A track to english grammar and composition

A Track to English Grammar & Composition
Add: Main Jamshoro Road Jamshoro Sindh | Ph # 03332710541 |Web: www.rtinstitutions.base.pk 2
WrittenBy:IrshadAliBurfat
AUTHOR
Irshad Ali Burfat
ADVISERS
Dr Sanaullah Ansari Professor in Institute Of Language and Literature, University
of Sindh Jamshoro
Rashid Ali Mahesar lecturer in English, Quaid-i-Awam University of Engineering
Science and Technology (QUEST) Nawabshah
Dharmo Bhawani Assistant Commissioner
SPECIAL CONTRIBUTORS
Dr Farzana Baloach Director, Pakistan Studies Centre, University of Sindh Jamshoro
Fahim Noonari Incharge of English Section, Sindh Text Book Board Jamshoro
Abdul Jalil Mahesar lecturer commerce, University of Sindh Jamshoro
Sara Mustafa Almani M.A Pakistan Studies, University of Sindh Jamshoro
Ayaz Ahmed Bughio ASI Sindh Police
EDITED BY
Majid Ali Rahujo BSCS University of Sindh Jamshoro
Ali Jan Rahujo BSCS University of Sindh Jamshoro
COMPOSED BY
Sajjad Ali Gaho
Abdul Ghafoor Brohi BSCS (First Position, Silver Medalist) University of Sindh Jamshoro
PROOF READING
Ali Gohar Mahesar Lecturer in English, GDC Tharo Shah
Riaz Ali Shaikh Lecturer in English, GDC Shikarpur
Shahid Ali Hingoro M.A Pakistan Studies, University of Sindh Jamshoro
SETTING BY
Mujeeb Jamali BSCS (First Position, Silver Medalist) University of Sindh Jamshoro
Luqman khoharoo
PUBLISHED BY
RT ACADEMY OF CSS & ENGLISH LANGUAGE JAMSHORO

CONTENTS
Part I
 Sentence -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 08
 Tenses ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 09
 Active passive voice----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 11
 Narration------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 15
 Parts of Speech ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 19
 Noun ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 19
 Pronoun -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 36
 Adjective ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 43
 Verb ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 57
 Adverb ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 73
 Preposition --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 85
 Conjunction- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 102
 Interjection --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 109
Part II
 Punctuation -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 110
 Paragraph Writing ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 112
 Précis Writing ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 113
 Ideas Expansion --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 116
 Pair of Words ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 121
 Essay Writing ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 126
 Idioms --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 129
 Connectivity: The Beauty of Writing-------------------------------------------------------------- 132
 Proverbs & Quotation ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 133
 Language Bank -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------134
 Letter Writing ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 140
 Passage Writing --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 143
 Figures of Speech ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 144
 Literary Terms and movements--------------- ---------------------------------------------------- 146
Part III
 Spelling Skills ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 150
 Vocabulary Skills -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 156
 Study/ Reading Skills --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 162
 Speaking Skills ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 171
 Writing Skills ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 177
 Listening Skills ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 180
Part IV
 Interview Tips and Techniques -------------------------------------------------------------------- 181
 Screening Test Guidance -----------------------------------------------------------------------------186
 Fruit For The Students --------------------------------------------------------------------------------189
 Creamy Points for Students -------------------------------------------------------------------------190
 ABC of Success-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------191
 Pearls for Students ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------192
 Abbreviations -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------193
 Comments -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------194

To my parents, teachers and friends

MASSAGE BY THE AUTHOR
“STUDENTS OF TODAY ARE THE ARCHITECTS OF TOMORROW”
Dear Students,
Undoubtedly, education is a lifelong process requires consistent efforts to keep its pace
commensurate with the march of time and the spirit of age.
A track to English grammar and composition plays pivotal role to promote curricular and co-
curricular activities, this book has geared up to shoulder its responsibilities in the context of
implementation of quality education. It provides students a chance to discover their hidden literary
spirit.
Furthermore, it provides a splendid opportunity to our budding writers, philosophers,
engineers, doctors, bureaucrats, speakers, operators, generators, learners to explore the vital
avenues of knowledge for the production of their creative compilation.
The youth of the country is very talented however; it needs proper education, training and grooming
for the days yet to roll by.
It is, therefore, my cherished desire that all the students shall continuously make
efforts to convert their dreams and future into a center of excellence.
I am a firm believer that success lies in excellent, palming, effective term, work and
commitment for the best.
Future belongs to those who prepare for it

Key to success

Discipline
Dedication
Determination


Coming together is a beginning
Keeping together is a process
Working together is a success

Part I
SENTENCE
Definition:
 A sentence is a group of words which gives the complete meaning and sense.
Kinds of sentences
1. Statement /Affirmative sentence
Definition:
 It is used to give a statement
For example:
 I write a letter.
 She drinks water.
2. Interrogative sentence
Definition:
 It is used to ask questions.
For example:
 Do I write a letter?
 Does she drink water?
3. Negative sentence
Definition:
 It is used for negation
For example:
 I do not write a letter.
 She does not drink water.
4. Exclamatory sentence
Definition:
 It is used to express sudden feelings
For example:
 Bravo! He killed a lion.
 Hurrah! We won the match.
5. Emphatic sentence
Definition:
 It is used to give order and request
For example:
 Stand up.
 May I come in

TENSES
Definition:
 A tense is a form taken by a verb to show the time of an action
1. PRESENT TENSE: - (verb acting in the present time is called Present Tense)
2. PAST TENSE: - (A verb referring to past time is said to be Past Tense)
3. FUTURE TENSE: - (A verb referring to future time is said to be in the Future Tense)
1. Present tense
Definition:
 Such verbs which show a habitual action of a noun, a pronoun or any subject in present time
we call it present simple tense.
Present Simple Tense
Singular subjects: - He, she, it + s or es
Plural subjects: - I, we, you, they
 Sania writes a letter.
 They play a game.
 I read a book.
Note: - first form of the main verb is used in present simple tense
Present Continuous Tense
 Sania is writing a letter.
 They are playing a game.
 I am reading a book.
Present Perfect Tense
 Sania has written a letter.
 They have played a game.
 I have read a book.
Present Perfect Continuous Tense
 Sania has been writing a letter.
 They have been playing a game.
 I have been reading a book.
2. Past tense
Definition:
 A verb referring to past time is said to be Past Tense
 I loved.
 I wrote a letter.
 She sang a song.

Past continues
 I was loving
 I was writing a letter.
 She was singing a song.
Past perfect
 I had loved.
 I had written a letter.
 She had sung a song.
Past perfect continues
 I had been loving
 I had been writing a letter.
 She had been singing a song.
3. Future tense
Definition:
 A verb referring to future time is said to be in the Future tense
 I shall love.
 I shall write a letter.
 She will sing a song.
Future continues
 I shall be loving
 I shall be writing a letter.
 She will be singing a song.
Future perfect
 I shall have loved.
 I shall have written a letter.
 She will have sung a song.
Future perfect continuous
 I shall have been loving
 I shall have been writing a letter.
 She will have been singing a song.

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE
Definition:
 Active Voice
A feature of sentences in which the subject performs the action of the verb and the direct
object is the goal or the recipient: The mechanic fixed the car.
 Passive Voice
A feature of sentences in which the object or goal of the action functions as the sentence
subject and the main verb phrase includes the verb to be and the past participle: The car was
fixed by the mechanic.
ACTIVE PASSIVE
 Subject changes to object and object to subject.
 Verb changed to 3rd from “be” also used in passive voice.
Rules of changing pronouns
I-ME
WE-US
HE-HIM
SHE-HER
THEY-THEM
For example:
 I break a cup (active)
Sub verb obj
 A cup is broken by me (passive)
PRESENT SIMPLE TENSE
 I break a cup
A cup is broken by me
 She does not tell a lie
A lie is not told by her (negative)
 Do you sell potatoes? (Interrogative )
Are potatoes sold by you?
Note:
o In interrogative negative DO/ DOES
o Replaced by (is, am, are)
o In introduction (is, am, are) used before subject while in negative NOT used between (is am
are) with 3rd form
PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE
 I am writing a letter.
A letter is being written by me.
 They are not helped me. (negative)
I am not being helped by them
 Are you teaching him? (Interrogative )
Is he being thought by you?
Note:
o Am being, is being are being used before 3rd
form of verb

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE
 I have eaten sweets.
Sweets have been eaten by me.
 We have not beaten him. (negative)
He has been not beaten by us.
 Has he knocked at my door? (Interrogative )
Has my door been knocked at by him?
Note:
o (Has have) changed according to subject
o (has have) been used before 3rd from of verb.
PAST SIMPLE TENSE
Examples
 I bought two watches
o Two watches were bought by me
 She did not repair the pen (negative)
o This pen was not repaired by you
 Did you kill the snake? (Interrogative)
Was the snake killed by you?
Note:
o Was/ were, used as helping verbs before verb
o Did replace by (was / were)
o Was / were used according to subjects
PAST CONTINUOUS
Examples
 I was reciting the holy Quran.
o The holy Quran was being recited by me
 He was not taking a bath (negative)
o A bath was not being taking by him
 Was she sewing my shirt? (Interrogative)
o Are shirt sawing by her?
Note:
o Being is compulsory to used here to make passive sentence
PAST PERFECT TENSE
 She had lost a ticket
o A ticket has been lost by her
 A mad dog had not bitten him (Negative)
o He had not been bitten by a mad dog
 Had the burnt those papers? (Interrogative)
Note:
o Had been) is compulsory to use before 3rd
form of verb
o Had, used before the subject in negative sentence
FUTURE SIMPLE TENSE
 I shall help them
o They will be helped by me
 She will not type this latter (negative)
o This letter will not be typed by her
 Shall we take tea? (Interrogative)

o Will tea be taken by us?
Note:
o Shall be/ will be compulsory to use in passive sentence
o In negative interrogative shall/will, used before the subject
o In interrogative (not) used between shall/ will and (be)
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE
 I shall have won a prize
o A prize will have won by me
 We shall not have beaten by them ( negative )
o They will not have beaten by us ( interrogative )
 Will you have cheated us?
o Shall we have been cheated by you?
Note:
o We/ I, used for shall have been
o In interrogative will/ shall use before subject
o Have been is compulsory to use in passive
o In negative (not) used between shall/ will and have

