The document provides definitions and explanations of key concepts in academic writing. It states that academic texts are written by experts in a formal style using facts and specialized vocabulary specific to the discipline. Literary analysis essays examine and analyze literary works, going beyond summary to make an argument about a theme or motif. Research papers use outside sources to support an argument or thesis. Dissertations summarize original doctoral research. Well-structured academic writing uses clear structures like IMRD or a three-part introduction, body, conclusion structure.

1. ACADEMIC TEXT?
Defined as critical, objective, specialized texts written by experts or
professionals in a given field using formal language. This means that
academic texts are based on facts with solid basis. Academic writing,
therefore, is generally quite formal, objective (impersonal) and technical. It is
formal by avoiding casual or conversational language, such as
contractions or informal vocabulary. It is impersonal and objective by
avoiding direct reference to people or feelings, and instead emphasizing
objects, facts and ideas. It is technical by using vocabulary specific to the
discipline.

2. Literary Analysis
• A literary analysis essay examines, evaluates, and makes an
argument about a literary work. As its name suggests, a literary
analysis essay goes beyond mere summarization. It requires careful
close reading of one or multiple texts and often focuses on a specific
characteristic, theme, or motif.

3. Research Paper
• A research paper uses outside information to support a
thesis or make an argument. Research papers are
written in all disciplines and may be evaluative,
analytical, or critical in nature. Common research
sources include data,
•

4. Dissertation
• A dissertation (or thesis) is a document
submitted at the conclusion of a Ph.D. program.
The dissertation is a book-length summarization
of the doctoral candidate’s research. Academic
papers may be done as a part of a class, in a
program of study, or for publication in an
academic journal or scholarly book of articles
around a theme, by different authors.

5. Structure
• an important feature of academic writing. A well-
structured text enables the reader to follow the argument
and navigate the text. In academic writing a clear
structure and a logical flow are imperative to a cohesive
text. These are the two common structures of academic
texts that you need to learn which depends on the type
of assignment you are required: the three-part essay
structure and the IMRaD structure.

6. The IMRaD Structure
• The sections of the IMRaD structure are Introduction,
Methods, Results and Discussion. The Introduction
usually depicts the background of the topic and the
central focus of the study. The Methodology lets your
readers know your data collection methods, research
instrument employed, sample size and so on. Results
and Discussion states the brief summary of the key
findings or the results of your study.

7. The Three-Part of Essay
Structure
• The three-part essay structure is a basic structure that
consists of introduction, body and conclusion.
The introduction and the conclusion should be
shorter than the body of the text. For shorter essays,
one or two paragraphs for each of these
sections can be appropriate. For longer texts or theses,
they may be several pages long.

8. INTRODUCTION
• Its purpose is to clearly tell the reader the topic, purpose and
structure of the paper.
As a rough guide, an introduction might be between 10 and
20 percent of the length of
the whole paper and has three main parts:
• The most general information, such as background and/or
definitions.
• The core of the introduction, where you show the overall topic,
purpose, your point of view, hypotheses and/or research
questions (depending on what kind of paper it is).
• The most specific information, describing the scope and
structure of your paper.

9. BODY
• It develops the question, “What is the topic about?”. It
may elaborate directly on the topic sentence by giving
definitions, classifications, explanations, contrasts,
examples and evidence. This is considered as the heart
of the essay because it expounds the specific ideas for
the readers to have a better understanding of the topic. It
usually is the largest part of the essay.

10. CONCLUSION
• The conclusion is closely related to the introduction and
is often described as its ‘mirror image’. This means that if
the introduction begins with general information and
ends with specific information, the conclusion moves in
the opposite direction. The conclusion usually begins by
briefly summarizing the main scope or structure of the
paper, confirms the topic that was given in the
introduction, ends with a more general statement about
how this topic relates to its context. This may take the
form of an evaluation of the importance of the topic,
implications for future research or a recommendation
about theory or practice.

