea to the first idea. A transition is
movable within the second sentence.

144. Advanced English
144
Part 3: Reduction of Adverb Clauses to
Modifying Phrases
1. Changing time clauses to modifying
phrases:
Some adverb clauses may be changed to
modifying phrases. The way is the same as
changing adjective clauses:
Omit the subject and the ‘be’ form of the
verb of the dependent clause:
Adverb clause:
While she was going home, she runs into
a friend.
Modifying phrase:
While going home, she runs into a
friend.
If there is no be form of a verb, omit the
subject and change the verb to -ing:
Adverb clause: Before he came, he
called us.
Modifying phrase: Before coming, he
called us.

145. Advanced English
145
While he was reading a book, she knocks
at the door.
This adverb clause cannot be changed to
a modifying clause because the two clauses
have different subjects.
While Yota was reading, he felt very
upset.
While reading, Yota felt very upset.
When Sunee was arrived at home, she
began to call on her daughter.
When arrived at home, Sunee began to
call on her daughter.
When the adverb clause is changed to a
modifying phrase, the noun in the adverb
clause becomes the subject of the independent
clause.
2. Expressing the idea of “During the same
time” in modifying phrases:
Examples:
While he was reading, he felt very upset.
While reading, he felt very upset.

146. Advanced English
146
Reading, he felt very upset.
Going home, she saw an ancient car on
the sidewalk.
Sometimes while is omitted but the -ing
phrase at the beginning of the sentence gives
the same meaning (= during the same time)
3. Expressing cause and effect relationships
in modifying phrases:
Because is not used in a modifying phrase. It is
omitted, but the resulting phrase expresses a cause
and effect relationship.
Because he worked, he didn’t come to attend
the speech.
Working, he didn’t come to attend the speech.
Often an-ing phrase at the beginning of a
sentence gives the meaning of “because”.
Because she has moved, she doesn’t remember
the way to the market.
Having moved, she doesn’t remember the way
to the market.
Having + past participle gives the meaning not
only of because, but also of before.
Because he was unable to afford the truth, he
lied a lot.

147. Advanced English
147
Being unable to afford the truth, he lied a lot.
Unable to afford the truth, he lied a lot.
The form of be in the adverb clause is often
changed to being. The use of being makes the cause
and effect relationship clear.
Conclusion
An adverb clause is a group of words that starts with a
subordinating conjunction (a word that signals how, when, or why
something is done) and has a subject and a verb. However,
because it starts with a subordinating conjunction, the clause
becomes a dependent clause. It cannot stand alone because it is not
a complete idea, so it must be joined with an independent clause.
While I am cooking, + I like to listen to the radio.
(Adverb clause) (Independent clause)
Reduced Adverb Clauses: In a sentence, when you have the
same subject in both the main clause and the adverb clause, you
can reduce the adverb clause to avoid repeating the subject. The
reduced adverb clause then becomes an adverb phrase, which does
not have a subject. The adverb phrase consists of a conjunction
and a base verb + ing for the active voice or a past participle for
the passive voice.

148. Advanced English
148
Normal SentenceBefore I came to the U.S., I had taken
some English classes.
Reduced SentenceBefore coming to the U.S., I had taken
some English classes.
Normal SentenceFainting goats stiffen and fall over when
they are startled.
Reduced SentenceFainting goats stiffen and fall over when
startled.
Normal SentenceAfter he finished his homework, Peter
went to bed.
Reduced SentenceAfter finishing his homework, Peter
went to bed.
Remember that only sentences with the same subject in
both the main clause and the adverb clause can be reduced.
If there is a different subject in each clause, the sentence
cannot be reduced.
ExWhile I was walking home, a frog jumped out of the
bushes.
IncorrectWhile walking home, a frog jumped out of the
bushes.
(This sentence is incorrect because it seems like the frog was
walking home.)

149. Advanced English
149
How to Reduce an Adverb Clause? If you want to reduce an
adverb clause, make sure that the same subject is present in both
clauses, and then follow these steps:
1. Omit the subject of the adverb (dependent) clause.
While she was driving to school, Betty got a flat tire.
I ate breakfast before I left for work.
My dog will run to the street when he is given the chance.
2. Omit the be form of the verb if there is one.
While was driving to school, Betty got a flat tire.
I ate breakfast before left for work. (nobe)
My dog will run to the street when is given the chance.
3. Change the verb to its present participle form (–ing) for
the active voice, or leave it as the past participle for the
passive voice.
While driving to school, Betty got a flat tire. (active
voicepresent participle)
I ate breakfast before leaving for work. (active
voicepresent participle)
My dog will run to the street when given the chance. (passive
voicepast participle)
Sometimes adverb clauses of reason (clauses that begin with
the conjunction because) can be reduced, but you also have to
omit the conjunction.

150. Advanced English
150
A quick note about Active and Passive Voice
We use the passive voice when we want to focus on the object (the person or
thing receiving the action) and NOT the agent (the person or thing doing the
action).
Active: A dog bit the man.
(agent) (object)
Passive: The man was bitten by a dog.
(object) (be + past participle) (agent)
*See the Passive Voice DLA for more information.
ExBecause she hopes to get a degree in accounting, Cathy went
back to school.
Hoping to get a degree in accounting, Cathy went back to school.
………………………………………………………..
Exercise
Combine the two sentences into one sentence, choosing the
correct reduced adverb clause:
eg: "I was playing tennis. Later, I called my mother. -->After
playing tennis, I called my mother."
1. I was driving past the bank. I saw Jeffrey.
I saw Jeffrey ________________.
a. after driving past the bank
b. before driving past the bank
c. while driving past the bank

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2. I was camping in the Mojave Desert. I saw lots of snakes.
I saw lots of snakes ________________ in the Mojave
desert.
a. before camping
b. after camping
c. while camping
3. She knew I didn't have any money. She paid for my meal.
________________, she paid for my meal.
a. While knowing that I didn't have any money
b. Knowing that I didn't have any money
c. Upon knowing that I didn't have any money
4. She was worried about her son. She called the police.
________________, she called the police.
a. Before worrying about her son
b. Worried about her son
c. While worrying about her son
5. He looked at her. He was hoping she would say something.
He looked at her, ________________.
a. hoping she would say something
b. before hoping she would say something
c. since hoping she would say something
6. Brush your teeth. After that, go to bed.

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Don't go to bed ________________ your teeth.
a. after brushing
b. before brushing
c. brushing
7. He finished his homework. He went to bed.
________________, he went to bed.
a. After finishing his homework
b. While finishing his homework
c. Before finishing his homework
8. I finished the book. I lent it to my sister.
________________ the book, I lent it to my sister.
a. Since finishing
b. While finishing
c. After finishing
9. Fiona fell asleep. She was watching TV.
Fiona fell asleep ________________.
a. watching TV
b. since watching TV
c. before watching TV
10. He came to The United States. He has gained 10 pounds.
He has gained 10 pounds ________________.
a. before coming to the United States

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b. since coming to the United States
c. while coming to the United States

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Chapter 9
The Four Skills of English Language
Scope of the Study in Chapter 9
1. The Four Skills of English Language
1.1. Listening Skills
1.2. Speaking Skills
1.3. Reading Skills
1.4. Writing Skills
Objectives of the Study
1. Learning to Know and Understand how can We Use the Four
Skills of English Language as natives Language:
1.1. Listening Skills
1.2. Speaking Skills
1.3. Reading Skills
1.4. Writing Skills

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Chapter 9
The Four Skills of English Language
Introduction
This chapter contains suggestions for objectives,
strategies, techniques, and activities appropriate for each stage of
our language learning. The guidelines are linked to detailed
descriptions of language learning techniques and activities we
can use at each stage. These guidelines can be used in planning
language learning lessons for self-directed language learning.
Language educators have long used the concepts of four basic
language skills:
2. Listening
3. Speaking
4. Reading
5. Writing 50
The four basic skills are related to each other by two parameters:
1. The mode of communication: oral or written
2. The direction of communication: receiving or
producing the message
50
Anstrom, K., DiCerbo, P., Butler, F., Katz, A., Millet, J., & Rivera, C. (2010).A review of
the literature on academic English: Implications for K-12 English language learners.
Arlington, VA: The George Washington University Center for Equity and Excellence.
Education.www.ceee.gwu.edu.