ACTIVE / PASSIVE OVERVIEW

Tense Active Passive
Simple
Present
Once a week, Tom cleans the
house.
Once a week, the house is
cleaned by Tom.
Present
Continuous
Right now, Sarah is writing the
letter.
Right now, the letter is being
written by Sarah.
Simple Past Sam repaired the car. The car was repaired by Sam.
Past
Continuous
The salesman was helping the
customer when the thief came
into the store.
The customer was being helped by
the salesman when the thief came
into the store.
Present
Perfect
Many tourists have visited that
castle.
That castle has been visited by
many tourists.
Present
Perfect
Continuous
Recently, John has been
doing the work.
Recently, the work has been being
done by John.
Past Perfect George had repaired many cars
before he received his
mechanic's license.
Many cars had been repaired by
George before he received his
mechanic's license.
Past Perfect
Continuous
Chef Jones had been
preparing the restaurant's
fantastic dinners for two years
before he moved to Paris.
The restaurant's fantastic
dinners had been being
prepared by Chef Jones for two
years before he moved to Paris.
Simple Future
will
Someone will finish the work by
5:00 PM.
The work will be finished by 5:00
PM.
Simple Future
be going to
Sally is going to make a beautiful
dinner tonight.
A beautiful dinner is going to be
made by Sally tonight.
Future
Continuous
will
At 8:00 PM tonight, John will be
washing the dishes.
At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes will
be being washed by John.
Future
Continuous
be going to
At 8:00 PM tonight, John is going
to be washing the dishes.
At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes are
going to be being washed by John.
Future
Perfect
will
They will have completed the
project before the deadline.
The project will have been
completed before the deadline.
Future
Perfect
be going to
They are going to have
completed the project before
the deadline.
The project is going to have been
completed before the deadline.
Future
Perfect
Continuous
will
The famous artist will have been
painting the mural for over six
months by the time it is finished.
The mural will have been being
painted by the famous artist for
over six months by the time it is
finished.
Future
Perfect
Continuous
be going to
The famous artist is going to
have been painting the mural for
over six months by the time it is
finished.
The mural is going to have been
being painted by the famous artist
for over six months by the time it
is finished.
Used to Jerry used to pay the bills. The bills used to be paid by Jerry.
Would
Always
My mother would always
make the pies.
The pies would always be made by
my mother.
Future in the
Past
Would
I knew John would finish the
work by 5:00 PM.
I knew the work would be
finished by 5:00 PM.
Future in the
Past
Was Going to
I thought Sally was going to
make a beautiful dinner tonight.
I thought a beautiful dinner was
going to be made by Sally tonight.

NARRATION
Definition:
 the action or process of narrating a story
NARRATION RULES
Direct and Indirect Narration
Objectives:
 By the end of the lesson you will have
 Learnt the difference between direct & indirect speeches.
 Learnt the rules of narration according to tenses.
 Learnt to change the direct speech of statement or assertive sentence into indirect speech.
Read the following sentences:
A. The boy says, "I read in B. High School".
B. The boy says that he reads in B. High School.
In the sentence A the speech of the boy is quoted in the exact words of the speaker.
The speech quoted in the exact words of the speaker is a Direct Speech or
Direct Narration. It is always written within inverted commas.
Note: The direct speech -contains:
a. Reporting speech: The boy says, _
b. Reporting verb: says
c. Reported speech 1 "I read in B. High School."
d. Verb of the reported speech: read
o In the sentence B the speech is reported in a narrative form without quoting the exact words
of the speaker.
o The speech reported in narrative form without quoting the exact words of the speaker is an
Indirect Speech or Indirect Narration.
Note:
o The reporting speech and the reported speech are joined by a linking
Word and the commas are omitted.
Remember:
Narration is of two kinds. They are:
(a) Direct Narration or Direct speech
(h) Indirect Narration or Indirect Speech
GENERAL RULES
[i]
Assertive Sentence or Statement
1. If the reporting verb is in the present or future tense, the tense in the reported speech is not
changed.
 Direct: Nabil says, "I am fine."
 Indirect: Nabil says that he is fine.
 Direct: The man says, "I shall do it."
 Indirect: The man says that he will do it.
 Direct: He says, "I went there yesterday."
 Indirect I: He says that he went there yesterday.
 Direct: He will say, "I am ready to go."
 Indirect: He says that he is ready to go.
2. If the reporting verb is in the past tense, the verb in the reported speech is changed into the
corresponding past form.
 Nadin said, "I am fine.'
 Nadin said that he was fine.
 He said, "I want to go."
 He said that he wanted to go.
 He said, "I am reading a book."

 He said that he was reading a book.
 He said, "I have learnt my lesson."
 He said that he had learnt his lesson.
 He said, "I have been learning English.”
 He said that he had been learning English. .
 He said, "I had reached the school before the bell rang"
 He said that he had reached the school before the bell rang.
 He said, "I can do the work.
 He said that he could do the work.
 He said,”I shall do it.”
 He said that he would do it.
 He said, "I shall have done it."
 He said‘that he would have done it.
3. If the reporting verb is in the past tense and the verb of the reported speech is in the past
indefinite tense, it (the verb in the reported speech) is changed into the past perfect tense.
 Direct: Ali said, “I went to school.
 Indirect: Ali said that she had gone to school.
 Direct: He said, "I wrote the book."
 Indirect ‘: He said that he had written the book.
 Direct: ‘Kabir said to me, "I was sick."
 Indirect: Kabir told me (said to me) that he had been sick.
4. If the reporting verb is in the past tense, and the verb in the reported speech is in the past
continuous, it (the verb in the reported speech) is' changed into the past perfect continuous tense.
 Direct: _ He said, "I was reading a book."
 Indirect: He said that he had been reading a book.
 Direct: Shimu said to me, "I was making a research to. Solve the problem."
 Indirect: Shimu told me (said to-me) that she had been making a research to solve the
problem.
Note:
The use of the conjunction that between the reporting speech and there ported speech is not a must
in the indirect speech.
5. If the Direct Speech describes a universal truth, constant fact, habitual fact, geographical fact
and quotations, the verb in the reported speech remains unchanged:
 Direct: The teacher said, "The earth moves round the sun."
 Indirect: The teacher said that the earth moves round the sun.
 Direct: He said, "My father reads the Holy Quran every morning."
 Indirect: He said that his father reads the Holy Quran every morning.
 Direct: Keats said, "A thing of beauty is a joy forever."
 Indirect: Keats I said that a thing of beauty is a joy forever.
6. The First Person of the direct speech is changed into the person the man spoken to and the third
person does not have any change:
 Direct: Rahman said to Mamun, "Your father will go to my office"
 Indirect: Rahman told Mamun that his father would go to his office.
 Direct: Salam says to you, "You did not help me."
 Indirect: Salarn tells you that you did not help him.
 Direct: They said to us, "He will meet you."
 Indirect: They told us that he would meet us.
Note:
o If the Reporting Verb has an object, it is not good English to write, said to him before that, It
is better to write told us/him etc.
7. If the Reported speech has two or more verbs occurring at the same time, the past tense of the
verbs is not changed:
 Direct: The teacher said, "Mr. Ant worked hard while Mr. Grasshopper slept."

 The teacher said that Mr. Ant worked hard while Mr. Grasshopper slept
 Indirect: He said, "The children sang, danced and played."
 Direct: He said that the children sang, danced and played.
8. Words that express nearness are often changed into the words expressing remoteness:
Changing rules
Words in direct speech Words in indirect speech
 Here there
 This that
 Ago before
 These those
 Hence thence
 Come go
 Hither thither
 Thus so, in that way
 Today that day, the same day
 Tomorrow the next day, the following day
 Yesterday the previous day, the day before
 Last night the previous night, the night before
Exercise:-
Change the following sentences into indirect speech:
1. The boy says, "My father is working abroad."
2. Karim says, "I was right".
3. He said to me, “I shall help you“.
4. Anwar said to them, "You were absent from the class yesterday".
5. The man said to Kalam, "You have not sent me the letter".
6. Ahmed said to his father, "I am preparing my lesson".
7. He said to me, “I did not see the boy going“.
8. They said to me, "You have done well".
9. The man said to the children, "Allah is kind".
10. They said, "We came, Worked and returned".
[ii]
Interrogative Sentence:
Structure of indirect speech
(a) Reporting verb is changed into ask or enquire of.
(b) If or whether is used as a linking word.
(c) The auxiliary verb in the reported speech is used after the subject.
(d) If the sentence begins with:
Who, which, what, how, when, where,
Why etc
These are not changed and if or whether is not used.
Note:
o The indirect speech becomes a statement and no question mark is used.
 Nadim said to Nadia, "Are you reading now?"
 Nadim asked Nadia (or enquired of) if she was reading then.
 The man said to Shaila, "What is your name?"
 The man asked Shaila what her name was.
[iii]
Imperative Sentence
Structure of indirect speech
a. Reporting verb is changed into tell, command or order, request – or beg or entreat or ask, forbid,
according to the sense of the speech
b. Reporting verb and Reported speech are joined by Infinitive ‘to
He said to me, "Do it now"?

He told me to do it then.
The captain said, "Soldiers, march on".
The captain commanded the soldiers to march on.
[iv]
Optative Sentence
The structure of indirect speech of Optative sentences
a. The Reporting verb is changed into wish or prays.
b. The Optative form is changed into a statement.
C. That’ is used as a linking word
 He said to me, "May you be happy".
 He wished that I might be happy.
 Mr. Khan said, "May Allah save me".
 Mr. Khan prayed that Allah might save him.
[v]
Exclamatory Sentence:
a. The reporting verb is changed into exclaim, cry, shout etc. according to the sense.
b. New words and phrases like. With joy/in joys, with sorrow/ in sorrow, in wonder etc. are used to
express the meaning of exclamation. If the sense of exclamation is not clear, such phrases are not
used.
C. That is used as a linking word.
d. The changed from becomes a statement.
 Direct: The man said, "Alas! I am undone".
 Indirect: The man cried out in sorrow that he was undone.
 Direct: He said, "Hurrah! We have won the game".
 Indirect: He exclaimed in joy that they had won the game.
 Direct: He said to me, "What a funny boy you are"!
 Indirect: He exclaimed in joy that I was a very funny boy.
 Direct: He said, "What a fool I am“!
 Indirect: He cried out with sorrow that he was a great fool.
 [Note: 'great' is used before a noun]
 Direct: He said, "What a long journey"!
 Indirect: He exclaimed that it was a very long journey.
Exception ---
 Direct: He said, "Who knew that it would happen"!
 Indirect: He said that nobody knew that it would happen
 Direct: He said, "By God! I have never done it".
 Indirect: He swore by God that he had never done it.
 Direct: He said, "Had I the wings of a bird!"
 Indirect: He wished he had the wings of a bird.

