1. Academic Writing (for
PG Education)
• Self-assessment
• Research
• Summarising and Quoting
• Literature Reviews
• APA citations & reference lists
2. SELF-ASSESSMENT
• Complete the self-assessment form by
ticking the relevant column
• When you are ready, discuss your
answers in pairs or groups
• Try and aim for a balance between the
four strategies – and be proactive about
getting support with your research and
writing
3. RESOURCES
Facts & Figures
.. about the issue and / or proposed
solutions
Theories /
Models
… which have been developed to
explain the issue
Definitions
… of the issue and/or theoretical
concepts
Examples
… of the issue and/or proposed
solutions
5. Steps in a research process
• Start off by using your lecture notes and
recommended books. Then delve deeper into
selected topics using your university library
resources
• Massey students can click on the ‘Research’ tab on
the Massey home page and choose ‘Library’.
• Then click on ‘Subject Guides’ and then on your
subject to find the library codes, statistics,
organisations, videos and research databases that
will allow you to search efficiently for high quality
educational sources.
6. Use mind-maps, tables etc to organise your ideas as
you go along
Selfimprovement
harmony
Shared rituals
Obedience benevolence
CONFUCIANISM
relationships
7. SUMMARISING FROM
SOURCES
Step 1: highlight relevant information in your source
“Confucianism developed from Confucius’s life-long concern for a humanistic government,
and a political and social order that was built firmly on the rites, li, developed and
implemented in the Zhou dynasty (1122-771 BC). Li, in Chinese means institutional rites
and norms that define and regulate political and social behavior. Confucius’ singular
contribution to this tradition was to provide a philosophical account of the true nature of
li by invoking two quintessential Confucian notions, ren, human benevolence and yi,
moral fittingness, as its foundation of legitimacy. These elements were then woven into a
coherent moral system that is the core of Confucianism” (de Bettignies, Ip, Bai, Habisch &
Lenssen, 2011, p. 625).
Step 2: Make very short notes of key ideas
C = philosophical view of social order
explains and justifies social norms
2 principles: ren = benevolence; yi = appropriate moral behaviour
8. Step 3: These notes need to be clear, because when
you write your draft, you need to close the original
book, article or webpage
C = philosophical view of social order
explains and justifies social norms
2 principles: ren = benevolence; yi = appropriate moral behaviour
Step 4: Expand your notes into linked sentences
Confucianism is a social philosophy which attempts to explain and justify the norms
which govern social behaviour. These norms are seen as justified when they
embody two underlying moral principles: ren, which means ‘benevolence’ and yi,
which can be translated as ‘fittingness’ or ‘appropriateness’.
Step 5: Add the reference to the source you used
Confucianism is a ....... translated as ‘fittingness’ or ‘appropriateness’ (de Bettignies,
Ip, Bai, Habisch, & Lenssen, 2011).
9. QUOTING FROM SOURCES
• The key principles for effective quotations are FEW and SHORT
Generally only quote:
1) definitions:
Stuttering has been defined as “a disruption in the fluency of verbal
expression characterized by involuntary, audible or silent, repetitions or
prolongations of sounds or syllables” (Büchel & Sommer, 2004, p. 159).
2) stand-out comments:
This is another illustration of the truth of the saying, “Those who do
not remember the past are condemned to repeat it” (Santayana,
1905, p. 284).
• And, where possible, EMBED the quote as a short phrase inside your
own sentence, as in the two examples above.
10. STRUCTURING ACADEMIC
TEXTS
• Generally, academic writing moves from general
to particular (often ending up with a summary)
• So, a literature review as a whole, each section,
and each paragraph tends to start with a general
overview, then expands on the points made in the
overview, finishing with a summary of main points
and/or gaps or problems
• Think of it as a set of Russian dolls – each doll with
its own head, body and feet!