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We may represent the relationships among the skills in the
following chart:
Oral Written
Receptive Listening Reading
Productive Speaking Writing
The following modules will briefly describe some characteristics
of each basic skill.
Module Group
1. Listening comprehension skill
2. Speaking skill
3. Reading skill
4. Writing skill
See also: Index to guidelines by stage and basic language
skill51
When we learn a language, there are four skills that we need
for complete communication. When we learn our native language,
we usually learn to listen first, then to speak, then to read, and
51
http://www.sil.org/links/languagelearning/otherresources/gudlnsfralnggandcprgrm/ Four
basic Language Skills.htp, this page is an extract from the LinguaLinks Library, Version
3.5, published on CD-ROM by SIL International, 1999. [Ordering information.] Page
content last modified: 15 September 1998.

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finally to write. These are called the four "language skills": there is
the connecting process of the four language skills as below:
(Picture diagram by http://www.englishclub.com)
The four language skills are related to each other in two
ways:
1. the direction of communication (in or out)
2. the method of communication (spoken or written)
English Tip
Input is sometimes called "reception" and output is
sometimes called "production". Spoken is also known as
"oral".52
*Note that these four language skills are sometimes called
the "macro-skills". This is in contrast to the "micro-skills", which
are things like grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation and spelling.
52
http://www.englishclub.com/learn-english/language-skills.htm retrieved on 6/1/2012.

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Listening Skills
Several years back there was a public service announcement
that ran on television. It talked about the importance of good
listening skills and the difference between hearing and listening.
Hearing is a physical ability while listening is a skill. Listening
skills allow one to make sense of and understand what another
person is saying. In other words, listening skills allow us to
understand what someone is "talking about". In 1991 the United
States Department of Labor Secretary's Commission on
Achieving Necessary Skills (SCANS) identified five
competencies and three foundation skills that are essential for
those entering the workforce. Listening skills were among the
foundation skills SCANS identified.53
Why We Need Good Listening Skills
Good listening skills make workers more productive. The
ability to listen carefully will allow us to:
1. Better understand assignments and what is expected of us;
2. Build rapport with co-workers, bosses, and clients;
3. Show support;
53
http://careerplanning.about.com/cs/miscskills/a/listening_skill.htm, retrieved on 10/3/2012

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4. Work better in a team-based environment;
5. Resolve problems with customers, co-workers, and
bosses;
6. Answer questions; and
7. Find underlying meanings in what others say.
How to Listen Well
The following guides will help us listen well. Doing these
things will also demonstrate to the speaker that we are paying
attention, While we may in fact be able to listen while looking
down at the floor, doing so may imply that you are not.
1. Maintain eye contact;
2. Don't interrupt the speaker;
3. Sit still;
4. Nod our head;
5. Lean toward the speaker;
6. Repeat instructions and ask appropriate questions when
the speaker has finished.
A good listener knows that being attentive to what the
speaker doesn't say is as important as being attentive to what he
does say. Look for non-verbal cues such as facial expressions and

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posture to get the full gist of what the speaker is telling us.
Barriers to Listening
Beware of the following things that may get in the way of
listening.
1. Bias or prejudice;
2. Language differences or accents;
3. Noise;
4. Worry, fear, or anger; and
5. Lack of attention span.
Listening Starts Early
If we have children we know what it's like to feel like we're
talking to a wall. Kids have an uncanny ability to appear to be
listening to us while actually paying no attention at all. While this
is something that may pass with age it is important to help
children develop good listening skills early. They will do better in
school and we will keep our sanity. As the SCANS report points
out, good listening skills will prepare children to eventually
succeed in the workforce.
1. When we tell our child to do something, ask him to
repeat our instructions;
2. Teach our child to maintain eye contact when talking to
or listening to someone;

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3. Read out loud to our child and then engage her in a
conversation about what we have read; and
4. Engage our child in age-appropriate activities that
promote good listening skills.
What is Active Listening?
Imagine that we’re just sitting down in class to take notes,
when the teacher announces that “there will be a quiz on this
lecture.” Suddenly, we’re more alert. We watch attentively as our
teacher speaks and we underline each and every word that is
emphasized or repeated. Each time we sit down to listen to a
speaker or a class lecture, we should listen as if we’re going to be
tested on the material. After all, we might be!
Here are some tips to help us learn to improve our listening
skills:
1. Listen for verbal clues. Our teacher will emphasize any
important terms and concepts.
2. Watch for nonverbal clues. Eyebrows, hands, pauses,
eyes: these features all show expression when our
teacher makes an important point.
3. Be mindful of our own reactions. When our teacher
says something that sound interesting, curious, or
surprising, go ahead and nod or smile. If the teacher

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says something boring or unpleasant, try not to have an
ugly response. Why? To keep ourselves on track. As
long as we’re managing our reactions, we’re still
listening.
4. Avoid making predictions. If we think we know what
someone is about to say, we stop listening and start
drifting.
5. Focus on the words, not the person. Don’t get distracted
by an ugly dress, weird hairstyle or goofy tie.
6. Don’t get caught up on one detail. Stay on pace.
7. Don’t let our mind wander. Put that food, person,
music, or daydream out of our head and save it for later.
Some students struggle to pay attention in class and other
study areas because small background noises interfere with their
concentration. Background noise does not affect all students in
the same way. There are a few factors that may determine
whether noise distraction is a problem for us.
Noise Distraction and Learning Styles
Three of the most commonly recognized learning styles are
visual learning, tactile learning, and auditory learning. It is
important to discover our own prominent learning style to
determine how to study most effectively, but it's also important to
know our learning style in order to recognize potential problems.

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Studies have shown that auditory learners are most distracted by
background noise. But how will we know if we are an auditory
learner?
Auditory learners often:
1. Talk to themselves while reading or studying
2. Move their lips while reading
3. Are better at speaking than writing
4. Spell better out loud
5. Have difficulty visualizing things
6. Can't follow conversations when the TV is on
7. Can mimic songs and tunes well54
If we feel that these traits describe our personality, we may
need to pay special attention to our study habits and the location
of our study space.
Noise Distraction and Personality Type
Two personality types that we may recognize are
introversion and extraversion. It is important to know that these
types have nothing to do with ability or intelligence; these terms
merely describe the way that different people function. Some
54
Anstrom, K., DiCerbo, P., Butler, F., Katz, A., Millet, J., & Rivera, C. (2010).A review of
the literature on academic English: Implications for K-12 English language learners.
Arlington, VA: The George Washington University Center for Equity and Excellence.
Education.www.ceee.gwu.edu.

164. Advanced English
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students are deep thinkers who tend to talk less than others. These
are common traits of introverted students.
One study has shown that noise distraction can be more
harmful to introverted students than to extroverted students when
it comes to study time. Introverted students can experience more
difficulty understanding what they are reading in a noisy
environment.
Introverts typically:
1. Like to work independently
2. Are confident about their own opinions
3. Think deeply about things
4. Reflect and analyze more before acting on something
5. Can focus on one thing for a long time
6. Enjoy reading
7. Are happy in their "own little world"
8. Have a few deep friendships
If these traits sound familiar to us, we may want to read
more about introversion. We may discover that you need to adjust
your study habits to cut down on the potential for noise
distraction.
Avoiding Noise Distraction

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Sometimes we don't realize how much background noise can
affect our performance. If we suspect that noise interference is
affecting our grades, we should consider the following
recommendations.55
Turn off the mp3 and other music when you study. We may
love our music, but it's not good for us when we're reading.
Stay away from the TV when doing homework. Television
shows contain plots and conversations that can trick our brain into
distraction when we don't even realize it! If our family watches
TV on one end of the house during homework time, try to move
to the other end.
Buy earplugs. Small, expanding foam earplugs are available
at large retail stores and auto stores. They're great for blocking out
noise.
Consider investing in some noise-blocking earphones. This
is a more expensive solution, but it might make a big difference in
your homework performance if we have a serious problem with
noise distraction.
55
For more information you may consider:"The Effects of Noise Distraction on SAT
Scores," by Janice M. Chatto and Laura O'Donnell. Ergonomics, Volume 45, Number 3,
2002,pp. 203-217.