PARTS OF SPEECH
THE NOUN
Definition:
 NOUN is the name of a person, a place, a thing or an idea.
OR
 NOUN is a naming-word.
OR
 NOUN is a name of anything.
OR
 A noun names a person, a living-creature, a place, a thing, an action, a state or a quality:
As;
Name of Persons:
Ali, Sajjad, Aslam, Zaman, Mubin, Akbar etc.
Name of Living-creatures:
Cat, dog, snake, boy, lion, goat, hen etc
Name of Places:
House, mosque, hospital, school, bazaar, garden etc
Name of Things:
Pen, book, chair, knife, bicycle, table, desk etc
Name of Actions:
Construction, cultivation, laughter, theft, movement, robbery etc
Name of States:
Health, kingdom, slavery, death, beggary, innocence, poverty, childhood, sleep etc
Name of Qualities:
Boldness, sweetness, truthfulness, beauty, whiteness, goodness, cleverness, kindness,
wisdom etc
AIDS TO IDENTIFYING NOUNS
SOME SYMBOLS TO IDENTIFY THE NOUNS (EXAMPLES)
er – ship – ness – tion – hood – dom – ment – ion- cy – ance – ian – ure – sion – ty – mony- ee – ry
and ism
For example:
 dom: kingdom, wisdom, freedom.
 hood: boyhood, childhood, manhood.
 tion: education, examination, nation.
 ness: kindness, boldness, goodness.
 ship: friendship, hardship, partnership.
 th: growth, depth, breath.
 er: speaker, teacher, lawyer.
 or: emperor, governor, tailor.
 ar: scholar, beggar, liar.
 age: breakage, leakage, bondage.
 ance: resistance, insurance, abundance.
 cy: Accuracy, lunacy, vacancy.
 ion: companion, union, opinion.
 ment: movement, battlement, punishment.
 mony: testimony, matrimony, harmony.
 ty: honesty, cruelty, loyalty.
 sion: procession, accession, compulsion.
 ure: furniture, forfeiture, torture.

 ian: guardian, librarian, custodian.
 ence: excellence, absence, existence
 ism: Sufism, patriotism, heroism.
 ry: misery, library, dispensary.
 ee: employee, payee, trustee.
KINDS OF NOUN
COMMON NOUN
Definition:
 A common noun is a name given in common to every person, place of the same kind or
class.
OR
 A common noun names anyone of a group of persons, places or things. As;
 Sana is a girl.
 Ali is a boy.
 Rafia is a woman.
 Sajjad is a man
 Medina is a holy city.
 Pakistan is a country.
NOTE: - all the underlined words are the common Noun.
AIDS TO IDENTIFYING COMMON NOUN
er – ar – or – eer and ary.
For example:
 er: maker, breaker, father.
 ar: scholar, beggar, liar.
 Or: sailor, governor, emperor.
 eer: engineer, volunteer, pioneer.
 ary: library, dispensary.
PROPER NOUN
Definition:
 A proper noun is the name of a particular person, place or a thing.
OR
 A proper noun names a particular person, place or a thing.
AS
 Allah is present everywhere. (omnipresent)
 Mohammad Ali Jinnah won freedom for us.
 Karachi is a big city.
 The Holy Quran is book of Allah.
 Pakistan is a country.
 Medina is a holy city.
NOTE: - a proper noun is always written in with capital letter weather it is in singular or plural form

COLLECTIVE NOUN
Definition:
 A collective noun is the name of a collective (or group) of a persons or things, taken together
and spoken of as a whole.
OR
 A Collective noun stands for a group of people, animals or things.
AS
 Assembly, library, congregation, public, constellation, brood, press, league, stock, class, club,
troop, mob, nation, tribe, grove, Government, committee, division, jury, etc
 An army of soldiers
 A bundle of sticks
 A band of musicians
 A batch of boys
 A bench of magistrates
 A board of directors
 A carvan of pilgrims
 A century of years
 A chain of mountains
 A cluster of islands
 A galaxy of stars
 A code of laws
 A colony of people
 A company of merchants
 A council of advisers
 A course of lectures
 A couple of two
 A crew of sailors
 A dozen of eggs
 A family of members
 A flock of sheep
 A forest of trees
 A gang of prisoners
 A garland of flowers
 A heap of sand
 A school of thinkers
 A shower of rain
 A team of players
 A bunch of keys
 A crowd of people
If we state collective nouns one by one separately then we must use collective verb like,
Part 1
 The army has conquered the territory.
 The press has played its due role.
 It is a flock of beautiful birds.
Part 2
 All the soldiers in the army were fit.
 The members of press have struggled hard.
 The birds in the flock are very beautiful.

MATERIAL NOUN
Definition:
 A material noun is the name of a matter or substance of which any other thing is made.
AS
Gold, silver, stone, iron, steel, cotton, milk, clay, rice, wool, wood, copper, rubber, wheat etc
 I drink two kilo grams milk every day.
 Iron is a useful metal.
 Wheat is a good food.
NOTE: - A material noun must be written in small letters, if it is not in the beginning of a sentence.
ABSTRACT NOUN
Definition:
 An abstract noun is usually the name of some “action”, “state” or a “quality” considered
apart from the object to which it belongs to.
OR
 Abstract nouns do not name a physical object but simply stand for a “concept” or an “idea”
which exists in mind only.
AS
ACTIONS: - laughter, theft, movement, judgment, advice, hatred, love
STATE: - childhood, boyhood, death, health, beggary, poverty, kingdom, idleness, silence, joy
QUALITY: - honesty, bravery, wisdom, hardness, truth, kindness, goodness, softness.
NOTE: - An abstract noun must be written in small letters if it is not I the beginning of a sentence.
AIDS TO IDENTIFYING ABSTRACT NOUN
ance – age – the – ship – red – ness – hood – dom – mony – ism – ure – ty – ment – ion – cy – ence
 dom: kingdom, wisdom.
 hood: childhood, manhood.
 ness: boldness, goodness.
 red: kindred, hatred.
 ship: friendship, kinship.
 th: growth, health.
 age: bondage, leakage.
 ance: abundance, resistance.
 ence: absence, existence.
 cy: accuracy, lunacy.
 ion: union, opinion.
 ment: judgment, movement.
 ty: cruelty, frailty.
 ure: torture, forfeiture
 ism: heroism, despotism.
 mony: testimony, harmony.

DIMINUTIVE NOUN
Definition:
 A Diminutive noun is a kind of noun that denotes smallness, contempt, or affection is called
diminutive noun.
AS
Booklet, leaflet, nestling etc
Like;
 Fat: fatling.
 Nurse: nursling.
 Nest: nestling.
 Seed: seedling.
 Seed: seedling.
 Weak: weakling.
 Duck: duckling.
 Arm: armlet.
 Book: booklet.
 Eagle: eaglet.
 Leaf: leaflet.
 Owe: owlet.
 Eye: eyelet.
 Ring: ringlet.
 Root: rootlet.
CONCRETE NOUN
Definition:
 A noun which names a physical object that can be perceived by the senses (e.g. we can see
and touch as well) is known as concrete noun.
AS
Table, boy, fruit, chair, cat, pen, people, piece, knife, milk etc
COMPOUND NOUNS
Definition:
 A noun which is made up of more than one word and is linked with or without a short
hyphen is called as a compound noun.
AS
 Teaspoon
 Coffee cups
 Side table
 Basket ball
 Common sense
 Bathroom
 Natural color
 Keychain
 Commander – in – chief
 Father – in – law
 Great – grandfather

 Noun + Noun:
Bedroom, Grammar book, glass jar
 Adjective + Noun:
Blackboard, blueprint, commonsense
 Verb + Noun:
Pickpocket, dance band, playground, flashlight.
 Noun + Verb:
Handshake, man eater, anteater
 Gerund + Noun:
Dining room, shopping bag, sitting room,
 Noun + Gerund:
Fortune-falling, water-skiing, house-cleaning
 Noun + Preposition:
Commander – in – chief, passer – by, looker – on, hanger – on, brother – in – law.
THE NOUN NUMBER
Definition:
 Means Counting of noun.
Examples: Singular noun and plural noun.
SINGULAR NUMBER
Definition:
 A noun that denotes one person, place or a thing is said to be in the singular numbers;
As,
Boy, girl, egg, cat, dog, woman, eye, book, cup, chair, flag etc.
PLURAL NUMBER
Definition:
 A noun that denotes more persons, places or things is known as plural numbers;
As,
Boys, eggs, girls, cats, dogs, women, eyes, apples, chairs, cups, flags etc
COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
COUNTABLE NOUNS: Knife, eggs, chair, fans, shops, doors.
UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS: Milk, tea, coffee, juice, sugar, cereal.
Definition:
 The nouns which can be easily counted are known as COUNTABLE NOUNS.
Definition:
 All such nouns which do not tell the number but give the quantity when measured are
known as UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS.