11. Academic Language
• Academic language represents the language demands
of school (academics). Academic language includes
language used in textbooks, in classrooms, on tests, and
in each discipline. It is different in vocabulary and
structure from the everyday spoken English of social
interactions. Each type of communication (both
academic and social) has its purpose, and neither is
superior to the other.

12. Objective
• avoid personal or direct reference
to people or feelings

13. Formal
• avoid casual or conversational such as
contractions and informal vocabulary

14. Technical
• use vocabulary specific to the
discipline

15. Structure
• avoid redundancy and make sure that
ideas are packed effectively

16. Caution
• avoid sweeping
generalizations

17. Formal language and informal
language are associated with
particular choices of grammar
and vocabulary.
Contractions, relative clauses
without a relative pronoun
and ellipsis are more common
in informal language.

18. WHAT IS THESIS STATEMENT?
• It is a statement that summarizes your topic and declares your position on it.
• It tells the reader how you will interpret the significance of the subject matter
under discussion.
• It is a road map for the paper; in other words, it tells the reader what to expect
from the rest of the paper.
• It is the central idea of a multiple-paragraph composition. It is one sentence
summary that guides, controls and unifies ideas when writing a paper. In
simple terms, all the other ideas present in an easy way that revolves around
the thesis statement.
• It focuses your ideas into one or two sentences. It should present the topic of
your paper and also make a comment about your position in relation to the
topic. Your thesis statement should tell your reader what the paper is about and
also help guide your writing and keep your argument focused.

19. • explicit: it is included as a sentence as part of the text. It might
be near the beginning of the work, but not always–some types of
academic writing leave the thesis until the conclusion.
• Journalism and reporting also rely on explicit thesis statements that
appear very early in the piece–the first paragraph or even the first
sentence.
• an implicit thesis statement: the primary point of the reading is
conveyed indirectly, in multiple locations throughout the work.
(In literature, this is also referred to as the theme of the work.)
• Works of literature, on the other hand, usually do not contain a
specific sentence that sums up the core concept of the writing.
However, readers should finish the piece with a good understanding
of what the work was trying to convey.

20. FOUR QUESTIONS TO ASK WHEN
FORMULATING THESIS STATEMENT
• Where is your thesis statement?
=> You should provide a thesis early in your essay -- in the
introduction, or in longer essays in the second paragraph -- in order
to establish your position and give your reader a sense of direction.
• Tips on how to write a successful thesis statement
o Avoid burying a great thesis statement in the middle of a
paragraph or late in the paper.
o Be as clear and as specific as possible; avoid vague words.
o Indicate the point of your paper but avoid sentence structures
like, “The point of my paper is…”

21. • Is your thesis statement
specific?
=> Your thesis statement should be as clear and specific as
possible. Normally you will continue to refine your thesis as
you revise your argument(s), so your thesis will evolve and
gain definition as you obtain a better sense of where your
argument is taking you.
• Tips on how to formulate specific thesis statement
o Are there two large statements connected loosely by a coordinating
conjunction (i.e. "and," "but," "or," "for," "nor," "so," "yet")?
o Would a subordinating conjunction help (i.e. "through," "although,"
"because," "since") to signal a relationship between the two
sentences?
o Or do the two statements imply a fuzzy unfocused thesis?
o If so, settle on one single focus and then proceed with further
development.

22. • Is your thesis statement too general?
=> Your thesis should be limited to what can be accomplished in the
specified number of pages. Shape your topic so that you can get
straight to the "meat" of it. Being specific in your paper will be much
more successful than writing about general things that do not say
much. Don't settle for three pages of just skimming the surface.
=> The opposite of a focused, narrow, crisp thesis is a broad,
sprawling, superficial thesis. Compare this original thesis (too
general) with three possible revisions (more focused, each
presenting a different approach to the same topic):
• Original thesis: There are serious objections to today's horror
movies.
• Revised thesis: Because modern cinematic techniques have
allowed filmmakers to get more graphic, horror flicks have
desensitized young American viewers to violence.
• The pornographic violence in "bloodbath" slasher movies degrades
both men and women.
• Today's slash movies fail to deliver the emotional catharsis that
1930s horror films did.