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Listening Comprehension Skill
Listening comprehension is the receptive skill in the oral
mode. When we speak of listening what we really mean is
listening and understanding what we hear. In our first language,
we have all the skills and background knowledge we need to
understand what we hear, so we probably aren't even aware of
how complex a process it is. Here we will briefly describe some
of what is involved in learning to understand what we hear in a
second language.
Listening Situations
There are two kinds of listening situations in which we
find ourselves:
1. Interactive, and
2. Non-interactive
Interactive listening situations include face-to-face
conversations and telephone calls, in which we are
alternately listening and speaking, and in which we have a
chance to ask for clarification, repetition, or slower speech
from our conversation partner. Some non-interactive
listening situations are listening to the radio, TV, films,
lectures, or sermons. In such situations we usually don't have
the opportunity to ask for clarification, slower speech or

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repetition.
Micro-Skills
Richards (1983, cited in Omaggio, 1986, p.
126)56
proposes that the following are the micro-skills
involved in understanding what someone says to us. The
listener has to:
1. Retain chunks of language in short-term memory
2. Discriminate among the distinctive sounds in the
new language
3. Recognize stress and rhythm patterns, tone
patterns, intonational contours
4. Recognize reduced forms of words
5. Distinguish word boundaries
6. Recognize typical word-order patterns
7. Recognize vocabulary
8. Detect key words, such as those identifying topics
and ideas
9. Guess meaning from context
56
Omaggio, Alice C. 1986. Teaching language in context : Proficiency-oriented
instruction. Boston: Heinle and Heinle. p.479.

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10. Recognize grammatical word classes
11. Recognize basic syntactic patterns
12. Recognize cohesive devices
13. Detect sentence constituents, such as subject,
verb, object, prepositions, and the like
Speaking Skills
Speaking is the productive skill in the oral mode. It, like the
other skills, is more complicated than it seems at first and
involves more than just pronouncing words.
Speaking Situations
There are three kinds of speaking situations in which
we find ourselves:
1. Interactive,
2. Partially interactive, and
3. Non-Interactive57
57
http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/languagelearning/otherresources/gudlnsfralnggandcltrlrnngpr
grm/Gudlns FrALnggAndCltrL rnngPrgrm.htm,this page is an extract from the LinguaLinks
Library, Version 3.5, published on CD-ROM by SIL International, 1999. [Ordering
information.]Page content last modified: 15 September 1998.

169. Advanced English
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(Create Idea Picture By http://www.englishclub.com)
Interactive speaking situations include face-to-face
conversations and telephone calls, in which we are alternately
listening and speaking, and in which we have a chance to ask for
clarification, repetition, or slower speech from our conversation
partner. Some speaking situations are partially interactive, such as
when giving a speech to a live audience, where the convention is
that the audience does not interrupt the speech. The speaker
nevertheless can see the audience and judge from the expressions
on their faces and body language whether or not he or she is being
understood.
Some few speaking situations may be totally non-interactive,
such as when recording a speech for a radio broadcast.
Micro-Skills (Speaking)
Here are some of the micro-skills involved in speaking.
The speaker has to:

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1. Pronounce the distinctive sounds of a language
clearly enough so that people can distinguish
them. This includes making tonal distinctions.
2. Use stress and rhythmic patterns, and intonation
patterns of the language clearly enough so that
people can understand what is said.
3. Use the correct forms of words. This may mean,
for example, changes in the tense, case, or
gender.
4. Put words together in correct word order.
5. Use vocabulary appropriately.
6. Use the register or language variety that is
appropriate to the situation and the relationship
to the conversation partner.
7. Make clear to the listener the main sentence
constituents, such as subject, verb, object, by
whatever means the language uses.
8. Make the main ideas stand out from supporting
ideas or information.
9. Make the discourse hang together so that people

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can follow what you are saying.58
Why We Need Good Speaking Skills
The first step in good communication is to listen
effectively. Today’s trend is away from top-down management,
where decisions and policies are proclaimed from above. Good
managers now consult a lot with their teams, using them as a
resource for information and suggestions. Good communication
skills thus involve good PR skills. Knowing when and how to
release information is an important way of maintaining our image
with our team members, our clients and the market in general.
Basically, our skills as a communicator are felt in nearly all of our
business dealings. If we and our team communicate well, we
maximize efficiency. We find out about issues earlier and can
deal with them without adding further complications or
misunderstandings. Having good communications skills is like
having a good IT system - information flows faster and this saves
our money.
How to Speak English Well
It has been said that English is an easy language to learn,
58
http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/languagelearning/otherresources/gudlnsfralnggandcltrlrnngpr
g rm/GudlnsFrALnggAndCltrL rnngPrgrm.htm,this page is an extract from the LinguaLinks
Library, Version 3.5, published on CD-ROM by SIL International, 1999. [Ordering
information.]Page content last modified: 15 September 1998.

172. Advanced English
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but a difficult one to master. Speaking functional English is
something many people take for granted, but speaking it well is a
rare and powerful ability. Whether English is our native tongue or
a second or third language for us, we can improve our fluency and
the power of our speech.Being familiar with the works of William
Shakespeare will improve our English. Read more: How to Speak
English Well (/eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/how speak-
english-well).
How to Improve Our English Speaking
Learn the rules of English grammar, including rules for
word order, sentence structure, parts of speech, verb conjugation
and spelling. Knowing these rules will make it easier for us to
form intelligible sentences in English.
Take a course in English language through a school or community
organization. There are English as a Second Language (ESL)
courses available through a variety of groups; some communities
even have literacy volunteers to help ESL strengthen their
communication skills.
Listen to native English speakers for cue about proper
pronunciation, sentence formation, slang expressions and
variations in speaking etiquette. Linguists will tell us that the
rules for proper speech lie with the native speaker, so we are

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likely to learn more by observing others than to follow the strict
guidelines of a textbook.
Immerse ourselves in the language by surrounding
yourself with native speakers and forcing ourselves to speak
English as much as possible. Don't worry about making mistakes
in front of native speakers because our mistakes will only
improve our speaking skills in the long run.
Watch television shows, listen to radio and read books in
English to learn more about how native speakers use and
pronounce words. The more we hear the language, the better we
will be able to use it.
Watch ourselves in a mirror as we practice speaking
English, and observe the shape of our mouth with each sound and
word we produce. We may find that your difficulties with
pronunciation are a result of the ways in which we open our
mouth and place our tongue.
Keep a translation dictionary with us so that we can
translate unfamiliar words and then practice using them in a
sentence. The best way to enlarge our vocabulary is to make a
conscious effort of learning and practicing new words.
What is Active Speaking?

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Sometimes the way we say something means more than
the words we use. Here are some ways we can demonstrate active
speaking.
Respond
Quickly
Begin each customer interaction
with an immediate indication
that we are ready to help. Use
our greeting as soon as we are
connected to the listeners.
Tone of
Voice
The only way a listener knows
how we feel is by the way we
sound. Even if we are feeling
stressed and angry, we can use
our tone of voice to show the
customer that you are concerned
about their needs and eager to
help. Be upbeat.
Speak
Clearly
and
Concisely
The best way to represent our
knowledge and professionalism
is to be articulate. Don't assume
that English is the listener's first,
or best, language. Use words that

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we are comfortable with, and
never use jargon.
Ask
Questions
We may need to use probing
questions to get all of the details
we need to satisfy the listener's
needs.
Provide
Progress
Reports
There's nothing worse than
silence during a phone
conversation. Since the listener
can't see we, always let them
know that we are continuing to
address their concerns.
Summarize
the
Resolution
End all calls by making sure that
the listener understands what we
are doing to resolve their
problem. Summarize what we
and the listener will do next and
the time frames involved. Make
sure the listener is in agreement.