How differ NOUNS from their PLURAL?
RULE # 01: The “S” Rule.
 The Singular nouns are generally made plural by the addition of “S”.
Examples:
Singular Plural
Cow Cows
Fan Fans
Car Cars
Hill Hills
Ring Rings
Shop Shops
Boat Boats
Bowl Bowls
Goat Goats
Rat Rats
Night Nights
Spoon Spoons
Chair Chairs
Coat Coats
RULE # 02: The “Es” Rule.
 If a Singular noun ends in s, ss, ch, sh, or x plural is formed by adding “ES”.
Examples:
Singular Plural
Bus Buses
Watch Watches
Bench Benches
Match Matches
Box Boxes
Church Churches
Inch Inches
Class Classes
Glass Glasses
Dress Dresses
Dish Dishes
Brush Brushes
Bush Bushes
RULE # 03: The Consonant “Y” Rule:
 When a Singular noun ends in a consonant “y” then change” y” into “Ies” to make the
noun plural.
Examples:
Singular Plural
Army Armies
City Cities
Story Stories
Copy Copies
Cry Cries
Sky Skies
Body Bodies
Copy Copies

Spy Spies
Puppy Puppies
Lady Ladies
Country Countries
Baby Babies
Hobby Hobbies
Company Companies
Duty Duties
Fly Flies
Family Families
RULE # 04: The Vowel “Y” Rule.
 When a singular noun ends in a vowel letter before “y” add only “s” to make the noun plural
do not change “y”.
Examples:
Singular Plural
Boy Boys
Key Keys
Monkey Monkeys
Donkey Donkeys
Valley Valleys
Day Days
Toy Toys
Holiday Holidays
Joy Joys
RULE # 05: The “F” or “Fe” Rule.
 If a singular noun ends in “f” or “fe” is changed into “v” and then “es” is added to make the
noun plural.
Examples:
Singular Plural
Life Lives
Leaf Leaves
Knife Knives
Half Halves
Calf Calves
Loaf Loaves
Wife Wives
Thief Thieves
Wolf Wolves
Shelf Shelves
RULE # 06: The “O” Rule:
 If a singular noun ends in “o” form then make their plural by adding “es” to the singular.
Examples:
Singular Plural
Tomato Tomatoes
Potato Potatoes
Mango Mangoes
Mosquito Mosquitoes
Hero Heroes
Negro Negroes

Volcano Volcanoes
Echo Echoes
RULE # 07: The “F”, “LEF” or “OOF” Rule.
 Noun ending in “f”, “Ief” or “oof” make their plural by adding only “S”.
Examples:
Singular Plural
Gulf Gulfs
Proof Proofs
Chief Chiefs
Roof Roofs
Hoof Hoofs
Dwarf Dwarfs
RULE # 08: The Irregular Plural Rule.
 Under this rule, same nouns form their plural in an irregular way. A few examples are given
below:
A. By Internal Change of Vowels:
Singular Plural
Foot Feet
Tooth Teeth
Goose Gees
Man Men
Child Children
Woman Women
Mouse Mice
Louse Lice
Ox Oxen
B. Singular nouns ending in “us” drop “us” and add “i” to make the noun plural.
Singular Plural
Syllabus Syllabi
Stimulus Stimuli
Radius Radii
Alumnus Alumni
C. If singular nouns ends in “on”, drop “on” and add “a” to make plural.
Singular Plural
Criterion Criteria
Phenomenon Phenomena
RULE # 09: Plural Compound Nouns:
1. Generally the last word of compound noun is made plural
Examples:
Singular Plural
Arm Chair Arm Chairs
Book Case Book Cases
Maid Servant Maid Servants
Step – Father Step – Fathers
School Teacher School Teachers
House Keeper House Keepers

2. Compound nouns formed with adverb or prepositions; make only the first word plural.
Examples:
Singular Plural
Commander – in – chief Commanders – in – chief
Father – in – law Fathers – in – law
Hanger – on Hangers – on
Passer – by Passers – by
Looker – on Lookers – on
3. Remember Some Nouns are always singular:
Examples:
Singular Plural
Sheep Sheep
Deer Deer
Hair Hair
Fish Fish
News News
1. The following nouns have singular forms and are always used as plural; they take plural verb
with them.
Examples:
Public, cattle, folk, asset, tidings, crew, scissors, police, tings, trousers, measles, swivel, jury, alms,
draughts
2. The following nouns have plural forms and are always used as singular i-e they take singular
verb with them.
Examples:
Singular singular
Ethics Mathematics
News Physics
Civics Politics
Innings Mechanics
3. The following nouns, if preceded by a number do not form their plural by the addition of “s”.
Examples:
Singular Plural
Pair Pound
Dozen Pice
Rupee Hundred
Gross – (12 dozen = 144 units)

Sentences
Dozen: I brought three dozen of eggs.
Rupee: Ali has a ten rupee note.
Thousand: This Factory costs me ten thousand rupee.
THE NOUN GENDER
Definition:
 Noun which denotes gender of a person, an animal or a thing is called gender noun.
MASCULINE GENDER
Definition:
 Nouns that stand for “males” are masculine genders;
Examples:
Boy, prince, cock, husband, dog, ox, lion, uncle, son, king, brother, nephew, horse, man.

FEMININE GENDER
Definition:
 Noun that stands for “females”
Examples:
Girl, bitch, daughter, princess, cow, niece, wife, queen, sister, woman, mother
NEUTER GENDER
Definition:
 Nouns that stand for “lifeless” things are neuter gender;
Examples:
Book, cup, toy, car, watch, room, lamp, egg, pen, needle, fan, umbrella, box, knife, stone, chair, pen
etc
COMMON GENDER
Definition:
 Nouns that stand for either a “male” or a “female” are common genders;
Examples:
Parent, child, monarch, infant, relative, cattle, sheep, baby, orphan, servant, enemy, thief
Ways of Forming the Feminine Genders
RULE # 01: By adding “es” to the masculine.
Masculine Feminine
Lion Lioness
Jew Jewess
Heir Heiress

Priest Priestess
Peer Peeress
Count Countess
Host Hostess
Poet Poetess
Prince Princess
Giant Giantess
RULE # 02: Masculine ending in consonant before a vowel, form their feminine by ending “ess”
after dropping vowel.
Examples:
Masculine Feminine
Actor Actress
Instructor Instructress
Tiger Tigress
Arbiter Arbitress
Director Directress
Founder Founders
Traitor Traitors
Hunter Huntress
Protector Protectors
Waiter Waitress
Proprietor Proprietress
Tempter Temptress
Ambassador Ambassadress
RULE # 03: By adding “ess” irregularly to the masculine.
Examples:
Masculine Feminine
Abbot Abbes
Governor Governess
Duke Duchess
Emperor Emperors
Master Masters
Murderer Murderess
RULE # 04: By adding “a” “trix” or “ine” to the masculine.
Examples:
Masculine Feminine
Hero Heroine
Sultan Sultana
Testator Testatrix
Fox Vixen
Administrator Administratrix
Executor Executrix

RULE # 05: By adding a word before or after the masculine.
Examples:
Masculine Feminine
He – goat She – goat
He – bear She – bear
Jack – ass Jenny – ass
Bull – calf Cow – calf
Land – lord Land – lady
Pea – cock Pea – hen
Cock – sparrow Hen – sparrow
Grand – son Grand – daughter
Man – servant Maid – servant
Step – father Step – mother
Washer – man Washer – woman
Milk – man Milk – maid
RULE # 06: Some masculine form their feminine irregularly
Examples:
Masculine Feminine
Brother Sister
Cock Hen
Father Mother
Sir Madam
Wizard Witch
King Queen
Grander Goose
Uncle Aunt
Bull Cow
Lord Lady
Nephew Niece
Son Daughter
Stag Hind
Dog Bitch
Mr. Mrs.
Husband Wife
Horse Mare
THE NOUN CASES
1. Nominative or subjective case
2. Objective case
3. Accusative case
4. Vocative case
5. Possessive case
NOMINATIVE CASE
Definition:
 When a noun or pronoun is used as a subject of the verb in a sentence, is said to be in the
nominative or subjective case.
OR

 If a noun or a pronoun is the actor (subject) in sentences, it is in the nominative or
subjective case;
AS
 Mr. Ahmed sang a song.
 She wrote a letter.
 Ali ate an apple.
 We played football.
NOTE: - The nominative case generally takes place before the verb. N – before verb.
OBJECTIVE CASE
Definition:
 When a noun or a pronoun is used as the object of the verb in a sentence is said to be in the
objective case.
OR
 If a noun or a pronoun receives the action in a sentences, it is in the objective case;
AS
1. He saw a thief. N
2. Mr. Nasrullah punished me. P
3. Saifullah killed a bird. N
4. Police arrested them. P
NOTE: -The objective case generally takes place after a verb. Obj – after verb
ACCUSATIVE CASE
Definition:
 A noun or a pronoun which comes after a preposition is said to be in the accusative case.
OR
 It is a case which is used to denote an indirect object;
AS
 The book is in the cupboard.
 The toy is on the table.
 She writes with a chalk.
 Nasreen goes to school.
VOCATIVE CASE
Definition:
 When a noun is used to name a person or a thing addressed, is said to be in the vocative
case.
OR
 When a noun is addressed (or called) in a sentence, is said to be in the vocative case;
AS
 Rashid! Where is your book?
 Aleena! Sit down.
 Rafia! Read your lesson.
 Death! You are very cruel.
NOTE: -In this case exclamation mark (!) is used after noun.

POSSESSIVE CASE
Definition:
 When a noun or a pronoun shows its ownership or relationship to another thing is said to be
in the possessive case; as,
OR
 If a noun or pronoun shows possession or relationship, it is in the possessive case.
AS
 This is an Ali’s pen.
 Barbar’s car is green.
 Najma’s book is old.
 Haroon’s dog is big.
NOTE: - Possessive case is always used for the living things
Example: - table’s legs (in correct) --------- leg of table (correct)
AIDS TOIDENTIFYING POSSESSIVE CASE
 Ali’s book is new
 Nasreen’s mother is ill
 Dog’s tail is long
 Zahida’s body is strong.
THE USE OF APOSTROPHY (‘S)
1. Most of singular nouns form their possessive case by adding an apostrophe (‘) and “s”.
Examples:
 Cow’s milk
 Dog’s tail
 Ali’s pen
 Babar’s book
2. Plural nouns that end in ‘s” add only an apostrophe (‘) to from their possessive case;
Examples:
 Boys’ toys
 Ladies’ shoes
 Girls’ school
 Horses’ race
3. Irregular plural nouns (i.e. the nouns which don’t end in s) form their possessive case by adding
the apostrophe (‘) and (s).
Examples:
 Children’s books
 Men’s umbrellas
 Oxen’s horns