11. Table of Contents for a Literature Review (as part of a thesis)
2.1. Introduction
2.1.1. Social consequences of obesity
2.2. Broader communication issues
2.2.1. Advertising
• Arranged by key themes or findings
• Arranged in headings and sub-headings
2.2.1.1. Advertising expenditure
2.2.1.2. Advertising style
2.3. Likely causes of obesity
2.3.1. Obesity and genetics
2.3.2. Television watching, exercise and obesity
Logical grouping of
information from your
sources
2.3.3. Lifestyles and eating choices
2.3.4. Advertising, children and obesity
2.3.4.1. Communication theory
2.3.4.2. Television content analysis
To provide a coherent argument
about research on your topic so
far
2.3.4.3. Television advertising and nutrition practices
2.4. Proposed public policy changes to reduce obesity
2.4.1. Fat/Sin taxes
2.4.2. Health education
Leading to your research
question
2.4.3. Advertising restrictons
2.5. Summary of literature and research aims
(Hawkins, 2003)
11
12. PARAGRAPH WRITING
• Paragraphs are the little dolls of your academic writing –
each starting with a topic sentences, expanding on this
with arguments and evidence in the next few sentences,
and (generally) reaching a conclusion
• With their little legs, paragraphs get tired quickly!
Generally, keep them between 4 and 8 sentences long
(about 100 – 200 words)
• Aim to make a paragraph plan before writing – consisting
of the number of sections and the number of paragraphs
in each section
13. 2.3.4.3. Television advertising and nutrition practices
Television advertising may influence children’s nutrition practices, particularly
in regard to food requests, purchases and consumption (see for example,
Hutchings & Moynihan, 1998; Kotz & Story, 1994; Borzekowski & Robinson,
2001). Story and Faulkner (1990) state that television exposure may impact on
actual eating behaviour [but that further research is required to establish causal
links]. Similarly, Kotz and Story (1994) note that television is such a ubiquitous
medium that it is difficult to measure its behavioural effects. Their report
concluded that it was not possible to prove that food advertisements aimed at
children cause poor eating habits. Whilst these and other such studies report a
positive correlation between television viewing and food requests, purchases
and consumption, there is limited conclusive evidence to support a direct cause
and effect relationship between the messages portrayed and the actual eating
patterns of children.
(Source of extract: Hawkins, 2003, p. 29)
13
14. Television advertising may influence children’s nutrition
practices, particularly in regard to food requests, purchases and
consumption (see for example, Hutchings & Moynihan, 1998;
TOPIC SENTENCE
Kotz & Story, 1994; Borzekowski & Robinson, 2001). Story and
Faulkner (1990) state that television exposure may impact on
actual eating behaviour [but that further research is required to
establish causal links]. Similarly, Kotz and Story (1994) note that
television is such a ubiquitous medium that it is difficult to
measure its behavioural effects. Their report concluded that it
SUPPORTING
ARGUMENTS &
EVIDENCE
was not possible to prove that food advertisements aimed at
children cause poor eating habits. Whilst these and other such
studies report a positive correlation between television viewing
and food requests, purchases and consumption, there is limited
SO WHAT?
conclusive evidence to support a direct cause and effect
relationship between the messages portrayed and the actual
eating patterns of children.
14
15. So BEFORE putting fingers to keys, make sure you’ve
worked out what point you’re making and what
research you’ve got to back it up – ideally in a simple
list.
LEADERSHIP IN CONFUCIANISM
• Confucianism = philosophical system of social relationships (de
Bettignies …).
• 5 relationships: emperor-subject, father-son, husband-wife, olderyoung brother, and friend-friend (Li).
• Manager like a father (Zhang)
• Duty important (Tsui).
• Harmony important - Leader – self-improvement – to become junzi =
superior man (Ip)
16. To make your paragraphs ‘FLOW’ start sentences by referring
back to a previous idea and then building on this – Make THIS
and THESE your flow bro’s!
In contrast to Fayol’s pragmatic focus on management of organisations,
Confucianism is a systematic, philosophical approach to the maintenance of
human relationships in society as a whole (de Bettignies, Ip, Bai, Habisch &
Lenssen, 2011). These relationships are categorised into five types: emperorsubject, father-son, husband-wife, older-young brother, and friend-friend (Li,
1984). Leadership is central to these relationships because society is viewed as
hierarchical, with each member typically having power over some, while being
subservient to others. Harmony, is seen as a paramount objective in order to
secure the sustainability of the society (Ip, 2009), which otherwise might be
riven by power struggles. Therefore, in an organisational context, leaders are
encouraged to avoid any extremes and ensure that employees willingly accept
their duties (Tsui, Wang, Xin, Zhang, & Fu, 2004). This approach involves a
delicate balance between obedience (which is expected of employees) and
rewards (which they may expect in return from the manager, in the guise of a
benevolent father-figure) (Zhang, Lin, Nonoka, & Beom, 2005). Obedience also
depends on the leader’s commitment to continual self-improvement, with the
aim of achieving the status of junzi, or superior man, (Ip, 2011).