23. • Is your thesis statement clear?
=> Your thesis statement is no exception to your writing: it
needs to be as clear as possible. By being as clear as
possible in your thesis statement, you will make sure that
your reader understands exactly what you mean.
• Tips on how to write clear thesis statement
• Unless you're writing a technical report, avoid technical
language. Always avoid jargon, unless you are confident
your audience will be familiar with it.
• Avoid vague words such as "interesting,” "negative,"
"exciting,” "unusual," and "difficult."
• Avoid abstract words such as "society," “values,” or
“culture.”

24. NOTE:
• These words tell the reader next to nothing if you do
not carefully explain what you mean by them. Never
assume that the meaning of a sentence is obvious.
Check to see if you need to define your terms (”
socialism," "conventional," "commercialism,"
"society"), and then decide on the most appropriate
place to do so. Do not assume, for example, that
you have the same understanding of what “society”
means as your reader. To avoid misunderstandings,
be as specific as possible.

25. • Note: Use your own words in thesis
statements; avoid quoting. Crafting an
original, insightful, and memorable thesis
makes a distinct impression on a reader. You
will lose credibility as a writer if you become
only a mouthpiece or a copyist; you will gain
credibility by grabbing the reader with your
own ideas and words.
• A well-crafted thesis statement reflects well-
crafted ideas. It signals a writer who has
intelligence, commitment, and enthusiasm.

26. WHAT IS OUTLINING?
• Outlining is a tool we use in the writing process
to help organize our ideas, visualize our paper's
potential structure, and to further flesh out and
develop points. It allows the writer to understand
how he or she will connect information to
support the thesis statement and the claims of
the paper.

27. Use various outlines based
on the structure you prefer
• Sentence outline – Using complete
sentences as entries.
• Topic outline – Using words and phrases
as entries.
• Paragraph outline – Using paragraphs as
entries.

28. • BASIC OUTLINE FORM
• MAIN IDEA
o Subsidiary idea or supporting idea to I
o Subsidiary idea or supporting idea to I
• Subsidiary idea to B
• Subsidiary idea to B
o Subsidiary idea to 2
o Subsidiary idea to 2
• MAIN IDEA
Subsidiary or supporting idea to II
Subsidiary idea to II
Subsidiary idea to II
• MAIN IDEA

29. • EXAMPLE SENTENCE OUTLINE
• Introduction
• Current Problem: Educational attainment rates are decreasing in the United States while health care cost is increasing.
• Population/Area of Focus: Unskilled or low-skilled adult workers
• Key Terms: healthy, well-educated
• Thesis Statement: Because of their income deficit (cite sources) and general susceptibility to depression (cite sources),
students who drop out of high school before graduation maintain a higher risk for physical and mental health problems later in
life.
•
• Background
• Historical Employment Overview: Unskilled laborers in the past were frequently unionized and adequately compensated for
their work (cite sources).
o Historical Healthcare Overview: Unskilled laborers in the past were often provided adequate healthcare and benefits (cite sources).
o Current Link between Education and Employment Type: Increasingly, uneducated workers work in unskilled or low-skilled jobs (cite sources).
o Gaps in the Research: Little information exists exploring the health implications of the current conditions in low-skilled jobs.
• Major Point 1: Conditions of employment affect workers' physical health.
o Minor Point 1: Unskilled work environments are correlated highly with worker injury (cite sources).
• Minor Point 2: Unskilled work environments rarely provide healthcare or adequate injury recovery time (cite sources).
• Major Point 2: Conditions of employment affect workers' mental health
• Minor Point 1: Employment in a low-skilled position is highly correlated with dangerous levels of stress (cite sources).
o Minor Point 2: Stress is highly correlated with mental health issues (cite sources).
• Major Point 3: Physical health and mental health correlate directly with one another.
o Minor Point 1: Mental health problems and physical health problems are highly correlated (cite sources).
o Minor Point 2: Stress manifests itself in physical form (cite sources)
• Major Point 4: People with more financial worries have more stress and worse physical health.
o Minor Point 1: Many high-school dropouts face financial problems (cite sources).
• Minor Point 2: Financial problems are often correlated with unhealthy lifestyle choices such unhealthy food choices,
overconsumption/abuse of alcohol, chain smoking, abusive relationships, etc. (cite sources).
• Conclusion
• Restatement of Thesis: Students who drop out of high school are at a higher risk for both mental and physical health problems
throughout their lives.
• Next Steps: Society needs educational advocates; educators need to be aware of this situation and strive for student retention
in order to promote healthy lifestyles and warn students of the risks associated with dropping out of school.