 Women’s association
4. If two or more than two nouns own same thing from their possessive case by adding apostrophe
(‘) and “s” to the last noun;
Examples:
 Ali and Aslam’s house
 Najma and Parveen’s car
Color of the book = Book’s color.
Top of the house = House’s top.
NOTE: - Lifeless things take “of” for their ownership.
 A day’s journey
 A week’s holiday
 Nine day’s gape
 A month’s absence
Nouns Denoting Distance or Space
 Stone’s throw
 At Arm’s length
 A hair’s breathe.
NOUN DENOTING WEIGHT; As
 A pound's weight
 A ton's weight
 Ten kilogram's load
THE NAMES OF PERSONIFIED OBJECTS; As
 At death's door
 Fortune's favorite
 Sorrow's tears
 Oceans' roar
 Indian's death
 Grave's call
WITH THE FOLLOWING FEW PHRASES; As
 At his finger's end.
 to his heart's content
 Journey's end
 For mercy's sake.
 The ship's passengers
 The boat's crew

NOUN DENOTING VERY DIGNIFIED OBJECT; As
 Sun's rays
 Heaven's will
 The court's decree
 Duty's call
PARSING OF NOUN
 Kind
 Genders
 Number & Case
PARSING MODEL
Sentence: Aslam wrote a letter.
Parsing: Aslam: Proper noun, masculine gender.
Single: number, nominative case, subject of the verb wrote.
Letter: common noun, neuter gender.
Sing: no: objective case, objective of the verb wrote.
Sentence: The girl did her home - work.
Parsing: Girl: common noun, feminine gender.
Sing: no: nominative case, subject of the verb did.
Homework: common noun, neuter gender.
Sing: no: objective case, object of the verb did

PRONOUN
Definition:
 A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. (Pronoun means for - a - noun)
OR
 A pronoun is a word used in a place of a noun to avoid its repetition; as,
Incorrect sentences
 Najma is a girl. Mother sees Najma doing homework.
 Najma has Najma's book in Najma's hand.
After using pronoun in correct way
 Najma is a girl. Her mother sees her doing home work
 She has her book in her hand.
THE KINDS OF PRONOUN
1. Personal Pronoun
2. Relative Pronoun
3. Interrogative Pronoun
4. Demonstrative Pronoun
5. Reflexive Pronoun
6. Indefinitive Pronoun
7. Distributive Pronoun
8. Reciprocal Pronoun
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
Definition:
 A personal pronoun is so called --- because it stands for a noun.
 First person pronoun
 Second person pronoun
 Third person pronoun
1. The Speaker: (called the first person)
Singular: (Spelled with a capital letter - I)
Plural: (The speaker - one or more others-we)
2. The person spoken to (called the 2nd person)
Singular: You
Plural: You.
3. The person or thing etc. Spoken of (called the 3rd person).
Singular: he (for male), she (for female), it (for things, also for the living being e.g. unimportant
AND
Or whose gender is unknown.
Plural: They (for the living being and other things).

First Person Pronouns
Definition:
 First person pronoun stands for a person or persons speaking; as
Singular: I
Plural: We
Second Person Pronouns
Definition:
 Second person pronoun stands for a person or persons spoken to; as,
Singular: You
Plural: You
Third Person Pronouns
Definition:
 Third person pronoun stands for a person or persons spoken of; as,
Singular: He, She It.
Plural: They
AIDS TO IDENTIFYING PRONOUN
1. I read the Holy Quran.
2. We wrote letters.
3. You eat an apple.
4. He brought a new book.
5. She sang a nice song.
6. They do their homework.
1. Father punished me.
2. Mother loves me/us.
3. Mujtaba saw him.
4. A snake bit her.
5. Lion will kill you.
6. Boys welcome them.
 As a Subject
 My car is new.
 His cap is black.
 Our house is old.
 Her husband is young.
 As an Object
 He lost his watch.
 We will do our sums.
 They helped their friends.
 She punished her brother.
 It lost its color.
 You killed your dog.
 That cap is mine.

 This house is ours.
 These books are yours.
 Those pens are hers.
 This leg is its.
 That cow is theirs.
RELATIVE PRONOUN
Definition:
 Pronouns that refer (i.e. carry us back) to a noun or pronoun going before and as well as do
the work of conjunction, are called relative pronoun;
As,
That, who, whose, whom, which
 I like Quaid-e-Azam. Quaid-e-Azam is my beloved leader. (Incorrect)
 I like Quaid-e-Azam. He is my beloved leader. (Correct)
 I like Quaid-e-Azam and he is my beloved leader.
 I like Quaid-e-Azam who is my beloved leader.
USE OF RELATIVE PRONOUN
1. Who and Whom
1. WHO
 This is the boy who broke my pen.
 Mr. Hafeez who is my friend got first position in M.A
 The man who hesitates is lost.
 I met Mr. Misri who was going to Sukkur.
 God helps those who help themselves.
2. WHOM
 This is the girl whom I saw doing her homework.
 The man whom we met yesterday has died.
 These are the boys whom you saved from drawning.
3. WHICH
It is used for things “without life”, “birds” and for “animals” though they may be singular or plural.
 The moment which is lost is lost forever.
 The pens which are broken are on the table.
 The books which help you are useful.
 The book which is new is very dear.
 The dogs which were mad died yesterday.
 The hen which is black lays one egg every day.

4. THAT
 The man that stood there was a robber.
 The dogs that were killed were mad.
 I lost the watch that you gave me.
 We know the house that you live in.
 Happy are the men that find wisdom.
5. WHOSE
 This is the boy whose father is ill.
 aslam is a student whose pen is lot.
 Shaman is a singer whose voice is beautiful.
REMEMBER:
Who: is used only in “Nominative case”
Whose: is used only in the “Possessive case”
Whom: is used only in the “Objective case”
That & Which: are used in “Nominative” & “Objective case”.
COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS
 Pronouns formed by adding “ever”, “So” or “So ever” to who, which & what are called
Compound Relative Pronouns:
As,
1. Whoever
2. Whoso
3. Whosoever
4. Whichever
5. Which so ever
6. Whatever
7. Whatsoever
Whosoever (i.e. any person who comes first is welcome)
Whoso digs a pit shall fall there in.
Take whichever (i.e. any which) you like
Whatever (i.e. anything which) he does he does well
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
Definition:
 The pronouns which are used for asking question, are called interrogative pronoun;
As
 Which is your pen?
 Who spoke to you?
 Whose is the book?
 Whom do you want to see?
 What do you see here?

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN & INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVE
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN
 Which is your pen?
 Whose is this book?
 What do you see now?
INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVE
 Which pen is your?
 Whose book is this?
 What books are you reading now?
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN
Definition:
 Demonstrative pronouns are used to point out the person or persons – thing or things –
place or places to which they refer and are, therefore, called Demonstrative pronouns;
AS
 This is my book.
 These are your toys.
 That is a red apple.
 Those are the best books.
DEFERENCE BETWEEN DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN & DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE:
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
 This is an old car.
 These are new pens.
 That is a green apple.
 Those are his toys.
DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES
 This car is old.
 These pens are new.
 That apple is green.
 Those toys are his.
REFLEXIVE PRONOUN
Definition:
 Reflexive pronouns are used with pronouns to make them stronger or more emphatic and
also to express that person or thing has done action himself or herself.
OR
 Reflexive pronouns are used to point out to some noun or pronoun going before.
AS
Myself, Ourselves, Yourself, Yourselves, Himself, Herself, Itself, Thyself, Themselves

SENTENCES
 I killed myself.
 I myself cannot do it.
 He himself told me this story.
 They themselves are responsible for it.
 Sajjad himself did it.
 She will go to school herself.
NOTE: - Reflexive pronouns also known as emphatic pronoun
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
Definition:
 These pronouns refer to persons or persons – things or things in general way and do not
refer any person or persons in particular way.
OR
 Such pronouns refer to indefinite (usually unknown) person or persons – thing or things or
to indefinite.
AS
 Someone has stolen my book ( who stole is not known)
 Some are born great.
 Nobody can take the charge of this school.
 Nobody attend the class.
 Some say he is a brave man.
 Many people drowned in the river.
 All the boys were present there.
 None but fools believed it.
 One should do one’s duty.
 A Few formers were ploughing the field.
 Everyone praised his bravery.
SOME COMMON INDEFINITE PRONOUNS ARE
Anybody, much, more, any, several, each, one, either, most, others, another, everybody, none,
everyone, neither, some
DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUN
Definition:
 It refers to persons, places or things, one at a time from a – group or collection.
AS
• Each of the boys gets a prize.
• Each of us solved this sum.
• Either of these two boys is a thief.
• Either of you can go.
• Neither of the accusations is true.
• Neither of them is expert.
Distributive pronouns are three in number and they rake singular verbs

EACH
Each is used to denote everyone of a number of person or persons rake singly,
AS
 Each of these soldiers took part in the war
 Each of them received a reward
EITHER
Means ‘one’ or the other of the ‘two”
AS
 Either of you can see the picture.
 Either of you can go.
NEITHER
Means no one of both
AS
 Neither of the two is honest.
 Neither of these men is trustworthy.

RECIPROCAL PRONOUN
Definition:
 These pronouns show that the individual member of a plural subject mutually reacts on each
other.
AS
 They amused each other by telling stories (i.e. each one told stories to the other one)
 The two men hate each other (i.e. the two men hate, each hates the other)
 They cheated one another (i.e. they cheated, one cheated another)
Remember:
Reciprocal pronouns are two in number
1. Each other
2. One another
Each other: - should be used in speaking of two persons or things
One another: - in speaking of more than two: but many good grammarians disregard this rule
PARSING MODEL # 1;
Sentence: - You may do what you like.
Parsing: - You: - personal pronoun, plural number, nominative case, subject of the verb do
What: - pronouns, neuter gender, sing: no. objective case, object of the verb like
PARSING MODEL #2;
Sentence: - who writes a letter.
Parsing: - who: Pronoun, third person, common gender, singular: number, nominative case, subject
of the verb writes.