17. Here is a single introduction paragraph to a
literature review. What are the elements that
make it ‘introductory’?
Without greenhouse gases, there would be no policy-makers to
agonise over them. For naturally-produced greenhouse gases
are what has made this planet habitable for everyone of us,
through an estimated 33°c increase in global temperatures over
millions of years (IPCC, 2007). No one disputes this – and few
dispute that the last few decades have seen a sharp upturn in
this warming process. However, sceptics view this latest
temperature increase as no more than a temporary spike in an
ancient pattern of natural variation. This review follows the IPCC
in referring to such natural variation as „climate variability‟,
whereas „global warming‟ will be defined as temperature
increases brought about by what are called „anthropogenic‟
(human-produced) greenhouse gas concentrations. Empirical
evidence for global warming and for its impact on extreme
weather events will be summarised and critically
evaluated in the sections which follow.
18. Without greenhouse gases, there would be no
policy-makers to agonise over them. For naturallyproduced greenhouse gases are what has made this
planet habitable for everyone of us, through an
estimated 33°c increase in global temperatures
over millions of years (IPCC, 2007). No one
disputes this – and few dispute that the last few
decades have seen a sharp upturn in this warming
process. However, sceptics view this latest
temperature increase as no more than a temporary
spike in an ancient pattern of natural variation. This
review follows the IPCC in referring to such natural
variation as „climate variability‟, whereas „global
warming‟ will be defined as temperature increases
brought about by what are called „anthropogenic‟
(human-produced) greenhouse gas concentrations.
Empirical evidence for global warming and for its
impact on extreme weather events will be
summarised and critically evaluated in the sections
which follow.
IMPORTANCE
PROBLEM
BASIC
DEFINITION
PREVIEW
19. CITATIONS (IN-TEXT
REFERENCES)
The same basic
principle for ALL
sources
book journal article
newspaper article
website
etc
– Surname of author(s) + year of publication
– Direct quotations need quotation marks and page
number(s)
Observational learning can be defined as “the
phenomenon whereby people develop patterns of
behavior by observing the actions of others”
(Mowen & Minor, 1998, p. 147).
Surnames
of authors
Year of
publication
Page
20. CITATIONS (more than one
author)
For two authors, always include both:
Blah, blah, blah, blah (Chang & Liu, 2009).
For three to five authors– include all surnames first time
Blah, blah, blah, blah (Hubbard, Thomas, & Varnham, 2001).
And then use et al. if you refer to the same source again
Blah, blah, blah, blah (Hubbard et al., 2001).
For six or more authors, use et al. all the time
Blah, blah, blah, blah (Singh et al., 2011).
21. CITATIONS (SECONDARY
SOURCES)
In a recently discovered private diary, Jane Austen describes the character
as “my greatest challenge and most uncertain achievement” (as cited in
Smith, 2012, p. 231).
But avoid these secondary references and, if possible, include a
direct reference to the original source (you’ll find the details you
need in the book you’ve used).
This period during which a learner can complete a task with the support of
tools and/ or mentors is known as the Zone of Proximal Development
(ZPD) (Vygotsky, 1978).
In this case, it doesn’t really matter that I haven’t read
Vygotsky’s book myself – I read about this theory in a recent
book, but I’m including a reference to the original book by
Vygotsky [in its first publication in English translation].
22. CITATIONS (three ways)
Most of the time, you’ll put the reference in brackets, just after
you’ve finished with the information.
Cognitive behavioural therapy is increasingly preferred to more
traditional medical interventions in such cases (Dunbar &
Holmes, 2003).
But sometimes you can include the author(s) in your sentence and
then just put the year in brackets.
According to Dunbar and Holmes (2003), cognitive
behavioural therapy is increasingly preferred …..