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End on a
Positive
Note
Remember, people are much
more likely to tell others about
negative experiences. Always
assure the listener that we will
satisfy their needs, and ask if
there is anything else we can
help them with. Read more:
(How to Improve My English
Speaking |
eHow.comhttp://www.ehow.com)
English Tips
Don't be discouraged by making mistakes in front of
native speakers. Even if they laugh at our mistakes, we can rest
assured that they would sound just as funny if they were trying to
speak our language.
Reading Skills
Reading is the receptive skill in the written mode. It can
develop independently of listening and speaking skills, but often
develops along with them, especially in societies with a highly-
developed literary tradition. Reading can help build vocabulary
that helps listening comprehension at the later stages, particularly.

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Micro-Skills (Reading)
Here are some of the micro-skills involved in reading.
The reader has to:
1. Decipher the script. In an alphabetic system or a
syllabary, this means establishing a relationship
between sounds and symbols. In a pictograph
system, it means associating the meaning of the
words with written symbols.
2. Recognize vocabulary.
3. Pick out key words, such as those identifying
topics and main ideas.
4. Figure out the meaning of the words, including
unfamiliar vocabulary, from the (written) context.
5. Recognize grammatical word classes: noun,
adjective, etc.
6. Detect sentence constituents, such as subject, verb,
object, prepositions, etc.

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7. Recognize basic syntactic patterns.
8. Reconstruct and infer situations, goals and
participants.
9. Use both knowledge of the world and lexical and
grammatical cohesive devices to make the
foregoing inferences, predict outcomes, and infer
links and connections among the parts of the text.
10. Get the main point or the most important
information.
11. Distinguish the main idea from supporting
details.
12. Adjust reading strategies to different reading
purposes, such as skimming for main ideas or
studying in-depth.59
From time to time people have wondered why reading is
important. There seem so many other things to do with one's time.
Reading is important for a variety of reasons. We will look at
some of those fundamental reasons below, but it is important to
realize that struggling with vital reading skills in not a sign a low
intelligence. For example, John Corcoran, who wrote the teacher
59
Noice, H., and Noice, T. 2000. Two approaches to learning a theatrical script, pp. 444–455. In
Memory Observed,
edited by UlricNeisser and Ira Hyman, Jr. Worth Publishers, New York, N.Y.

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who couldn't read, is a very intelligent man.60
He graduated from
high school and college, became a popular high school teacher
and later a successful business man all without being able to read.
Many highly intelligent people have struggled with reading
although, when properly taught, most people can learn to read
easily and quickly.
Now, if a man like John Corcoran can succeed without
reading, why is reading important? A person should really read
Mr. Corcoran's story to get the feeling of shame, loneliness and
fear that he experienced before he learned to read. He was able to
succeed in spite of this major handicap because he was a man of
intelligence, ability and determination. But, make no mistake it
was a handicap that made life harder and less enjoyable.
Why Is Reading Important?
1. Reading is fundamental to function in today's society.
There are many adults who cannot read well enough to
understand the instructions on a medicine bottle. That is a scary
thought - especially for their children. Filling out applications
becomes impossible without help. Reading road or warning signs
60
Why is reading important, http://www.learn-to-read-prince-george.com/why-is-reading-
important.html retrieved on
8/9/2012.

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is difficult. Even following a map becomes a chore. Day-to-day
activities that many people take for granted become a source of
frustration, anger and fear.
2. Reading is a vital skill in finding a good job. Many
well-paying jobs require reading as a part of job performance.
There are reports and memos which must be read and responded
to. Poor reading skills increase the amount of time it takes to
absorb and react in the workplace. A person is limited in what
they can accomplish without good reading and comprehension
skills.
3. Reading is important because it develops the mind.
The mind is a muscle. It needs exercise. Understanding the
written word is one way the mind grows in its ability. Teaching
young children to read helps them develop their language skills. It
also helps them learn to listen. Everybody wants to talk, but few
can really listen. Lack of listening skills can result in major
misunderstandings which can lead to job loss, marriage breakup,
and other disasters - small and great. Reading helps children [and
adults] focus on what someone else is communicating.
4. Why is reading important? It is how we discover new
things. Books, magazines and even the Internet are great learning
tools which require the ability to read and understand what is
read. A person who knows how to read can educate themselves in

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any area of life they are interested in. We live in an age where we
overflow with information, but reading is the main way to take
advantage of it.
5. Reading develops the imagination. TV and computer
games have their place, but they are more like amusement.
Amusement comes from two words "a" (non) and "muse" (think).
Amusement is non-thinking activities. With reading, a person can
go anywhere in the world...or even out of it! They can be a king,
or an adventurer, or a princess, or... The possibilities are endless.
Non-readers never experience these joys to the same extent.
6. In line with the above, reading develops the creative
side of people. When reading to children, stop every once in
awhile and ask them what they think is going to happen next. Get
them thinking about the story. When it is finished, ask if they
could think of a better ending or anything that would have
improved it. If they really liked the story, encourage them to
illustrate it with their own drawings or to make up a different
story with the same characters. Get the creative juices flowing!
7. Reading is fundamental in developing a good self-
image. Nonreaders or poor readers often have low opinions of
themselves and their abilities. Many times they feel as if the
world is against them. They feel isolated [everybody else can read
- which isn't true] and behavior problems can surface. They can

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perform poorly in other subjects because they cannot read and
understand the material and so tend to "give up."
8. Why is reading important? Let's keep going... Good
reading skills, especially in a phonics reading program, improve
spelling. As students learn to sound out letters and words, spelling
comes easier. Also, reading helps to expand the vocabulary.
Reading new words puts them in their mind for later use. Seeing
how words are used in different contexts can give a better
understanding of the word usage and definitions than the cold
facts of a dictionary.
9. There is an old saying, "The pen is mightier than the
sword." Ideas written down have changed the destiny of men and
nations for better or worse. The flow of ideas cannot be stopped.
We need to read and research to build on the good ideas and
expose the bad ideas before they bring destruction. Only by
reading can we be armed in this never-ending, life-and-death
struggle.
10. The fact of the power of written ideas communicated
through reading is a foundational reason why some governments
oppose free and honest communication. Illiterate people are easier
to control and manipulate. They cannot do their own research and
thinking. They must rely on what they are told and how their
emotions are swayed. There is a good possibility that this is one

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of the main reasons phonics was removed from the schools about
100 years ago.
11. Finally, why is reading important? Reading is
important because words - spoken and written - are the building
blocks of life. We are, right now, the result of words that we have
heard or read and believed about ourselves. What we become in
the future will depend on the words we believe about ourselves
now. People, families, relationships, and even nations are built
from words. Think about it. According to Jonathan Kozol in
"Illiterate America," quoted in "the teacher who couldn't read,'"
the three main reasons people give for wanting to read are:61
1. To read the Bible,
2. To read books and newspapers, and
3. To help their children.
I think everyone can conclude that reading is a vital skill!
Reading Strategies are also a part of learning to read.
How to Read Well?
Before we read, think about why we are reading. Are we reading
for entertainment, information or to further knowledge? If we are
61
Why is reading important, http://www.learn-to-read-prince-george.com/why-is-reading-
important.html retrieved on
8/9/2012.