ADJECTIVE
Definition:
 The Adjective is a word used with a noun or pronoun to add something to its meaning.
(Adjective means added to)
OR
 An Adjective is a word that describes, qualifies or tells us something more about a Noun or
Pronoun (person, place or thing etc)
OR
 And Adjective is a describing or a qualifying word.
OR
 Adjective is a word added to a noun telling more about it
For Example;
 Ali is a man.
 Ali is a tall man.
 Ali is thin man.
 Ali is a good man.
 Ali is a young man.
 Ali is an old man.
 Ali is a brave man
 Ali is a great man.
NOTE:
1. An Adjective usually answers one of these questions. As;
• What kind of?
• Which?
• How many?
• How much?
Let’s look at the following sentences;
• Najma is a clever girl.
(What kind of ---- clever)
• I don’t like silver plates. (What kind of ---- silvery)
• She bought four apples. (How many ---- four)
• There is little milk in jug. (How much ---- little)
NOTE: - In English, the adjective is used in one form and has no concern with the number and Gender.
Good boy, Good Boys
Good girl, Good girls.
AIDS TO IDENTIFYING ADJECTIVES
• Ed: - (Having): - Talented, Finished, wretched, blessed, defeated, learned, accomplished,
conquered
• En: - (made of): - Wooden, earthen, golden, woolen, silken
• Ful: - (full of): - Beautiful, joyful, helpful, harmful, lawful, peaceful, hopeful, fruitful
• Ish: - (Some, what, like): - Reddish, childish, foolish, boyish, girlish, womanish
• Less: - (free from/ without): - Blameless, shameless, childless, fearless, hopeless, senseless,
boundless, harmless
• Ly: - (like): - Manly, Godly, sprightly, fatherly, friendly, lovely, worldly, brotherly

• Some: - (with the quality of): - Troublesome, handsome, wholesome, quarrelsome, tiresome,
gladsome, meddlesome, burdensome.
• Ward: - Forward, Backward, Wayward (Ziddi), Homeward.
• Y: - Healthy, greedy, hungry, heavy, wealthy, needy, dirty, thirsty.
• Al: - Legal, mortal, National, Regional, brutal, equal, local, moral, personal, real.
• Ary: - Necessary, ordinary, honorary, compulsory.
• Ate: - Obstinate, fortunate, temperature, delicate, accurate, and private.
• Ble: - Feeble, sensible, laughable, comfortable, curable, questionable.
• Ive: - Active, Sportive, effective, preventive, oppressive.
• Lent: - Indolent, Turbulent.
• Ous: - Dangerous, Furious, Ruinous, vigorous, studious, glorious, advantageous, mysterious.
• Ar: - Regular, Popular..

THE USE OF ADJECTIVE
 The single adjective is usually, placed immediately before the noun to which it describe
 Ali is a clever man.
 Israr is a lazy boy.
 When several (i.e. more than one) adjectives are used with a noun, they will come after it
• It is night long, dark, horrible and restless.
• You are man simple, innocent, inexperienced and you are trapped by people, selfish, cruel
and cunning.
 Latinized adjectives as “worth seeing” and “concerned” are used after the noun. As;
• It is a sight worth seeing.
• The case has been sent the office concerned.
NOTE: - Sometimes adjectives come after the verb
• He is foolish.
• They are selfish.
• Sajjad is sincere.
 Sometimes ‘ing’ is added to a verb to make an adjective which is used before a noun. As;
 Bark --- Barking.
 Bloom --- Blooming.
 Refresh --- Refreshing.
 Swim --- Swimming.
 The barking dogs seldom bite.
 She is a blooming girl.
 The juice has a refreshing effect.
 When a noun comes after an adjective an article is used before the same - adjective in a
singular case.
• He is an honest man.

• Rafiq is an intelligent boy.
THE KINDS OF ADJECTIVE
• Adjectives of quality
• Adjectives of quantity
• Numeral Adjectives
• Interrogative Adjectives
• Proper Adjectives
• Demonstrative Adjectives
• Possessive Adjectives
ADJECTIVES OF QUALITY
Definition:
 Adjectives of quality show the kind or quality of a person, place or a thing. As;
 A black cat
 A bad company
 A good boy
 A fat man
 A new cap
 A thick forest
 A deep well
 A tall tree
 A dark night
 A lazy man
 A long tail
 A clever girl
 A proud person
 A brave man
 A rich lady
 An old building
 A red apple
 A fast car
 An honest merchant
 A foolish person
NOTE:
Adjective of quality also known as ‘Descriptive Adjective’
They always come with the answer of ‘What kind’

ADJECTIVES OF QUANTITY
Definition:
 Adjectives of quantity show the quantity of a thing
OR
 An adjective of quantity shows how much of thing is meant. As;
 Some rice
 Half day
 All wealth
 Great cave
 Whole sun
 Little hope
 Enough experience
 Any rice
 Sufficient rain
 Several paintings
NOTE: - They always come with answer of ‘How much”
NUMERAL ADJECTIVE
Definition:
 Adjectives of number show the definite or indefinite number of a person or a thing or in
what order a person or a thing stands
OR
 Adjectives of number show how many persons or thing meant or in what order a person or
thing stands; as,
 Few cats
 Many things
 All men
 First day
 Some apples
 Most boys
 Five fingers
 Several mistakes
Numeral Adjectives also known as Adjectives of number
NOTE: - They always come with answer of ‘How many’
DEFINITE NUMERAL ADJECTIVES
Definition:
 Definite numeral adjectives show an exact number;
AS
 One, two, three, four, five……
 First, second, third, fourth, fifth…..

CARDINAL DEFINITE NUMEAL ADJECTIVES
Definition:
 Cardinal definite numeral adjectives are used in counting things; as,
 One, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten……
ORDINAL DEFINITE NUMERAL ADJECTIVES
Definition:
 Ordinal definite numeral adjectives are used to show the order of the things in series; as,
 First, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth….
INDEFINITE NUMERAL ADJECTIVES
Definition:
 Indefinite numeral adjectives do not show an exact number of things; as,
 All the letter
 Few days
 Anybody
 Many students
 Much milk
 Some tea
 Several mistakes
 More many
DISTRIBUTIVE NUMERAL ADJECTIVES
Definition:
 Distributive numeral adjectives are those which refer to each other one of a number or
group; as,
 Each boy must do his home work.
 Every man should do his duty.
 Either pen will write.
 Neither man is honest.
ADJECTIVE OF QUANTITY
 I ate some rice.
 He lost all his wealth.
 You have no sense.
 He does not drink any milk.
 I have enough sugar.
ADJECTIVES OF NUMBER
 Some boys are clever.
 All men must die one day.
 No picture was in the room.
 Are there any apple trees in your garden?
 There are no enough spoons with him.

INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES
Definition:
 Interrogative adjectives are used with nouns to ask questions; as,
 Which book do you want?
 Whose mother is ill?
 What news is false?
DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES
Definition:
 Demonstrative adjectives point out which person or thing is meant; as,
 This man is taller than Ahmed.
 That boy is clever.
 These eggs are rotten.
 These casuals must be punished.

PROPER ADJECTIVES
Definition:
 Adjectives formed from proper nouns are called proper adjectives; as,
 Pakistani fans.
 English boots.
 American cars.
 Chinese cups.
PROPER NOUN PROPER ADJECTIVES
Germany German
Albania Albanian
Asia Asian
Canada Canadian
Columbia Columbian
Iran Iranian
Italy Italian
Nigeria Nigerian
Persia Persian
Syria Syrian
China Chinese
Burma Burmese
Japan Japanese
Pakistan Pakistani
POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES
Definition:
 Possessive adjectives are used with nouns to show possession; as,
 My book is new.
 Our knives are blunt.
 Your knife is sharp.
 His mother is ill.

 Her father is an engineer.
 Its legs are broken.
 Their union is strong.
THE COMPARISION OF ADJECTIVES
 Mr. Karim is tall man.
 Mr. Daim is taller than Mr. Karim.
 Mr. Qasim is tallest of all.
POSITIVE DEGREE
Definition:
 Adjectives that denote the mere – quality of a noun or pronoun but does not show any kind
of comparison is called as positive degree;
Examples:
 He is a good boy.
 Nazia is a beautiful woman.
 Ahmed is a wise man.
 We are tall men.
COMPARATIVE DEGREE
Definition:
 The comparative degree shows comparison between two nouns or pronouns of the same
class (or kind)
OR
 The comparative degree shows higher – degree of the quality than the positive it is used
when two things are compared; as,
 You are older than I.
 Gold is dearer than silver.
 Salam is wiser than Ali.
 Lion is Stronger than horse.
SUPERLATIVE DEGREE
Definition:
 The Superlative degree shows comparison of one noun or pronoun among more than two of
the same class (or kind)
OR
 The superlative degree shows the highest degree of the quality and is used when more than
two things of the same class (or kind) are compared.
 Mr. Hafeez is the best teacher in our school.
 He is the tallest man in our village.
 Karachi is the biggest of all the cities.
 The Indus is the largest river in Pakistan.

THE FORMATION OF COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE DEGREES:
RULE # 01: - The “er” and “est” rule.
 Generally the adjectives of one syllable are changed into comparative degree by adding “er”
and their superlative is made by adding “est” to the positive degree
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
Sweet Sweeter Sweetest
Small Smaller Smallest
Tall Taller Tallest
Bold Bolder Boldest
Clever Cleverer Cleverest
Kind Kinder Kindest
Young Younger Youngest
Great Greater Greatest
Deep Deeper Deepest
High Higher Highest
Hard Harder Hardest
Low Lower Lowest
Thick Thicker Thickest
Strong Stronger Strongest
Short Shorter Shortest
Old Older Oldest
Near Nearer Nearest
Warm Warmer Warmest
Soft Softer Softest
RULE # 02: - The “r” and “st” rule
 When the positive ends in ‘e’ only ‘r’ and ‘st’ are added to form comparative and superlative
degrees respectively;
POSTIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
Wise Wiser Wisest
White Whiter Whitest
Brave Braver Bravest
Ripe Riper Ripest
True Truer Truest
Able Abler Ablest
Noble Nobler Noblest
Larger Larger Largest
Nicer Nicer Nicest
Fine Finer Finest
Simple Simpler Simplest
Late Later Latest
Pale Paler Palest