30. EXAMPLE OF TOPIC OUTLINE
• Several aspects must be considered in writing a topic outline.
• Recall that all headings and subheadings must be words or phrases, not sentences.
• Also, the wording within each division must be parallel.
• Finally, as in any outline, remember that a division or subdivision cannot be divided into one
part; therefore, if there is an
•
"A" there must be a "B," and if there is a "1" there must be a "2."
I. Family Problems
• Custodial: Non-custodial Conflicts
• Extended Family
• Adolescent's Age
II. Economic Problems
• Child Support
• Women's Job Training
• Lower Standard of Living
• Possible Relocation
o Poorer Neighborhood
o New School
III. Peer Problems
• Loss of Friends
• Relationships with Dates

31. Guidelines in Writing an
Outline:
• Place the title at the center above the outline.
• Every level of the outline must have at least two items (I and
II, A and B, 1 and 2).
• Put a period after each numeral and letter.
• Indent each new level of the outline.
• All items of one kind (roman numerals, capital letters, Arabic
numerals) should line up with each other.
• Capitalize the first letter of each item.
• The terms Introduction, Body, and Conclusion do not have to
be included in the outline. They are not topics; they are
merely organizational units in the writer’s mind.

32. CRITIQUE
• A critique is a careful analysis of an argument to
determine what is said, how well the points are made,
what assumptions underlie the argument, what issues
are overlooked, and what implications are drawn from
such observations. It is a systematic, yet personal
response and evaluation of what you read.
• It is a genre of academic writing that briefly summarizes
and critically evaluates a work or concept.

33. • Critiques can be used to carefully analyze a variety of
works such as:
• Creative works – novels, exhibits, film, images, poetry
• Research – monographs, journal articles, systematic
reviews, theories
• Media – news reports, feature articles
Note: Like an essay, a critique uses a formal, academic
writing style and has a clear structure, that is, an
introduction, body and conclusion. However, the body of
a critique includes a summary of the work and a detailed
evaluation. The purpose of an evaluation is to gauge the
usefulness or impact of a work in a particular field.

34. Reaction Papers, Review,
and Critiques?
• These are specialized forms of writing in which a reviewer or
reader evaluates any of the following: SCHOLARLY WORK,
A WORK OF ART, DESIGNS, GRAPHIC DESIGNS.
• Usually range in length from 25o to 750 words
• Critical assessments, analyses or evaluation of different
works.
• Reviewers use both proofs and logical reasoning
• Presents an analytical response to a book or article.

35. Reaction Papers, Review,
and Critiques
• These are not simply summaries
• Critique = cynicism and pessimism
• Do not rely only on mere opinions
Pessimism is the state of mind wherein a person
has the tendency to look at life negatively.
Cynicism does not believe in the sincerity of others. Instead,
it is distrustful of human nature as a whole. No matter how
honorable a man is, a cynic will always see him as someone
with only his interests in mind and therefore must not be
trusted.