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reading for entertainment, the last thing we want to do is to speed
read, and miss out on the wonderful imagery in that romance
novel or murder mystery. However, if we are reading for
information or to further our knowledge, speed reading is the way
to go since at least fifty percent of the information is not
important.
Three Habits Acquired When We Learned to Read
1. Regression: We learned to read from left to right,
one word at a time.
2. Fixation: We focus on one word at a time and break
down monosyllabic words into syllables.
3. Sub-vocalization: We read phonetically, breaking
down the words in our minds first before we move
on to the next.
We learn best when we are in a happy, relaxed
environment. The Alpha Brainwave State is best for
optimal learning.
To Go into Alpha Brainwave State
1. Sit down in a comfortable position.
2. Close our eyes and let all thoughts drift away.
3. Take a few deep breaths, breathing deep into our
lungs by flexing our diaphragm (we know that we are

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breathing deeply when our stomach pushes out when
we are inhaling).
4. With our eyes still closed, look upwards as if we’re
focusing on the point between our eyebrows.
5. When we feel a slight pressure, start counting down
slowly from ten to one.
6. When we reach one, we are now in the alpha state.
7. Relax for a few more minutes.
8. We are now ready to focus on the task at hand.
Basic Rules of Reading Faster
1. Read groups of words at a time.
2. Never read over what we have already read. Trust
that our subconscious will get the gist, and later fill in
the blanks.
3. Move a finger or pen beneath the line we are reading,
in a left to right manner, to force us to read faster.
Go into Alpha Brainwave State
Preview
1. For a magazine article – read the first and last
paragraph.
2. For a journal article – read the abstract, in addition to
the first and last paragraph.

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For a book: Read the description of the book that’s
given:
1. Flip through the book several times using your
index finger to move through the pages. If we miss
a few pages, keep going until the end. And while
we are flipping through the book a few times,
make sure that we also do it with the book upside
down a few times.
2. If it’s a textbook or one filled with diagrams,
look at the chapter titles, all the headings in the
book, the words in bold, all diagrams, then flip
through the entire book.
Create a mind map of what we have learned so far..
Overview
1. For an article – read the first sentence of each
paragraph, remembering to read groups of words at a
time.
2. For a book – read the first sentence of each chapter
then glide our finger down the middle of the page.
3. Build on the mind map that we have created.
Read

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1. Read group of words at a time and use a pencil on
our finger to force us to read faster.
2. For a book, spend roughly 30 seconds on each page.
3. For a two-page magazine article, spend
approximately six and a half minutes, reading 400
words per minute.
4. Complete the mind map, which is a good refresher
for what we have read.
Summary
1. Read with a purpose.
2. Skim first.
3. Get the reading mechanics right.
4. Be judicious in highlighting and note taking.
5. Think in pictures.
6. Rehearse as we go along.
7. Stay within our attention span and work to increase that span.
8. Rehearse again soon.

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Happily Reading?
Writing Skills
Writing is the productive skill in the written mode. It, too, is
more complicated than it seems at first, and often seems to be the
hardest of the skills, even for native speakers of a language, since
it involves not just a graphic representation of speech, but the
development and presentation of thoughts in a structured way.
I want to be the good writer
Micro-Skills (Writing)
Here are some of the micro-skills involved in writing. The
writer needs to:
1. Use the orthography correctly, including the
script, and spelling and punctuation conventions.
2. Use the correct forms of words. This may mean
using forms that express the right tense, or case or
gender.
3. Put words together in correct word order.

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4. Use vocabulary correctly.
5. Use the style appropriate to the genre and
audience.
6. Make the main sentence constituents, such as
subject, verb, and object, clear to the reader.
7. Make the main ideas distinct from supporting
ideas or information.
8. Make the text coherent, so that other people can
follow the development of the ideas.
9. Judge how much background knowledge the
audience has on the subject and make clear what it
is assumed they don't know.62
Why We Need Good Writing Skills
There are many reasons to have good writing skills. The
most important one I think is communication. If we don’t have
good writing skills we will have a hardtime communicating with
our readers.Good writing skills can help us in life. If we’re trying
to get a job, good writing skills make us more desirable to the
employer. One of the first things an employer looks at is our
cover letter or resume. If we have an interesting cover letter it
62
Anstrom, K., DiCerbo, P., Butler, F., Katz, A., Millet, J., & Rivera, C. (2010).A review of the
literature on academic
English: Implications for K-12 English language learners. Arlington, VA: The George
Washington University Center for Equity and Excellence. Education.www.ceee.gwu.edu.

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could lead to an interview. I think even if we’re just exchanging
e-mails. E-mails that are clearly written generally make we seem
more intelligent and more responsible.
Good writing skills can lead to a monetary value. Lots of
people make a living writing. I’m not just talking about people
who write books. There are technical writers, copywriters,
software writers the list goes on and on. Even if we are not a
professional writer there is ways to make money with our good
writing skills. We could write a blog on the side. There are
endless ways to make some extra money on the internet with
endless amounts of content. It’s rare to find good content on the
internet and when we do sometimes it’s worth paying for.
Without good writing skills the world would be in anarchy and
chaos. Bad writing skills can lead to misinformation. Bad
writing skills can lead to the wrong or ambiguous message. Good
writing skills can lead to a much needed confidence boost. One of
the most important considerations when writing in any style is the
purpose of our writing. What is the attended goal of our writing?
Is it to argue a point? Is it to describe an event? If we have a
purpose in our writing from the start we are more likely to
achieve our goal.
Another purpose of good writings skills is to know our
audience. All audiences require different styles of writing. If we

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do not keep this in mind we might produce ineffective
communication. Good writing skills must be engaging. If it is not
interesting no one will want to read it. Another thing to take note
of is to keep our writing focused. It is easy to get side tracked.
Always try to be direct and to the point. When people are
confident in there writing skills whether it is a business proposal
or just a friendly e-mail we make an impression on people just on
we’re writing skills alone. If we want to have good writing skills
read. Read good writing, read bad writing. Learn to tell the
difference. One way to make our writing skills better is to
remember simplicity of style: noun, verb, and object; It worked
for Hemingway; he said that his ultimate goal in writing was to
create the perfect sentence. Good writing skills are important in
professional and personal lives. Don’t let it be a thorn in our side.
It’s easy to achieve good writing skills if we set our mind to it.
How to write Well?
The rules of good English are simple. Use smaller and
familiar words instead of big and unfamiliar words. Note that
great writers and thinkers always use simple words. By using
simple words in our writing, we make it easier for the reader to

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understand what we are trying to express. So don't be
overwhelmed by all those unknown words in the dictionary. Learn
only a small fraction of them number and we will still be able to
write well. Good writing makes us sound intelligent and look
professional. As we probably know these two benefits will
significantly improve our personal and professional life. For a
good writer, there is only one measure of success, and that is
found in his honoring the complexity and richness of his subject
while telling his story in a lucid way.63
While reading we should build up a personal ‘database’ of
special words or phrases. Get a small copy book and list down all
striking and unknown words to us. Therefore, be regular in
breeding a medley of nice words in our special ‘note-book‘. Those
precious words are our key to write good English. But here, the
key tricks are:
1) Each time and every single time we read, we should keep
growing our ‘database’ of words. Keep looking for new prominent
words.
2) Make the English dictionary be our bosom English friend
– never keep a word in our book without finding and writing down
63
Joseph Epstein Compiled by Joshua Sowin January 8th, 2007 | Published in Education,
Essays, Writing http://www.fireandknowledge.org/archives/2007/01/08/a-guide-to-writing-
well.