RULE # 3: - THE CONSONANT ‘Y’ RULE.
 When the positive ends in ‘y’ and there is a consonant before ‘y’ is changed into ‘i’ and then
‘er’ and ‘est’ are added to form comparative & superlative degrees.
Dry Drier Driest
Happy Happier Happiest
Lazy Lazier Laziest
Easy Easier Easiest
Heavy Heavier Heaviest
Wealthy Wealthier Wealthiest
Busy Busier Busiest
Merry Merrier Merriest
Jolly Jollier Jolliest
Noisy Noisier Noisiest
Pretty Prettier Prettiest
Crafty Craftier Craftiest
Early Earlier Earliest
Healthy Healthier Healthiest
Nasty Nastier Nastiest
Juicy Juicier Juiciest
RULE # 4: - THE VOWEL ‘Y’ RULE.
 When the positive ends in ‘y’ and there is a vowel before ‘y’ it is not changed ‘er’ and ‘est’
are added to form comparative & superlative degrees.
Gray Grayer Grayest
Grey Greyer Greyest
RULE # 5: - THE DOUBLING RULE.
 When the positive ends in consonant and there is a short vowel before, the final consonant
is doubled then ‘er’ and ‘est’ are added to form comparative & superlative degrees.
Big Bigger Biggest
Hot Hotter Hottest
Thin Thinner Thinnest
Sad Sadder Saddest
Wet Wetter Wettest
Mad Madder Maddest
Red Redder Reddest
Fat Fatter Fattest
Fit Fitter Fittest
RULE # 6: - THE MORE / MOST RULE
 Adjective of more than two syllables (and many of two syllables also) form their comparative
degree by adding ‘more’ and superlative by adding ‘most’ to the positive.
Courageous More courageous Most courageous
Difficult More difficult Most difficult
Dangerous More dangerous Most dangerous
Leavened More Leavened Most Leavened
Useful More Useful Most Useful

Tiresome More Tiresome Most Tiresome
Wonderful More Wonderful Most Wonderful
Winsome More Winsome Most Winsome
Unconscious More Unconscious Most Unconscious
Faithful More Faithful Most Faithful
Willful More Willful Most Willful
RULE # 7: - THE IRREGULAR COMPARISON RULE
 The following positives form their comparative & superlative degrees irregularly (i.e. in a
different way)
Bad, Evil, Ill Worse Worst
Good, Well Better Best
Much, Many More Most
Late Latter, Later Later, Latest
Old Older, Elder Oldest, Eldest
Far, Fore Farther, Former Farthest, Foremost, First
In Inner Inner most, in most
Up Upper Upper most, Up most
Little less Least
Out Outer Outer most, Out most
Remember:
 When two persons or objects of the some class or kind are compared with each other latter
term of comparison must exclude the former by using the word “any other” after “than” As;
 Gold is more precious than any other metal.
 Iron is more useful than any other metal.
 Karachi is larger than any other city in Pakistan.
 When two qualities of the same person or an object are compared, the comparative must be
formed by using ‘more’ before the first adjective. As;
 Sajjad is more honest than industrious.
 Ali is more beautiful than others.
 Waqar is more hard working than honest
 This pen is the more costly of the two.
 He is the wiser of the two.
 He is the stronger of the two.
 That is the cheaper of the two.

DOUBLE COMPARATIVE or DOUBLE SUPERLATIVE must not be used. As;
INCORRECT CORRECT
 Who is the most eldest man in the village? * Who is the eldest man in the village?
 Mr. Ali is more richer man in the town * Mr. Ali is richer man in the town
 This book is more better than that * This book is better that that
COMPARATIVE degree cannot be used after the word, comparatively. As;
INCORRECT CORRECT
 This is comparatively dearer. * This is comparatively dear.
 My mango is comparatively cheaper. * My mango is comparatively cheap.
 This lesson is comparatively easier. * This lesson is comparatively easy.
The Comparative degree should be followed by ‘than’ but the adjectives ending in ‘ior’ should be
followed by ‘to’ in place of ‘than’. As;
# 1
 Seema is more beautiful than her elder sister.
 Ali is cleverer than Ahmed.
 Lion is more powerful than elephant.
#2
 Ali is senior to Akbar.
 Akbar is junior to Ali.
 This pen is superior to that.
 His handwriting is inferior to mine.
SOME IMPORTANT ADJECTIVES & THEIR CORRECT USE:
SOME / ANY
SOME: - Expresses quantity and number and it is always used in affirmative sentences
While any is used in negative and interrogative sentences, as;
 I have some money.
 I have not any money.
 Have I not any money?
MUCH /MANY:
MUCH: - Expresses quantity & MANY express numbers. As;
 I have much work to do.
 He talks too much.
 Many boys attended the class.
 There were many people in the garden.

Each /Every
Each and every, are similar in meaning. Each is used in speaking of two or more things when the
number is limited.
Every: is used in speaking of more than two when the number is unlimited. Every is stronger word
than each.
 Five boys took part in competition each was given a prize.
 The teacher was on ten days casual leave so, his pupils remained absent on each day.
 Five boys were seated on each bench.
 He had three sons; he gave good education to each.
 Every man is mortal – UNLIMITED
 Every boy won prize.
 Every one of these books is torn.
 Every one of these watches is out of order.
Elder / Older
Elder is used for the members of the same family & this is not the case with older. As;
 Nasrullah is my elder son. } same
 I know your elder brother. } same
 Haroon is not older than his friend. } different
 This building is older than that. } different
Farther / Further
Farther: means "more distant" & further: means "something in addition". As;
 Sukkur is farther from Larkana than Kotri.
 Lahore is farther from Karachi than Multan.
 Let us do our homework without any further delay.
 He further said that his enemy died a dog's death.
Nearest / Next
Nearest: denotes "distance". & Next: denotes "position". As;
 My friend gave me a lift on his horse’s back to the nearest bus stop.
 Aslam is my next door neighbor.
 Miss Salma lives in the next house.
Little, a little / the little
Little: means not much (i.e. hardly any) - thus it is used in negative meaning. As;
 He has little milk.
 There is little hope of his recovery from illness.
 He has little money.

A little: expresses "some thought not much" & it has a positive meaning.
 He has a little money for journey.
 There was only a little water in the glass.
 There is a little hope of his recovery.
 A little knowledge is a dangerous thing.
The little: means but all there is. As;
 He spent the little milk he had in the jug.
 The little hope of his success has now gone.
NOTE: - The above mentioned three words (i.e. little, a little & the little) express quantity.
Few, a few & the few
Few: means “not many" (i.e. hardly any) used in negative meaning. As;
 There are few students in the class.
 Few members attended the meeting.
 Few people can keep secret.
 Few men are free from faults.
 Few men reach the age of one hundred.
A few: is used in positive meaning for 'some' and is opposed to 'none'.
 She gave a few coins to the beggar.
 He has seen a few boons.
 A few words will convince him.
 A few boys attend the class daily.
The few: means not many but all there is
 Sajjad has eaten the few apples.
 The few cows he has are all of red color.
 The few boys who were present went away.
NOTE: - All the three words (i.e. few, a few & the few) express the "number of things or persons".
All & whole
All: expresses 'number' and whole expresses "quantity'.
 All the boys were present in the class.
 All the inkpots were broken.
 The whole milk had been sold.
 The whole water had been made dirty

Later, latest & latter, last
Later & latest: refer to time & Latter & last refer to position. As;
 He reached later than her.
 I have read latest news from the news paper about the disturbed areas.
 The latter half of this book was very interesting.
 The last chapter of this book is somewhat difficult.
PARSING OF ADJECTIVE
1. Kind
2. Comparison
3. Relation
Parsing Model
i.
Sentence: - Look at the bird.
That: - Demonstrative adjective, defying the noun bird.
ii.
Sentence: - The wall was long.
Long: Adjective of quality, positive degree, used predicatively after the verb was & qualifying wall.
iii.
Sentence: - He is the tallest man in our village.
Tallest: Adjective of quality, sup: degree qualifying the noun man.
iv.
Sentence: - April is the fourth month of the year.
Fourth: - Ordinal numeral Adjective, qualifying month.

THE VERB
Definition:
 A verb is a telling word
OR
 A verb is a word used to tell something about some person or thing.
A verb may tell us:
 What a person or a thing does?
 What is done to a person or thing?
 What a person or thing is?
 What kind of person or thing is?
AIDS TO IDENTIFYING VERBS:
(Causative sense forming transitive verbs) As;
 En: - weaken, quicken, widen, whiten, sweeten, sadden, flatten, sharpen, thicken,
strengthen
 Eer: - Glitter, prosper, cutter, glimmer, recover, wander, wonder, flutter, suffer, water
 Ise/Ize: - Authorize, realize, nationalize, naturalize, sympathize, Organize, Recognize,
Criticize, patronize, legalize
 Ate: - Assassinate, terminate, captivate, mediate, translate, germinate, immigrate, create
 Fy: - Purify, terrify, glorify, satisfy, fortify, justify, stupefy
 Ish: - Nourish, publish, punish, banish, perish
SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT:
1. If two or more singular subjects are connected by "and" the verb is generally plural. As;
 Akbar and Aslam are friends.
 You and I have played together.
 He and his friend have arrived.
2. If two singular nouns refer to the some person or thing, the verb must be singular. As;
 The horse and the carriage is at the door.
3. If two or more subjects are preceded by 'each' and 'every' the verb is singular. As;
 Every man, woman and boy was ready to fight to the end.
 Every man and woman in the village was happy to see him
4. If two or more than two subjects are joined by 'either-or’ or neither-nor' the verb is singular.
As;
 Neither he nor I was present there.
 Either Ali or Ahmed has come.