36. Formalism
• mainly to do with structural purposes of a particular text. It is
the study of a text without taking into account any outside
influence.
• The name of the author is not important
• The time in which the author lived is not important.
• The political belief of the author is not important
• The actual reader is not important

37. Common aspects looked
into in formalism:
• Intrinsic properties and treats each work as a distinct
work of art.
• The key understanding a text is through a text itself.
• Author’s techniques in resolving contradictions within the
work.
• Central passage that sums up the work
• Relationship of the form and the content
• Unity in the work

38. Feminism
• the advocacy of women's rights on the basis of the
equality of the sexes.
• Feminist literary criticism recognizes that since literature
both reflects culture and shapes it, literary studies can
either perpetuate the oppression of women or help to
eliminate it.
• Presents women as subjects of sociopolitical,
psychological and economic oppression

39. Common aspects looked
into in feminism:
• How culture determines gender.
• How gender equality is presented in the text
• How gender issues are presented in literary works.
• How women are socially, politically, psychologically and
economically oppressed by patriarchy.

40. Reader Response
Criticism
• Reviewer’s reaction as an audience of a
work.
• A text does not have meaning until the
reader reads it.

41. Common aspects looked
into in reader response:
• Interaction between the reader and the
text in creating meaning.
• The impact of reader’s delivery of sounds
and visuals on enhancing and changing
meaning.

42. Marxist Criticism
• It is the belief that literature reflects this class
struggle and materialism
• It investigates how literature can work as a force
for social change.
• Differences between economic classes and
implications of a capital system.
• Continuing conflicts between the working class
and the elite.

43. Common aspects looked
into in Marxism
• Social class as represented in the work
• Social class of the characters
• Conflicts and interactions between
economic classes.

44. Structure of a Reaction
Paper
• Introduction (5%)
‣Title of the book/article or work
‣Writer’s name
‣Thesis statement
• Summary (10%)
‣ Objective or Purpose
‣ Methods used (if applicable)
‣ Major findings, claims, ideas, or messages

45. Structure of a Reaction
Paper
• Review/Critique (in no particular order 75%)
‣ Does the writer explicitly state his/her thesis
statement.
‣ What are the assumptions
‣ What are the contributions of the work to the field
where it belongs?
‣ What problems and issues are discussed or presented
in the work?
‣ What kind of information are presented in the work?

46. Structure of a Reaction
Paper
• Conclusion (10%)
‣ Overall impression of the work
‣ Scholarly or literary value of the reviewed article,
book or work.
‣ Benefits for the intended audience
‣ Suggestion for future direction of research

47. BALANCED/OBJECTIVE
REVIEW OR CRITICISM?
• It is a system of interpreting, judging, and
assessing a person, thing, or any work of
art not influenced by feelings or opinions in
considering and presenting facts. It is a
systematic way of considering the
truthfulness of a piece of work.

48. TO HAVE BALANCED/OBJECTIVE
REVIEW OF ANY PIECE OF WORK, THE
FOLLOWING ARE CONSIDERED:
• Description. Pure description of the object,
piece of work, art, event, etc. It answers the
questions:
o Artwork - "What do you see?" (description constitutes form of art,
medium, size and scale, elements or general shapes, color, texture of
surface, and context of object).
o Piece of writing - "What do you see?" (form, structure, choice of words,
length, genre, etc)

49. • Analysis. Determining what the features suggest
and deciding why the artist or writers used such
features to convey specific ideas. It answers the
questions:
=> Artwork - "How did the artist do it?"
=> Piece of writing-"How did the writer write it?"
• The analysis constitutes the following:
o determination of subject matter
o analysis of the principles of design or composition
o use of symbol and other elements, portrayal of movement and how it is
achieved
o effect of particular medium, relationships of each part of the composition to
the whole and to each other part
o reaction to object.
•

50. • Interpretation. Establishing the broader context for this
type of art. It answers the questions:
artwork - "Why did the artist create it and what does it
mean?
piece of writing - "Why did the write create it and
what does it mean?
• Remember: you shouldn’t make your interpretation too
arbitrary! Provide evidence and point out what exactly
influenced your understanding of the artwork. Here are
the elements that you can include in your interpretation:

51. • The interpretation constitutes:
(a) Main idea (overall meaning of the work),
(b) Interpretive Statement (Can I express
what I think the artwork is about in one
sentence),
(c) Evidence (What evidence inside or outside
the artwork supports my interpretation?).