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its meaning. Else, do not bother about even writing it down – trust
me!
3) We should pinpoint good critical articles/books, think
about what we are reading and in this process be generous to
ourselves by taking notes conscientiously of new golden words.
This is because you are reading rarely and hence we should make
those rare readings worth 10 times the ones that we would read
everyday. So we have to be very selective and analytical in what
we will read.
4) Now that we have a copy-book full of defined words,
don’t just sit around and smile at it. Go and put them into practice.
Start by writing good sentences with these words and write some
essays. Writing here is pivotal. Just like a car cannot run without a
battery, we cannot expect to have fluent English if we do not write
English.
Support Our Effort to Write Good English with Observation
Going further in our approach, while reading decent articles,
we should see how Mr. Yota is using his words in his articles and
how he constructs his sentences. Then, with your analytical and

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critical reading, coupled with your observation and some personal
insights, you should try to emulate the fresh expressiveness of Mr.
Yota. How to do this, you say? Go and try to write a good English
sentence where you can use those words better than Mr. Yota.
You will once again be amazed at yourself at how well we
performed and you will even be seeing ourselves gaining
momentum and hence writing good English paragraphs. Go
reward ourselves after our hard work, you deserve it! I hope this
article on ‘how to write good English’ and my effort to explain it
to you, has been fruitful for you. If you do like I explain, there is
no excuse in not being able to produce good quality English
writings. And I wish you all the best.
The most important sentence in any article is
the first one. If it doesn’t inducethe reader to
proceed to the second sentence, your article is
dead. And if the second sentence doesn’t
induce him to continue to the third sentence,
it’s equally dead. Of such progression of
sentences, each tugging the reader forward
until he is hooked, a writer constructs that
fateful unit, the “lead.”64
64
William Zinsser, On Writing Well, p. 55
http://www.fireandknowledge.org/archives/2007/01/08/a-guide-towriting- well/retrieve on
1/8/2007

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The King Of writer
Conclusion
When we learn a language, there are four skills that we need for
complete communication. When we learn our native language, we
usually learn to listen first, then to speak, then to read, and finally
to write. These are called the four "language skills":
 Skill #1: Listening
 Skill #2: Speaking
 Skill #3: Reading
 Skill #4: Writing
The four language skills are related to each other in two ways:
 the direction of communication (in or out)
 the method of communication (spoken or written)
Input is sometimes called "reception" and output is
sometimes called "production". Spoken is also known as "oral".

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Note that these four language skills are sometimes called the
"macro-skills". This is in contrast to the "micro-skills", which are
things like grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation and spelling.
…………………………………
Exercise
1. How can we know what is the best way to approach the
four skills of English language? (Explain)
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2. How many step to learn English language and what is
the first step to learn English language?
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3. All four skills, what kind of skill is the most important
for learning language? Why ?
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Chapter 10
Writing Essays and Summaries
Scope of the Study in Chapter 10
1. Writing Essays and Summaries
1.1. Introduction

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1.2. The Basic Paragraph
1.3. The Short Essay
1.4. The Simple Essay
1.5. Introducing:
1.6. Prewriting:
2. Organization of Paragraph Form
2.1. What is a paragraph? And so on..
Objectives of the Study
1. Learning to Know and Understand how to Writing Essays
and Summaries of Writing in English
2. Learning to Know and Understand how to Organization of
Paragraph Form
Chapter 10
Writing Essays and Summaries
Introduction
The ability to write an effective summary might be the most
important writing skill a class student can possess. You need to be

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able to summarize before you can be successful at most of the
other kinds of writing that will be demanded of you in class, and it
is an important part of note taking, too. The links below will help
you master the various kinds of summary writing that you may be
called upon to complete in class.
In the past, writing an essay was a thing to be feared. A
dreaded assignment usually put off until the last possible moment.
A prayer usually accompanied an essay exam…. but why?An
essay should have a simple form used for the expression of an idea
or the proof of a point.65
Unfortunately, until now, all the rules
were too nebulous to allow the writer the freedom found in
standardized form. For example, we were told that a paragraph
changed when the idea changed. What if the idea of my essay was
my life story? Should this then make my essay one long
paragraph?
Therefore, we have developed an organized form that gives
the writer the framework within which to express his or her ideas.
This method shows when to start each paragraph, what goes into
each paragraph, how to end the paragraph, and the order of the
paragraphs. By following the form, the inclusion of extraneous
material is prevented and as an eventual side benefit teaches the
writer to think in a more logical manner. Yet, in spite of all the
65
http://www.1.aucegypt.edu/academic/writers/research_internet.htm, by Tom
Johnson.tjohnson@aucegypt.eduLast updated May 2004.

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attention to form, it allows the writer the freedom to express him
or herself with all the creativity in the world.
With the use of this writing style, the writer can spend his or
her time on the formulations of ideas, not the formation of form.
The Basic Paragraph
A paragraph is an organized expression of a complete idea. It
begins with a topic sentence.66
The topic sentence informs the
reader as to exactly what will be discussed in the paragraph. It
limits the range of the subjects. The next part or body of the
paragraph proves or clarifies the topic sentence. Only statements
that directly refer to the topic sentence are used in this section.
The end of the paragraph is the clincher sentence. The clincher
sentence is the conclusion and may restate the topic sentence as
proven. All paragraphs must have a beginning, the middle and an
end in the form of a topic sentence, body of proof, and a clincher
sentence.
The Short Essay
To write a short essay, one simply expands the basic
paragraph. This paper begins with a thesis statement. It is similar
to the topic sentence in that it begins the first paragraph and all
66
Strunk, William, Jr. “III. Elementary Principles of Composition: 9. Make the
paragraph the unit of composition: one paragraph to each topic.”The Elements of Style.
(1999). see http://www.bartleby.com/141/strunk5.html

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following information must be, in some way, relate to it. A thesis
statement is a statement of fact. A fact is something that can be
discussed. If it can’t be discussed, you can’t write about it. The
thesis statement is followed by major proofs. These are used to
prove or clarify the thesis statement. Then, as always, a clincher
sentence is used as a conclusion for the paragraph and restating
the thesis.
The next section of the essay is the body. It is similar to the
body of a simple paragraph, except that it is a group of paragraphs.
Combining the thesis statement with each of the major proofs
forms the topic sentence of each paragraph. (A separate topic
sentence and paragraph is needed for each major proof.)
Following the topic sentence, in each case, are minor proofs
whose purpose is to directly prove the topic sentence and
indirectly prove the thesis statement. Each paragraph in the body
is ended with a clincher sentence.
The paper is ended with a paragraph of conclusion. This
paragraph begins with a restatement of the thesis statement and
also restates the major proofs. Any conclusions that the writer has
conceived are included in this paragraph. This paragraph, as with
all others in this style of writing, ends with a clincher statement. In
this case, the clincher restates the thesis as proven.
The Simple Essay

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Yota is great.
He is funny.
He is smart. He is cute.
That is why Yota is great.
Yota is great because he is funny. He tells jokes. He does
funny things. He makes everyone laugh. Yota is great because he
is funny.
Yota is great because he is smart. He says smart things. He
does smart things. He has smart friends. Yota is great because he
is smart.
Yota is great because he is cute. His voice is cute. His ears
are cute. He does cute things. Yota is great because he is cute.
So, Yota is great. He is funny. He is smart. He is cute. That is
why Yota is great.
When understanding this sentence, I believe that every article
that you write a letter or document to fluently English and are able
to communicate and meaningful better. For example:
According to our telephone conversation regarding your
previous request of transferring your credit to your new account,
we have considered all available options along with our

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department head approval per your request. your official request
will now be acceptable as an addition account, which will be
effective on the first day of January. Should there be any question
regarding this matter, please do not hesitate to contact our
customer service at your earliest convenience.
This message then hang up, not sure what the author wants to
convey. To be held for the five of us really would not be writing
this. But this is just an example and quoted a brief summary that
concisely that...?
1. Basically in this form:
a) You say it.
b) You prove it.
c) You say you’ve proven it.
2. Transitions—be it a word, phrase, sentence or paragraph.
The use of transitions makes your writing more cohesive. Sample
Transitions:
In addition to
In contrast with
Additionally
On the other hand
Interestingly enough
To begin with

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Following this
Secondly, Thirdly etc.
In conclusion
Considering this
Taking this into account
Allowing for this, And so on…..
Introducing:
1. Organization
 Paragraph Form
Prewriting:
 Taking Note
Sample questions: Sample Notes:
What is your first name? Yota
What is your family name? Chaiworamankul
Where are you from? Buriram, Thailand
How long have lived... ten years
Organization of Paragraph Form
 What is a paragraph?

