Adding quantum wells to the intrinsic region of a p-i-n solar cell improves its conversion efficiency in the following ways: 1. Quantum wells allow a wider range of photon energies to be absorbed by shifting electrons to higher energy levels. This improves the solar spectrum absorption. 2. Electron-hole pairs generated in the quantum wells have a longer lifetime, increasing the probability that they will separate and be collected before recombining. 3. The quantum wells act as intermediate energy levels, allowing photons of lower energy to still promote electrons provided the energy difference is matched by the quantum well transition. However, limitations include the solar spectrum not being truly monochromatic, so not all energies can be utilized.

1. Answers: 1. A pn junction can be used as a
Answers:
1. A pn junction can be used as a solar cell. Describe how this is possible. Describe the
limitations to the conversion efficiency of solar radiation to electric power in a silicon pn
junction solar cell. Explain how you would improve the pn-junction conversion efficiency
A p-n junction can be used as a solar cell. Describe how this is possible
P–N junctions are the boundary or interface between the several forms of semiconductor
that make up a single crystal of semiconductor. There are several ways to achieve this, such
as ion implantation or diffusion of dopants or epitaxy. There will be a grain boundary
between the semiconductors if they are made of two distinct materials, which will
drastically reduce their value by spreading electrons and holes over the material's surface.
Electrical energy can only be created when light-generated carriers are accumulated.
Electricity can only be generated when there is a voltage and current present. Photovoltaic
effect" creates the voltage in a solar cell. Carriers created by light enter the junction and
move to the other side of the p-n junction, where electrons are collected and holes are
dispersed. As light-generated energy takes over when a circuit is shorted, no charge is left in
the gadget. (Gharghi et al., 2006).
Describe the limitations to the conversion efficiency of solar radiation to electric power in a
silicon p-n junction solar cell
There is an increase in electrons and holes on the n-type side of the p-n junction as a result
of the accumulation of light-generated carriers. An opposing electric field is created at the
connection as a result of this charge separation. As the electric field functions as a barrier, it
is important to reduce the electric field in order to enhance the forward’s bias diffusion
current (Shockley et al., 1961). A new equilibrium is established when a voltage from across
p-n junction is applied. The voltage output of the solar cell is the difference between the
forward current and the IL current. Forward bias grows under open-circuit circumstances
until the light-generated current is entirely matched by the junction's forward bias diffusion
current, at which time the net flow is zero. To equalize these two currents, "open-circuit
voltage" is the phrase used. (Gharghi et al., 2006).

2. Explain how you would improve the pn-junction conversion efficiency.
Minimizing the amount of light being reflected away from the cell surface
Using anti-reflective coatings
Using and promoting light scattering visible spectrum
Using light trapping photonic structures to increase the cell’s conversion efficiencies.
Use of optimum transparent conductors
Improving charge carrier collection
2.One way to improve power conversion efficiency is to design a p-i-n device. Explain how
this improves the efficiency and what are the limitations of this method
To activate the PIN photodiode when the reverse bias voltage is applied, the space charge
area must entirely cover the intrinsic region. In the space charge area, photon absorption
forms electron-hole pairs. Due to its limited lifespan, its switching speed is inversely
proportional to it.
A short minority carrier lifespan contributes to the acceleration of the switching process. To
maximize switch speed in light detector applications where response time is crucial, the
depletion area width should be as large as possible with a very short minority carrier
lifetime (William et al., 1999). PIN photodiodes may do this by introducing an intrinsic
region that increases the breadth of the space charge. The image below shows a standard
PIN photodiode:
How this improves the efficiency:
Has a low bias current
Has low dark current
Has the high-speed response
Has a low junction capacitance
Has a large depletion region
Can tolerate high reverse bias voltages. (William et al., 1999).
What are the limitations of this method?
It is less sensitive
Has a high reverse recovery time that makes it lose a lot of power
Does not have an internal gain
Has a smaller area. (William et al., 1999).

3. 3. Another way to improve efficiency is to add quantum wells to the i-region of the p-i-n
device. Explain how this improves the efficiency of conversion and what are the limitations
of this method. (30 marks)
A solar cell
When photons strike the p-n junction in the presence of light, electrons form pairs and an
electric current flows through the depletion zone, where electrons from n-type Silicone
have spread into holes in the p-type Silicone. When photons are absorbed by atoms, the free
one electron from the atom and cause a hole to form in the atom's structure. Those that
have enough energy to make it out of the depletion zone without depleting all of their
resources are considered to be survivors (Barnham et al., 1993).
When a wire is connected from the cathode (N) to the anode (O), it is feasible for electrons
to flow through it (p). The introduction of an external load causes electrons to be pulled to P
and holes to be drawn to N, resulting in the passage of current across the circuit (Barnham
et al., 1993).
Limitations of this method.
It has a high maintenance cost
Bandgap selects only at a few frequencies to shift electrons
As sunlight is not monochromatic and energy is spread over a spectrum
References
Barnham, K., Barnes, J., Haarpaintner, G., Nelson, J., Paxman, M., Foxon, T., & Roberts, J.
(1993). Quantum-well solar cells. MRS Bulletin, 18(10), 51-55. Retrieved from:
https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/mrs-bulletin/article/quantumwell-solar-
cells/79E0B02E8AA2E2231E90775F0E420F07
Gharghi, M., Bai, H., Stevens, G., & Sivoththaman, S. (2006). Three-dimensional modeling and
simulation of pn junction spherical silicon solar cells. IEEE transactions on electron devices,
53(6), 1355-1363. References: https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/1637631/
Shockley, W., & Queisser, H. J. (1961). Detailed balance limit of efficiency of p?n junction
solar cells. Journal of applied physics, 32(3), 510-519. Retrieved from:
https://aip.scitation.org/doi/abs/10.1063/1.1736034
Williams, K. J., & Esman, R. D. (1999). Design considerations for high-current

4. photodetectors. Journal of Lightwave Technology, 17(8), 1443. Retrieved from:
https://www.osapublishing.org/abstract.cfm?uri=JLT-17-8-1443