52. • . Judgment. Judging a piece of work means giving it rank in
relation to other works and of course considering a very
important aspect of the visual arts; its originality. It answers
the questions “Is it a good artwork?” Is it a good composition?
Here are some points that can help you write your judgment:
• How do you think: is the work successful or not?
• Does this art object seem original or not?
• What do you feel when looking at this piece of artwork?
• Go back to your first impression. Has anything changed?
What did you learn?
• If nothing changed, explain your first reaction to the work.
• What have you learned from this work that you might apply to
your own artwork or your thinking?

53. In judging the piece of work, there must be:
• Criteria (What criteria do I think are most appropriate for
judging the artwork or writing?),
• Evidence (What evidence inside or outside the artwork
or piece of writing relate to each criterion?)’ and
• Judgment (Based on the criteria and evidence, what is
my judgment about the quality of the artwork or piece of
writing?).

54. Painting Critique.
• Describe the way the artist applies paint. Are there broad paint
strokes, small points of color, or just a smooth surface? What
effect does it help to achieve? E.g., Van Gogh’s broad brush
strokes help to create a sense of motion.
• Describe how the light is depicted. Where does the light come
from? Is there a strong value contrast? In what way does the
shadow function? What, in your opinion, does it evoke?
E.g., strong contrast makes the central figures stand out.
• Speak about the handling of space in the picture. Does it look flat
or three-dimensional? What kind of perspective is used? (e.g.,
one-point perspective or bird’s eye view?)
E.g., in this painting, Picasso uses multi-dimensional geometrical
shapes.

55. Sculpture Critique.
• Say if the material gives a particular texture to the statue. Is the
surface smooth, or is it uneven?
E.g., Rodin’s sculpture has an unusual earthy texture.
• The surrounding space is just as important as the sculpture itself.
Describe the place (in the museum, in a park, in front of a building)
where it is situated. What does it add to the sculpture?
E.g., the statue appears to walk along the road.
• Speak about the color of the sculpture. Is it painted? Does it rely
on natural lights and shadows?
E.g., the statue is white. A museum floodlight lights it from above,
creating expressive shadows.
• Describe the composition of the sculpture. What does it look like
when you approach it? Did the sculptor provide any instructions on
how to position it?
E.g., the statue is enormous and can be viewed from all sides.

56. Architecture Critique
You can write art critiques on architecture, too! Just bear in mind the following
points:
• What architectural style does it belong to?
E.g., the cathedral is a typical Gothic building.
• Was it built with a purpose? Did a specific person request it?
E.g., the Palace of Versailles was requested by Louis IV as a symbol of
his monarchy.
• Did one architect complete the building, or were there any alterations? Why
were they made?
E.g., the spire was added to the cathedral much later. It became the
integral part
of its image.
• What do the exterior and the interior look like? What effect do they produce?
Is there a contrast between them?
E.g., the building has a high ceiling painted like the sky. It also makes
the organ
music sound louder.
• Are there statues or paintings on the walls? Discuss them as well!
E.g., statues on the cathedral’s facade illustrate scenes from the Bible.

57. Photography Critique
• Analyzing a photograph is a lot like critiquing a painting. Still, there
are some unique features to consider:
• How does the photographer use focus? Is any part of the image
blurry? What effect does it produce?
E.g., the background is out-of-focus, which has a dreamy effect.
• Is the picture monochrome? If yes, describe its tone, contrast, and
shadows. If no, describe the use of color.
E.g., the picture is in black and white, with stark contrasts.
• If it’s a photo of a face, pay extra attention to the emotion it
expresses. If it’s dynamic, discuss the sense of motion.
E.g., the photograph conveys a sense of cheerfulness through the
girl’s expression and the use of light.