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 A paragraph is a group of related
sentences about a single topic.
 Title
 The beginning form to writing a paragraph
 Examples:
 My classmate
 Friendship
 My best friend
 How to play football
 Shopping for a used car
What is a sentence? S+V....
End-of-sentence punctuation
Capitalization five rules:
1. The first word in a sentence = My name
is Venerable Yota Chaiworamankul.
2. The pronoun I alone. = At first I appeared
in Buddhist
3. Name of Buddhism and their titles:
 King Bhumiphol
 President Baruck Obarma
 Professor Jumnong
Thongprasert

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 Mr. Mrs. Theerasak, Malinee
4. Country = Thailand
 Nationalities = Thai
 languages = Thai
 religions = Buddhism
 and ethnic groups = Thai
5. Specific places you could find on map
 Chao Phraya River Bangkok
Thailand
 Central of Thailand
 First Street
 Siam Square Bangkok
Every time of your practicing will intellect you
skillful.
Conclusion
To write a good essay, you firstly need to have a clear
understanding of what the essay question is asking you to do.
Looking at the essay question in close detail will help you to
identify the topic and ‘directive words’67
which instruct you how
to answer the question. Understanding the meaning of these
directive words is a vital first step in producing your essay. This
67
Dhann, S., (2001) How to ... 'Answer assignment questions'. Accessed 12/09/11.
http://www.education.ex.ac.uk/dll/studyskills/answering_questions.htm

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glossary provides definitions of some of the more typical words
that you may come across in an essay question. Please note that
these definitions are meant to provide general, rather than exact
guidance, and are not a substitute for reading the question
carefully. Get this wrong, and you risk the chance of writing an
essay that lacks focus, or is irrelevant.
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Exercise
1. Please rewrite the stories below to be the correct
forms/words or sentences and separate any
paragraphs

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Songkran festival
of all the feasts and festivals
in thailand, which are many,
the songkran festival is the
most striking, for it is widely
observed not only in this
country but also in burma,
cambodia and the lao state.
songkran is a sanskrit word in thai form which means the entry of
the sun into any sign of the zodiac. but the songkran in this
particular instance is when the sun enters the sign of aries or the
ram. its full name is mahasongkran or major songkran to
distinguish it from the other ones. but the people call it simply the
songkran for it is the only one they know and in which they take
interest. it is their traditional new year when they can enjoy their
holidays to the full with no economic hindrance. songkran is a
fixable feast on the solar calender. it begins on the 13th april and
ends on the 15th
april, but occasionally in certain years on the 16th
april. thesongkran is in fact the celebration of the vernal equinox

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similar to those of the indianholi festival, the chinesechingming,
and the christian festival of easter. the beginning of spring when
the sun crosses the equator is now on the 21st of march which is
due to the precession of the equinox. thesongkran festival is in a
certain sense like april fool's day, when the maids of the village
play pranks on any gallant who happens to pass by their way. he
will be caught and bound by the united strength of the maids and
they will daub him with blacking.
information from: "essays on cultural thailand" by office of the
national culture commission.
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History of Loy Krathong
a crowd with flickering light of candles and color of flowers
decorating floating object is familiar scene in a celebration
occurring in a twelfth month in lunar calendar. it is one of
wonderful asian cultures when rivers and canals are full of
water. since we have been a kid, i guess everyone must be
impressed with this festive occasion in november - loykrathong.
most of us are convinced that floating objects or krathongs are
originated in sukhothai by taosrichulalak or nangnoppamas, who
was one of phraruang’s wives. however, some assert that the story
was written in the reign of rama iii merely to advocate women on
role model of a good wife, as no evidence is found to prove the
festival’s existence. they believe that loykrathong has just been
celebrated since the end of ayutthaya. despite the confusing
history, this gracious culture is still alive. people still conducts
this ritual not only to worship the footprint of the buddha on a
riverside in india, but also to pay respect to chulamaneechedi in

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heaven. another well-known purpose is to show their gratitude to
the goddess of the water on their plentiful use of water and ask for
forgiveness in the ensuing pollution. moreover, many people
believe that floating the beautiful krathong away also refers to
flying away misfortune and bad things in the past and asking for
good luck in the future.
in the past, people in lanna kingdom in the north of thailand also
show respect to rivers, but they use fire instead. they float a
lantern like a hot-air balloon in the sky which is called
yeepeng. and now we still can find this celebration in
chiangmai. interestingly, people other than thais have the similar
tradition. not far from us, laos float pratips (or our krathong) and
lai rue fai (or flowing an ablaze boat) in worship of water
goddess. this rite is also used to welcome the buddha after his
return from preaching to his mother in the second
heaven. incambodia, this period is called Ok Ambok which
means worshipping the moon. they float pratips on a full moon
night as well. another neighboring country as burma has the same
culture. they float krathong to worship the buddha and nut or
household spirit. looking upward farther, some of us may be
surprised that vietnam, korea and japan have the similar rituals
too. they apologize the water goddess and float away ill
fortune. it is assumed that the origin is mahayana Buddhism
which was expanded from china. on the other hand, indians claim

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that they are the root of this ceremony derived from Brahmin. this
festival is aimed to worship naraya god who sleeps in the milk
ocean and he then will throw our sin away.
inthailand, people enjoy creating their own krathong made from
natural resources, such as leaves and trunks of banana adorned
with flowers. some might use bread instead of synthetic materials
showing their concern for environment. other than flowers, a
candle and incense sticks, we often put some coins or betel pepper
and nut in our krathongs. and that’s why our krathongs can’t drift
any further as they are raided for little money. nevertheless,
loykrathong festival remains the most romantic and favorite
occasion for a number of people and still best represents our
gratitude.
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Bibliography
English Texts

216. Advanced English
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Bryant, Margaret (1945). A functional English grammar.D.C.
Heath and company.
Carter Ronald, McCarthy, Michael (2006). Cambridge
Grammar of English: A Comprehensive Guide, Cambridge
University Press.
Cobbett, William (2003, originally 1818). A Grammar of the
English Language (Oxford Language Classics), Oxford
University Press.
Cheshire, Jenny (1991). English Around The World:
Sociolinguistic Perspectives.Cambridge UniversityPress.
David Crystal (2000) Language Death, Preface; viii,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Fries Charles, Carpenter. (1952). The structure of English; an
introduction to the construction of English sentences. New
York: Harcourt, Brace.
Greenbaum, Sidney (1996). Oxford English Grammar, Oxford
and New York: Oxford University Press.
Greenbaum, Sidney (1990). A Student's Grammar of the
English Language. Addison Wesley Publishing Company

217. Advanced English
217
Halliday M. A. K; Matthiessen, Christian M. I. M. (revised
by) (2004).An Introduction to Functional Grammar, 3rd.
edition. London: Hodder Arnold.
Huddleston, Rodney D. (1988) English grammar: An outline.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Huddleston,
Rodney D.; Pullum, Geoffrey K., eds (2002). The Cambridge
grammar of the English language.Cambridge University
Press.
Huddleston, Rodney D.; Pullum, Geoffrey K. (2005).A
student's introduction to English grammar. Cambridge
University Press.
Jespersen, Otto. (1909–1949). A modern English grammar on
historical principles (Vols. 1-7). Heidelberg: C. Winter.
Omaggio, Alice C. 1986. Teaching language in context :
Proficiency-oriented instruction.Boston: Heinle and Heinle.
Schibsbye, Knud (1970). A Modern English Grammar:
Second Edition. London: Oxford University Press.
Sledd, James. (1959) A short introduction to English grammar
Chicago: Scott, Foresman.
Strang, Barbara M. H. (1968) Modern English structure (2nd
ed.) London: Arnold.