Dunbar and Holmes (2003) claim / argue / suggest / state /
provide evidence that cognitive behavioural therapy is
increasingly preferred …..
23. END OF TEXT
REFERENCES
References
Finkelstein, S., Whitehead, J., & Campbell, A. (2009). Think again: Why good leaders
make bad decisions and how to stop it happening to you. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
Business School Press.
Kahnemann, D. (2003). Maps of bounded rationality: Psychology for behavioural
economics. The American Economic Review 93(5), 1449-1475.
Kahnemann, D., Fredrickson, B. I., Schreiber, C.A., & Redelmeier, D.A. (1993). When
more pain is preferred to less: Adding a better end. Psychological Science 4(6),
401-405.
Krause, T. R. (2008). The role of cognitive bias in safety decisions. Occupational
Hazards 70(6), 28.
Simon, H. A. (1955). A behavioural model of rational choice. Quarterly Journal of
Economics 69(1), 99-118.
White, E. (2009, February 14). Why good leaders make bad decisions. The Wall Street
Journal. Retrieved March 13, 2012 from:
http://online.wsj.com/article/SB123438338010974235.html
Use a YouTube video to help you with formatting – e.g. http://tinyurl.com/APAindenting
24. BOOK
Hamel, G. (2000). Leading the revolution. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press
surname, (year)
initial
title
city
publisher
For more than one
author, include all
names with initials
(followed by . and ,)
Hubbard, J., Thomas, C., & Varnham, S. (2001). Principles of law for New
Zealand business students (2nd ed.). Auckland, New Zealand: Pearson
Education.
25. CHAPTER IN
EDITED BOOK
Author of chapter
and year of
publication
Title of chapter – not
in italics
Editors’ names – initial
goes before and (Eds.),
goes after!
Biggins, G. (2009). Why I became a social worker. In P. Te Ara & T. Rogers (Eds.),
Social work and social workers in New Zealand/Aotearoa (pp.102-120).
Auckland, New Zealand: Insight Press.
City &
Publisher
Title of book –
in italics
Page numbers of chapter – in
brackets with pp. before
26. CITY OF PUBLICATION
UK, NZ etc
USA
Australia
city, country
Harmondsworth, England:
Penguin
Palmerston North, New
Zealand: Dunmore Press
city, state
initials
Either state
OR country
Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates
Milton, Qld: McGraw-Hill
Milton, Australia:
McGraw-Hill
Check title of book in library catalogue and/or Google if
city of publication is not clear from the book itself
27. JOURNAL REFERENCE
author’s name
year
Title (no italics)
Silverblatt, A. (2004). Media as a social
institution. American Behavioral
Scientist, 48(1), 35-42.
doi:10.1080/09585190802707433
journal name
(italics)
doi number
(not always needed)
volume &
page numbers
issue number
28. WEB PAGE REFERENCE
Year
author’s name
(if it’s missing put (n.d.)
(or organisation that owns the web site)
Title of page
(in italics)
Statistics New Zealand. (2009).
Mapping trends in the Auckland
region. Retrieved from
http://www.stats.govt.nz/Publication
s/PopulationStatistics/mappingtrends-in-the-auckland-region.aspx.
Retrieved from
followed by full internet address
29. REFERENCING
SOFTWARE
Microsoft Word 2007 +
Use the references tab in the toolbar
Click ‘insert citation’ + add new source
Take care with names (Hamel, Gary) and type of source
Endnote ($36 from library – and make sure you go to a tutorial)
http://tinyurl.com/endnoteguide
Free Programmes to download (but you’ll need to learn how to
use them, through online tutorials etc)
http://www.zotero.org/
http://www.mendeley.com
30. Selected guides to Education / PG writing
BOOKS
Emerson, L. & McPherson, J. (Eds.). (1997). Writing guidelines
for education students. Palmerston North, New Zealand:
Dunmore Press.
Swales, J.M. & Feak, C.B. (1996). Academic writing for graduate
students. Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press.
WEBSITES
http://tinyurl.com/PGwritingadvice1
http://tinyurl.com/PGwritingadvice2
http://tinyurl.com/PGwritingadvice3
http://tinyurl.com/PGwritingadvice4
http://tinyurl.com/PGwritingadvice5
30