5. A collective noun takes a singular verb when the collection is thought as a whole. As;
 The mobile has dispersed.
 The crew was large.
 Parliament has elected its speaker.
6. Some nouns which are plural in form, but singular in meaning, take a - singular verb. As;
 The news is true.
 The wages of sin is death.
 Mathematics is not an easy subject
7. If two singular subjects are joined by 'as well as', the verb will agree the first subject. As;
 He as well as I is going to Karachi.
 She as well as you has made a mistake.
8. If the subject consists of two nouns or pronouns joined by with 'along with' and 'together
with' the verb agrees with the subject that comes first. As;
 The teacher together with his pupils is going to Jamshoro.
 Mr. Mazhar along with his family lives in Hyderabad.
9. ‘As if' always takes the verb 'were' with it. As;
 He walked, as if he were ill.
 She spoke English, as if it were her mother tongue.
KINDS OF VERB
1. Intransitive verbs
2. Transitive verbs
3. Auxiliary verbs
Intransitive verbs:
Definition:
 Intransitive verb is a word that denotes an action which stops with subject and does not pass
over to an object is called Intransitive verb.
OR
 An Intransitive verb is one which takes merely subject with it. Here action is limited to the
subject only. As;
 The river flows.
 The wind blows.
 The girl smiles.
 The boy works hard.
 Ali laughs loudly.
 The sun rises.
 The horse runs fast.
 He sleeps.
 The laugh.
 I play.
Transitive verbs

Definition:
 A transitive verb is a word that denotes an action which passes over from subject to an
object.
OR
A transitive verb is one which takes subject and object with it. As;
 We eat rice.
 I read a book.
 She knows me.
 He rang the bell.
 They sing a song.
 Qasim punished Imran.
 You called them.
Active voice verbs
Definition:
 A verb is in the Active voice when the subject does something. As;
 Akbar killed a dog.
 He wrote a letter.
 She sang a song.
 The cat caught a rat.
Passive voice verbs
Definition:
 A verb is in the passive voice when its form shows that person or thing denoted by the
subject is not active but passive it suffers or receives an action. As;
 The dog is killed.
 The letter is written.
 The song is sung.
 The rat was caught.
Ahmed writes a letter. (Active voice)
A letter is written by Ahmed. (Passive voice)
Causative verbs
Definition:
 When the subject of a verb gets its work done by another subject is called causative verb. As;
Nasrullah got the lion killed.
Hizbullah got letter written.
Auxiliary verbs
Definition:
 A verb that helps to form tenses of verbs is called an auxiliary verb.
OR
 Auxiliary verb helps the main (principal) verb to make a tense. As;
 I am singing a song.

 She is writing a letter.
 You are cutting apples.
 The cat was jumping over the wall.
 He can walk five miles.
 We had helped them in the time of need.
The most common Auxiliary verbs are listed
Am, shall, has, must, is, will, have, do, are, can, had, does, was, could, would, did, were, may, might.
Finite verbs
Definition:
 A Finite verb is one that agrees with its subject in number and person
OR
 If there is one verb in a sentence, it is Finite verb. As;
 We write.
 He eats.
 You will come.
 I shall sing.
INFINITE VERBS
Definition:
 When two or more than two verbs are in sentence, the first will be finite and the other will
be infinite.
OR
 Infinite verbs have no concern with number and person they remain unchanged. As;
Subject Finite INFINITE
1. I am learning
2. You are learning
3. He is learning
4. They were learning
Remember
 A finite verb changes its form in order to agree with its subject while the infinite does not
change.
 Present infinitive, present participle and the past participle are non-finite verbs
Incomplete verbs
Definition:
 An incomplete is one that cannot make a complete sense in spite of taking subject or subject
& object both
OR
 Linking verbs cannot complete the sentence by itself. It is followed by other word or words
which are known as subject completer. These words may be nouns, pronouns, adjectives or
adverbs.
As;

 They are teachers.
 The rose smells sweet.
 He was sad.
 She is ill.
 I found her guilty.
 They made him king.
 Aslam walks slowly.
 Karim runs slowly.
Remember
 The most common Incomplete/linking verbs are the forms of the verb "To be" some of these
are:
Am, is, are, was, were
 These verbs are mostly used in statements and questions. As
 Where is she going?
 Where are your books?
 What am I doing?
 He was sleeping.
 Boys were making noise.
 The following verbs indicate mental - state or condition. As;
Consider, know, suppose, believe, feel, trust, realize, want, imagine, desire, think, prefer.
Action verbs
Definition:
 An action verb is one that tells what someone or something does (Action verbs as their
name also shows action). In a sentence the "action verb" helps to tell what happens
OR
 An action verb is one that tells something about the subject
OR
 An action verb is one that shows a complete action. As;
Aslam plucked flowers
(Plucked tells us what Aslam did)
The cat killed the rat
(Killed tells what the cat did)
Sometimes Action verbs mention some actions which cannot be seen.
Like: - Believe, know, think, remember, understand.
Five forms of Action verbs
Root form: As; "S" Form: As; Past form: As; Present: Participle Past: Participle;
To kill kills killed killing killed
To jump jumps jumped jumping jumped
To wash washes washed washing washed
To wound wounds wounded wounding wounded
To talk talks talked talking talked
To quarrel quarrels quarreled quarrelling quarreled.

Regular Verbs/ weak verbs
Definition:
 Verbs that form their past tense or past participle by the addition of "d, ed or t" to the
present are called Regular verbs
OR
 Regular verbs are verbs which always end in "ed" in the past form and past participle. As;
By the addition of "ed"
Present Tense past Tense Past Participle
Ask Asked Asked
Boil Boiled Boiled
Call Called Called
Look Looked Looked
Arrive Arrived Arrived
Change Changed Changed
State Stated Stated
Prove Proved Proved
Waste Wasted Wasted
By the addition of "t"
Present Tense past Tense Past Participle
Burn Burnt Burnt
Learn Learnt Learnt
Mean Meant Meant.
Irregular verbs/ strong verbs
Definition:
 Verbs that form their past or past participle without addition of "d, ed or t" (i.e. irregularly)
are called irregular verbs.
OR
 Irregular verbs: these verbs do not end in "ed" in the past form or past participle. They
usually change spellings. As;
Present Tense; Past Tense; Past Participle;
Arise Arose Arisen
Begin Began Begun
Blow Blew Blown
Break Broke Broken
Bring Brought Brought
Choose Chose Chosen
Come Came Come
Dig Dug Dug
Draw Drew Drawn
Drink Drank Drunk
Drive Drove Driven
Grow Grew Grown
Know Knew Known
Ride Rode Ridden
Rise Rose Risen
Sing Sang Sung
Sink Sank Sunk

Sit Sat Sat
See Saw Seen
Run Ran Run
Go Went Gone
Tell Told Told
Write Wrote Written
The Participle
Definition:
 A participle is a word which is partly a verb and partly an adjective.
OR
 An adjective formed from a verb ending in "ing" or "ed'.
OR
 The participle is a double past speech and combines the function of a verb and adjective. It is
always formed from a verb and used an adjective. As;
 A rolling stone.
 A drowning man.
 A burnt child.
 A broken glass
 A stolen watch.
There are two kinds of Participle
1. Present Participle
2. Past Participle
Present participle
Definition:
 Present participle is a verb which shows that an action is going on and it is still incomplete.
OR
 Present participle is a form of verb which shows an action that is incomplete or important.
How to make a Present participle?
Present participle is formed by placing "ing" to the first form of the verb. As;
 Read -- Reading
 See -- Seeing
 Show -- Showing
 Do -- Doing
 Eat -- Eating
 Go -- Going
 Walk -- Walking
 Keep -- Keeping
 Help -- Helping
Remember
If the first form ends in one consonant preceded by a vowel, double the - final consonant before
adding "ing" to form the present participle. As;
 Cut -- Cutting
 Hit -- Hitting
 Run -- Running
 Shut – Shutting

 Put – Putting
 Sit – Sitting
Sentences
 I see a girl singing a song.
 Aslam saw a woman carrying a basket.
 He found her writing a letter.
 They found a cat killing a rat.
Past participle
Definition:
 Past participle is that form of verb which shows an action already done or completed.
How to make a Past participle?
1. Past participle is formed by placing "ed" to the first form of the verb. As;
 Call – Called
 Hunt – Hunted
 Show – Showed
 Open – Opened
 Join – Joined
 Insult – Insulted
2. If the first form of the verb already ends in "e" add only "d" to the first form. As;
 Dare – Dared
 Prove -- Proved
 Curse – Cursed
 Praise – Praised
 Change – Changed
 State – Stated
 Welcome – Welcomed
 Love – Loved
 Hope – Hoped
 Waste – Wasted
3. Some first form of the verbs take "t" to form Past participle:
 Burn – Burnt
 Learn – Learnt
 Meant – Meant
 Dream – Dreamt
4. Many first forms of the verbs form their Past participle irregularly. As;
 Beat – Beaten
 Give – Given
 Build – Built
 Get – Got
 Bring – Brought
 Know – Known
 Do – Done
 Keep – Kept

 Dig – Dug
 Drink – Drunk
 Leave – Left
 Draw – Drawn
 Make – Made
 Choose – Chose
 Ride – Ridden
 Go – Gone
 Sit – Sat
5. The Past participle of some verbs is exactly alike. As;
 Burst – Burst
 Shed – Shed
 Cast – Cast
 Set – Set
 Cut – Cut
 Shut – Shut
 Hit – Hit
 Spread – Spread
 Hurt – Hurt
 Thirst – Thirst
 Let – Let
 Read – Read
 Put -- Put
Remember
 Past participle like present participle can also be used as an adjective before nouns
 I shall not buy a broken cup.
 It is crime to buy a stolen property.
 He burnt all his written copies.
 She gave away her worn clothes to the poor.
GERUND (verbal noun) it is also known as "Verbal Noun"
Definition:
 When the word formed by adding "ing" to the first form of the verb and is used as a noun, is
called Gerund.
OR
It is an ing form of verb and is used as a noun. As;
 Running is a good exercise.
 Reading is my favorite hobby.
 Walking is a good exercise.
 Seeing is believing
 Gerund also can be used as object in a sentence. As;
 I like to hear good singing.
 My house needs painting.
 When Gerund combines with Noun, it becomes Compound Noun & works like that
 Looking-glass

 Shopping-bag
 Hunting-dog
Difference between Present participle & Gerund
Gerund & present participle look alike in form because both are formed by adding ing to the first
form of the verb, but their function is different. -- Gerund is used as a noun while present participle
is used as an adjective before noun. As;
 Running is a good exercise.
 Running horse fell down on the road.
In 1st sentence “running” used as a noun & in 2nd sentence same word (running) used as an
adjective.
Infinitive
Definition:
 An Infinitive is a form of verb which names an action and has no concern with time, number
and person.
OR
 The part of the verb that expresses an action but has no subject, as;
 To go
 To see
 To eat
 To come
 To err
 To lose
 To stay
Sentences
 To err is human
 I hate to lose
 You need not to stay
An Infinitive is formed by placing “to” before the first form of the verb. As;
First form Infinitive
Come To come
Go To go
Eat To eat
Read To read
See To see
Walk To walk
Write To write
Sit To sit
Stand To stand
Weigh To weigh

A track to english grammar and composition

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