218. Advanced English
218
Thomson, A. J. (Audrey Jean); Martinet, A. V. (Agnes V.)
(1986). A practical English grammar:Fourth Edition. Oxford
University Press.
The New Fowler's Modern English Usage edited by R.W.
Burchfield. Clarendon Press: Oxford, England. 1996. Used
with the permission of Oxford University Press
Zandvoort, R. W. (1972) A handbook of English grammar
(2nd ed.) London: Longmans.
Websites
http://www.abShore, Thomas William (1906), Origin of the
Anglo-Saxon Race-A Study of the Settlement of England and
the Tribal Origin of the Old England People(1nd ed.),
London.Retrieved 4 April 2005.
http://www.abcdDavid Graddol(1997). "The Future of
English?" (PDF). The British Council.Retrieved 15 April
2007.
http:www. "FAQ – Language proficiency requirements for
licence holders – In which languages does a licence holder
need to demonstrate proficiency?". International Civil

219. Advanced English
219
Aviation Organization – Air Navigation Bureau.Retrieved 2
June 2011.
http://www."Lecture 7: World-Wide English".
HistLing.Retrieved 26 March 2007.
http://www.abcdDavid Graddol (1997). "The Future of
English?"(PDF). The British Council.Retrieved 15 April
2007.
http://www.abcdDavid Graddol (1997). "The Future of
English?"(PDF). The British Council.Retrieved 15 April
2007.
http://www. "ICAO Promotes Aviation Safety by Endorsing
English Language Testing". International Civil Aviation
Organization.Retrieved 13 October 2011.
http://www."IMO Standard Marine Communication Phrases".
International Maritime Organization.Archived from the
original on 27 December 2003.
http://www. abcdDavid Graddol (1997). "The Future of
English? "(PDF).The British Council.Retrieved 15 April
2007.
http://www.abJambor, Paul Z. 'English Language
Imperialism: Points of View', Journal of
English as an International Language, April 2007 – Volume
1, pages 103–123 (Accessed in 2007)

220. Advanced English
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http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/languagelearning/otherresource
s/gudlnsfralnggandcltrlrnngprgrm/GudlnsFrALnggAndCltrLr
nngPrgrm.htm, this page is an extract from the LinguaLinks
Library, Version 3.5, published on CD-ROM by SIL
International, 1999. [Ordering information.] Page content last
modified: 15 September 1998.
http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/languagelearning/other
resources/gudlnsfralnggandcltrlrnngprgrm/GudlnsFrALnggA
ndCltrLrnngPrgrm.htm, this page is an extract from the
LinguaLinks Library, Version 3.5, published on CD-ROM by
SIL International, 1999. [Ordering information.] Page content
last modified: 15 September 1998.
http://www.towson.edu/ows/sentpatttrans.htmby Margaret L.
Benner, benner@towson.edu.
For educational purposes only. All commercial uses strictly
prohibited. Copyright © 2012, 2011, 2010, 2009, 2008,
2007, 2006, 2005, 2004, 2003 Towson University.
http://www."Global English: gift or curse?".Retrieved 4 April
2005.
http://www.englishclub.com/learn-english/language-skills.htm
http://careerplanning.about.com/cs/miscskills/a/listening_skill.htm
http://www.learn-to-read-prince-george.com/why-is-reading-
important.html

221. Advanced English
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http://theinvisiblementor.com/2010/09/27/how-to-read-faster-
while-reading-well/
http://www.writerscafe.org/courses/Why-do-we-need-good-
writing-skills%3F/319/Why-do-we-need-good-writing-skills
Dhann, S., (2001) How to ... 'Answer assignment questions'.
Accessed 12/09/11.
http://www.education.ex.ac.uk/dll/studyskills/answering_question
s.htm
Johnson, R., (1996) Essay instruction terms. Accessed
12/09/11. http://www.mantex.co.uk/samples/inst.htm
Student Study Support Unit Canterbury Christchurch College
(no date) Common terms in essay questions. Accessed
22/02/08. http://www.wmin.ac.uk/page-2714
Taylor, A.M. and Turner, J., (2004) Key words used in
examination questions and essay
titles.Accessed12/09/11http://www.reading.ac.uk/internal/stu
dyadvice/StudyResources/Essays/sta-
planningessay.aspx#answering
Appendix 1

222. Advanced English
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Course Syllabus
Curriculum Bachelor of Arts Programe
In Buddhist Management
Section of Subject General Education
Code of Subject 000117, Credit Numbers 2(2-0-4)
Subject Advanced English
Graduate School Class
Course Description
To study grammatical structure, and practicing skills in
listening, speaking, reading, writing, which emphasized on
reading, writing, and comprehension sentences forms that have
vocabularies, and sentences structures related with document in
using for studies.
Objectives of Study
1. Learning to know and understand the principles of
language in the name of universal language.
2. Learning to know and understand the principles of
language in the name of universal language in order to able
phrases building, and sentences forms in English.
3. Learning to know and understand the principles of
language in the name of universal language in order to use
listening skills, speaking, reading, and writing in English to
communication correctly.
Objectives of Virtues

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1. An appreciate in English learning for communication with
foreigners around the world.
2. An appreciate and benefits of English using for
propagation of the Buddhism
Course Objectives
1. Sentences Structures
2. Punctuation in English
3. Clauses and Sentences structures
4. Expansion of Phrases to Clauses
5. Reduction of Clauses to Phrases
6. Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing Proficiency
7. Writing Essays Summaries
Course outline
1. Sentences Structures
2. Punctuation in English
3. Clauses and Sentences structures
4. Expansion of Phrases to Clauses
5. Reduction of Clauses to Phrases
6. Listening and Speaking Proficiency
7. Writing Essays Summaries
8. Reading Proficiency
9. Practicing listening and Speaking
Educational Activities

224. Advanced English
224
1. Explanations
2. Discussions
3. Personal/Group Research
4. Media Using in Teaching
5. Project Working
6. The Four Skills Practicing
Instruction Media
2. Document Teaching, Power point, Movies, Books,
Evaluation Qualifies
1. Attention class, cooperation, manners, relationships,
honesty and responsibility. 10 Marks
2. Skills ability(readiness, skillfully in expression)
10 Marks
3. Intelligence (knowledge, comprehension, documentary
applying, report, Midterm exam. 20 Marks
4. Final exam 60 Marks
Total 100 Marks
Measure of Evaluation and Mark Levels
Excellent A
Very Good B +
Good B
Very Fair C +
Fair C
Quite Fair D +

225. Advanced English
225
Poor D
Failed F
Documentaries Descriptions and Suggested Readings
Documentaries Descriptions and Suggested Readings 000117
Advanced English.
Bryant, Margaret (1945). A functional English grammar.D.C.
Heath and company.
Carter Ronald, McCarthy, Michael (2006). Cambridge
Grammar of English: A Comprehensive Guide, Cambridge
University Press.
Cobbett, William (2003, originally 1818). A Grammar of the
English Language (Oxford Language Classics), Oxford University
Press.
Fries Charles, Carpenter. (1952). The structure of English; an
introduction to the construction of English sentences. New York:
Harcourt, Brace.
Greenbaum, Sidney (1996). Oxford English Grammar,
Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.
Greenbaum, Sidney (1990). A Student's Grammar of the
English Language. Addison Wesley Publishing Company
Huddleston, Rodney D. (1984) Introduction to the grammar
of English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Huddleston, Rodney D. (1988) English grammar: An outline.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Huddleston, Rodney D.; Pullum, Geoffrey K., eds (2002).
The Cambridge grammar of the English language.Cambridge
University Press.

226. Advanced English
226
Huddleston, Rodney D.; Pullum, Geoffrey K. (2005).A
student's introduction to English grammar.Cambridge University
Press.
Jespersen, Otto. (1909–1949). A modern English grammar on
historical principles (Vols. 1-7). Heidelberg: C. Winter.
Schibsbye, Knud (1970). A Modern English Grammar:
Second Edition. London: Oxford University Press.
Sledd, James. (1959) A short introduction to English
grammar Chicago: Scott, Foresman.
Strang, Barbara M. H. (1968) Modern English structure (2nd
ed.) London: Arnold.
Thomson, A. J. (Audrey Jean); Martinet, A. V. (Agnes V.)
(1986). A practical English grammar:Fourth Edition. Oxford
University Press.
The New Fowler's Modern English Usage edited by R.W.
Burchfield. Clarendon Press: Oxford, England. 1996. Used with
the permission of Oxford University Press
Zandvoort, R. W. (1972) A handbook of English grammar
(2nd ed.) London: Longmans.
Appendix 1
Biography
Biography PhramahaYotaPayutto (Chaiworamankul)
Date of Birth: February 13, 1987

227. Advanced English
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Author
Ably self-restrained are the wise, in action,
in thought and in speech.
Dhammapada v. 234
.